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Seals and Sealing Practices in Early Administration in Southwestern Asia and Egypt During the Fourth to Third Millennium BCE

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Seals and Sealing Practices in Early Administration in Southwestern Asia and Egypt During the Fourth to Third Millennium BCE Seals and sealing practices in early administration in southwestern Asia and Egypt during the fourth to third millennium BCE Tatjana Persephone Beuthe Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PH.D.) UCL 2 I, Tatjana Persephone Beuthe, confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis. 3 4 Abstract Egypt and southwestern Asia developed into societies with hierarchical organization during the 4th millennium BCE. Cylinder seals first came into use as administrative devices in these regions during this period. By examining how cylinder seals were used in both regions in the 4th to 3rd millennium, this thesis investigates how cultural and administrative practices related to cylinder sealing first emerged and developed in these regions. Changes in seal use over time in southwestern Asia and Egypt are also explored, taking into account the emergence of stamp seal use in Egypt in the 3rd millennium. Fourth millennium countersealing practices (the practice of impressing more than one seal on a piece of clay used for administrative purposes) in both regions are also scrutinized as a means of examining the development of seal use in southwestern Asia and Egypt. Previous studies of early cylinder seals from these regions have focused on seal inscriptions or the iconography of the seals. Instead, this thesis analyses locations where seals and impressions were found (i.e. settlements, tombs), to investigate how both southwestern Asia and Egypt employed cylinder seals as well as stamp seals, and seal impressions. Administrative practices employing these devices are examined along with the unique cultural perceptions of these artefacts at each site. This evidence is used to examine how these two complex societies developed differently during the 4th to 3rd millennium. 5 6 Contents 1 Introduction 21 1.1 Research objectives . 21 1.2 Seals and Sealings: A Definition of Terms . 22 1.3 Administration and sealing: overview of previous research . 24 1.3.1 Administrative devices in early Southwestern Asia . 24 1.3.2 Focus and issues in current sigillographic studies of early south- western Asian material . 25 1.3.3 Administrative devices in early Egypt . 28 1.3.4 Focus and issues in current sigillographic studies of early Egyp- tian material . 29 1.3.5 Issues with analyses of sealing practices in early stratified societies of southwestern Asia and Egypt . 31 1.4 Theories on complex societies . 32 1.5 Theories on southwestern Asian state formation . 32 1.5.1 Current theories . 32 1.5.2 Factors leading to state formation in southwestern Asia . 33 1.6 Theories on Egyptian state formation . 34 1.6.1 Current theories . 34 1.6.2 Factors leading to state formation in Egypt . 35 1.7 Examining administration through cylinder seals: A new approach . 37 1.8 Datasets . 38 1.9 Chronological framework . 44 1.10 Overview of Methodology and Thesis Structure . 45 2 Trends in Egyptian burials containing seals 51 2.1 Introduction . 51 2.2 Methodology . 52 2.2.1 The use of tomb dimensions as a post-mortem status marker . 53 2.2.2 Data gathering approach . 55 2.2.3 Data processing . 58 2.3 Egyptian burials containing seals . 58 2.3.1 Incidence of seals in tombs . 60 7 2.3.2 Area of tombs containing seals . 60 2.3.3 Combined analysis of data from seal-containing cemeteries from all periods . 70 2.3.4 Graves found to contain seals: detailed analysis . 71 2.3.5 Relational biographies of seals in graves . 73 2.3.6 Depositional trends according to age and sex of burials . 86 2.3.7 Subsidiary Tombs: Highlighting exceptional status . 88 2.3.8 Unusual burial contexts and seal types . 91 2.3.9 The use of hieroglyphs on seals in Early Egypt . 94 2.3.10 The status of tomb-owners buried with seals . 96 2.4 Conclusion . 99 3 Egyptian burials containing seal impressions 103 3.1 Introduction . 103 3.2 Methodology . 104 3.3 Egyptian burials containing seal impressions . 105 3.3.1 Incidence of seal impressions in tombs . 106 3.3.2 Chronological analysis of graves at Abydos . 