Acta Zhengzhou University Overseas Edition ISSN 1097-8135

An International Journal

Life Science Journal

Volume 8 - Number 3 (Cumulated No. 26), August, 2011

Zhengzhou University

Marsland Press

Life Science Journal Editorial Office 100 Science Road Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, China

P.O. Box 180432, Richmond Hill, New York 11418, the United States

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http://www.sciencepub.net Life Science Journal, ISSN: 1097-8135

Life Science Journal

Acta Zhengzhou University Oversea Version

Life Science Journal, the Acta Zhengzhou University Oversea Version, is an international journal with the purpose to enhance our natural and scientific knowledge dissemination in the world under the free publication principle. The journal is calling for papers from all who are associated with Zhengzhou University-home and abroad. Any valuable papers or reports that are related to life science - in their broadest sense - are welcome. Other academic articles that are less relevant but are of high quality will also be considered and published. Papers submitted could be reviews, objective descriptions, research reports, opinions/debates, news, letters, and other types of writings. Let's work together to disseminate our research results and our opinions.

Editor-in-Chief: Shen, Changyu, Ph.D., Professor, President, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China

Associate Editors-in-Chief: Ma, Hongbao; Cherng, Shen; Xin, Shijun

Editors: An, Xiuli; Chen, George; Dong, Ziming; Duan, Guangcai; Edmondson, Jingjing; Gao, Danying; Li, Xinhua; Li, Yuhua; Lindley, Mark; Liu, Hongmin; Qi, Yuanming; Shang, Fude; Song, Chunpeng; Sun, Yingpu; Wang, Lidong; Wen, Jianguo; Xu, Cunshuan; Xu, Yuming; Xue, Changgui; Zaki, Mona; Zhang, Jianying; Zhang, Kehao; Zhang, Shengjun; Zhang, Xueguo; Zhang, Zhan; Zhang, Zhao; Zhu, Huaijie

Introductions to Authors

1. General Information (1) Goals: As an international journal published both in print and on internet, Life Science Journal is dedicated to the dissemination of fundamental knowledge in all areas of nature and science. The main purpose of Life Science Journal is to enhance our knowledge spreading in the world under the free publication principle. It publishes full-length papers (original contributions), reviews, rapid communications, and any debates and opinions in all the fields of nature and science. (2) What to Do: The Life Science Journal provides a place for discussion of scientific news, research, theory, philosophy, profession and technology - that will drive scientific progress. Research reports and regular manuscripts that contain new and significant information of general interest are welcome. (3) Who: All people are welcome to submit manuscripts in life science fields. Papers of other fields are also considered. (4) Copyright and Responsibility of Authors to their Articles: When the manuscript(s) is submitted to the journal, the authors agree the following: All the authors have participated sufficiently in this work; The article is not published elsewhere; Authors are responsibility on the contents of the article; The journal and author(s) have same right for the copyright of the article and either of the journal or author(s) can use it by anyway without noting the other party. (5) Publication Costs: US$500 per article to defray costs of the publication will be paid by the authors when it is received. Extra expense for color reproduction of figures will be paid by authors (estimate of cost will be provided by the publisher for the author’s approval). (6) Advertisements: The price will be calculated as US$400/page, i.e. US$200/a half page, US$100/a quarter page, etc. Any size of the advertisement is welcome.

2. Manuscript Preparation Each manuscript is suggested to include the following components but authors can do their own ways: (1) Title: including the complete article title; each author’s full name; institution(s) with which each author is affiliated, with city, state/province, zip code, and country; and the name, complete mailing address, telephone number, facsimile number (if available), and at least one email address for author(s). (2) Abstract: including Background, Materials and Methods, Results, and Discussions. (3) Key Words. (4) Introduction. (5) Materials and Methods. (6) Results. (7) Discussions. (8) Acknowledgments. (9) References.

3. Manuscripts Submission (1) Submission Methods: Submission through email ([email protected]) is encouraged. (2) Software: The Microsoft Word file will be preferred. (3) Font: Normal, Times New Roman, 10 pt, single space. (4) Indent: Type 2 space in the beginning of each new paragraph. (5) Manuscript: Don’t use “Footnote” or “Header and Footer”. (6) Email: At least one author’s email must be put under title. (7) Title: Use Title Case in the title and subtitles, e.g. “Debt and Agency Costs”. (8) Figures and Tables: Use full word of figure and table, e.g. “Figure 1. Annul Income of Different Groups”, Table 1. Annual Increase of Investment”. (9) References: Cite references by “last name, year”, e.g. “(Smith, 2003)”. References should include all the authors’ last names and initials, title, journal, year, volume, issue, and pages etc. Reference Examples: Journal Article: Hacker J, Hentschel U, Dobrindt U. Prokaryotic chromosomes and disease. Science 2003;301(34):790-3. Book: Berkowitz BA, Katzung BG. Basic and clinical evaluation of new drugs. In: Katzung BG, ed. Basic and clinical pharmacology. Appleton & Lance Publisher. Norwalk, Connecticut, USA. 1995:60-9. (10) Submission Address: [email protected], Marsland Press, PO Box 180432, Richmond Hill, New York 11418, USA, 347-321-7172.

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Life Science Journal, 2011;8(2) Contents http://www.lifesciencesite.com

Life Science Journal

ISSN:1097-8135

Volume 8 - Number 2 (Cumulated No. 25), June 25, 2011

CONTENTS

1 Estimate water use efficiency (WUE) and determining the period of irrigation in corn plant

Tayeb Saki Nejad Assistant Professor Department of Agronomy Physiology, Islamic Azad University, Ahvaz branch [email protected]; [email protected] Abstract: in order to examine the effect of drought stress in different periods of plants grow on process factor along with four levels as Main plot ( I0 : Full irrigation point of FC, control, without water stress, I1 : 75% of the amount of irrigation treatments I0, mild stress, I2 : 50% of the amount of irrigation treatments I0, severe stress, I3 : 25% of the amount of irrigation treatment I0, very severe stress and point of PWP and Sub-plots: Different growth phases: S0: growing phase, the establishment of the plant stem to the emergence, S1: natal phase: to stem the rise of coffee being resilient and end silk pollination, S2: grain filling phase: the end of pollen grain maturity and the emergence of black layer) in research farm of Islamic Azad University. although the frequency difference between irrigation treatments and amounts of irrigation I0 & I1 , 6 times water (6 = 16-22) and also in terms of grain yield in two different irrigation treatments Performance 1.5 ton per hectare there and Duncan test time difference performance meaningful shown so should be treated I0 as the best irrigation, the number of irrigated 22 times during the growing season be introduced but if precise will be investigated is observed I1 that 75 percent of the treated water FC state farm yield acceptable 12.8 ton in ha plots managed in a 1502 liter (26460-27962) that consume less water, saving the farm level is very valuable and Due to water shortage and drought phenomenon can be considered and it should be used now in Khuzestan IRAN irrigation takes place between 20-21 times in the same treatment that I0 is using treatment I1 with some loss of performance seed-saving high water is done, on the other hand WUE in these two treatments (I0 & I1) of Duncan test at 1% level statistics has been that this can also cause other using treatment I1 is. [Tayeb Saki Nejad. Estimate water use efficiency (WUE) and determining the period of irrigation in corn plant. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):1-6] (ISSN:1097- C8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Key words: water use efficiency (WUE), period of irrigation, corn

2 Field Studies Encysted Metacercariae infested Natural Male Tilapias and Monosex Tilapias in Kafr El-Sheikh Governorate Fish Farms

Eissa, I. A.M.1; Gado, M. S.2; laila, A.M3. Mona S. Zaki*3 and Noor El-Deen, A. E3 1Dept. of Fish Diseases and Management, Fac. of Vet. Med. Suez Canal University 2Dept. of Fish Diseases and Management, Fac. of Vet. Med., kafr El -Sheikh University 3Dept.of Hydrobiology, Vet. Division, National Research Centre. *[email protected]