106 3.3.3 Area of tombs containing seal impressions . 110 3.3.4 Combined analysis of data from impression-containing ceme- teries from all periods . 116 3.3.5 Graves found to contain seals impressions: detailed analysis . 117 3.3.6 Subsidiary Tombs: different depositional patterns . 120 3.3.7 The status of individuals buried with seal impressions vs seals 122 3.4 Conclusion . 125 4 Case study of seal impression depositional trends in southwestern Asia and Egypt during the 4th millennium BCE 129 4.1 Methodology . 130 4.2 Site background . 131 4.3 Sealings from Chogha Mish . 133 4.3.1 ‘East Area’ - Find context patterns . 133 4.3.2 ‘West Area’ - Evidence For Administrative Practices . 137 4.3.3 Frequently attested seal images from Chogha Mish . 138 4.3.4 Sealed objects inscribed with number signs . 141 4.3.5 Conclusions . 141 4.4 Sealings from Elephantine . 144 4.4.1 Fortress buildings . 145 4.4.2 Fortress buildings - Evidence For Administrative Practices . 147 4.4.3 City Wall North of Satet Temple . 151 4.4.4 Duplicate ‘titles’: evidence for administrative practices . 152 8 4.4.5 Overview of general trends in seal impressions in early Egyptian settlements . 155 4.4.6 Conclusion . 156 4.5 Comparison of sealing practices at Chogha Mish and Elephantine . 156 5 Case study of seal impression depositional trends in southwestern Asia and Egypt during the 3rd millennium BCE 159 5.1 Methodology . 160 5.2 Site background . 160 5.2.1 Tell Brak . 160 5.2.2 Balat . 161 5.3 Sealings from Tell Brak . 163 5.3.1 Area SS . 163 5.3.2 Area SS - The most frequently attested seal images . 165 5.3.3 Area SS - Less frequently attested seal images on cloth sealings and bullae . 172 5.3.4 Area FS . 173 5.3.5 Comparison of sealed bulla-based administrative practices from the 4th to 3rd millennium BCE . 174 5.3.6 Conclusions . 175 5.4 Sealings from Balat Ka-sanctuary complex . 176 5.4.1 Western gate . 177 5.4.2 Ka-Sanctuaries . 178 5.4.3 Zone 1 service quarters . 179 5.4.4 Zone 2 service quarters . 180 5.4.5 Zone 3 house . 181 5.4.6 Zone 4 service quarters . 181 5.4.7 Conclusions . 181 5.5 Comparison of sealing practices at Tell Brak and Balat . 183 5.6 Comparison of 4th and 3rd millennium BCE evidence . 186 6 Countersealing practices employing cylinder seals in the early com- plex societies of southwestern Asia and Egypt 189 6.1 Methodology . 189 6.2 The employment of sealed and countersealed balls and tablets in southwestern Asian communities . 190 6.3 Countersealings on clay balls and tablets: methods and applications . 195 6.3.1 Possible functions of countersealed recording devices . 200 6.4 Egyptian countersealings . 203 6.4.1 Sealed Levantine Jars: Importations or imitations? . 211 6.5 Conclusion . 213 9 7 Discussion 215 7.1 Introduction . 215 7.2 Seals, Authority, and Writing . 215 7.3 Seals in administration . 219 7.4 Summary of Major Findings . 221 7.5 Summary of comparative approach . 226 8 Conclusion 229 8.1 Future directions for investigation . 231 A Tables and figures 235 Bibliography 433 10 List of Figures 1.1 Reconstruction of large ‘figurative’ seal from Uruk, Iraq, from tablets W 19410,6 and W 19410,12 . 26 1.2 Stone ‘schematic’ cylinder seal from Jemdet Nasr, Iraq, circa 3000 BCE ...................................... 26 2.1 Seal hieroglyph from false door of Dynasty 4 mastaba of Rahotep at Meydum . 92 6.1 Countersealed sealing types from mortuary contexts from Naqada III to Dynasty 3 . 207 6.2 Percentage of total buried seal-impressed sealings found to be coun- tersealed . 209 6.3 Percent of royal vs non royal seal impression containing burials with countersealed sealings . 210 7.1 Average size of tombs found to contain seal impressions and area of tomb substructures found to contain seals, without subsidiary burials, on a log scale . 222 A.1 Tokens found inside sealed clay ball at Hacınebi . 236 A.2 Sealed clay ball found at Hacınebi . 236 A.3 Sealed clay tablets inscribed with numbers and letters found at Uruk237 A.4 An example of a royal grave substructure at Abydos, dated to Dynasty 1–2 . 238 A.5 An example of a large mudbrick mastaba with stairways at Beit Khallaf, dated to Dynasty 1–3 . 238 A.6 An example of a subsidiary burial that has no superstructure, dated to Dynasty 1–2 . 239 A.7 An example of a subsidiary burial with a superstructure, dated to Dynasty 1–2 . ..
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