Abstract: The present study was carried out on 1800 specimens of Tilapia fishes Oreochromis niloticus (O.niloticus) (phenotypic, hybrids and monosex O.niloticus of different size and body weight. They were randomly collected at different seasons from Kafr El- Sheikh Governorate cultured fish farms. The clinical signs of most examined fishes revealed no pathognomonic abnormalities on the external body surface except black spots were detected on skin and fins. Tilapia fishes were shown emaciation. The postmortem findings the black spots were detected on skin and fins. Encysted metacercariae including Euclinostomum heterostomum, Posthodiplostomum cuticola, Heterophidae and Haplorochoidae were investigated and recorded. The highest prevalence possessed in hybrids while monosex O.niloticus occupied the last position. The histopathological examination in different organs of infested fish revealed pathological changes in gills and musculatures. [Eissa, I. A.M.; Gado, M. S.; laila, A.M.; Mona S. Zaki and Noor El-Deen,A. E. Field Studies Encysted Metacercariae infested Natural Male Tilapias and Monosex Tilapias in Kafr El-Sheikh Governorate Fish Farms. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):7-12] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Key word: Encysted metacercariae , O.niloticus, Hybrids , monosex

3 Self-management in Primary Dysmenorrhea: Toward Evidence-based Education

Maryam Kabirian 1, Zahra Abedian 2, Seyed Reza Mazlom 3, Behroz Mahram 4 1. MSc in midwifery, Department of Midwifery, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran 2. Faculty Member, Department of Midwifery, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran 3. Faculty Member, Department of Medical & Surgical Nursing, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran 4. Faculty Member, Mashhad Ferdowsi University, Mashhad, Iran [email protected]

Abstract: There is not an evidence-based education that reinforces use of scientific research in the context of self- management in primary dysmenorrhea. This study was conducted to determine the effect of evidence-based education on dysmenorrheic girl’s self-care behaviors and the severity of primary dysmenorrhea at dormitories of Ferdowsi University in Mashhad, Iran. The method of this study involves the following steps: A) Formulation of answerable questions to address self-care methods in primary dysmenorrhea. B) Systematic searching for the research evidence that could be used to answer the questions. C) Appraisal of the validity, relevance and applicability of the research evidence. D) Designing of the protocol of evidence-based education based on the best acquired evidence. E) Evaluation the effect of evidence-based education on dysmenorrheic girl’s self-care behaviors and the severity of primary dysmenorrhea. There was a significant reduction in pain score at the first (-0.6±1.7 VS 1.1±2.1 P=0.000) and second (-1.9±1.5 VS 0.1±1.6 P=0.000) menstrual period after intervention in the evidence-based education group compared with the girls in the control group. Also, the difference in self-care behaviors between evidence-based education versus control group at the second menstrual period after intervention (105.8±8.9 VS 80.4±11.3 P=0.021) was significant. Evidence-based care leads to remarkable advances in the management of primary dysmenorrhea. Health education systems can use evidence-based education in order to promote self-management behaviours among primary dysmenorrheic girls. [Maryam Kabirian, Zahra Abedian, Seyed Reza Mazlom, Behroz Mahram, and Mehrdad Jalalian. Self-management in Primary Dysmenorrhea: Toward Evidence-based

Life Science Journal, 2011;8(2) Contents http://www.lifesciencesite.com

Education. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):13-18] (ISSN:1097–8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: Evidence-based Education; Self-management; Primary Dysmenorrhea

4 Evaluation Of Serum Hyaluronic Acid And Matrix Metaloproteinase-2 As Non Invasive Markers Of Hepatic Fibrosis

Elham Ragab Abdel-Samea1, Soma Sherif Abd El Gawad1 and Mohammed Abd El Hamid Ali2 1. Clinical Pathology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Egypt 2. Department of Hepatology Gastroenterology and Infectious Disease, Benha Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Egypt [email protected]

Abstract: Liver biopsy is currently the gold standard for assessing liver fibrosis and non reliable non invasive approach is available, therefore a suitable serologic Biomarker is needed. Several biochemical markers have shown promise for the detection of advanced fibrosis and cirrhosis. The aim of the present work is to study the diagnostic value of serum hyaluronic acid (SHA) and matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) as indicators for the stage of hepatic fibrosis, and to correlate the liver pathology and liver function tests with serum fibrosis markers. Eighty treatment naïve patients with chronic hepatitis C [CHC] with or without HBV and forty healthy subjects are used as a control group. The patients were divided according to Metavir classification of liver biopsy into 3 groups. Group 1 with normal biopsy (17 patients), group 2 was 35 patients with mild fibrotic changes (stage 1-2) and group 3 of 28 patients with severe fibrosis (stage 3-4). SHA level was significantly higher in patients with severe fibrosis than patients with mild or no hepatic fibrosis. (378.7+147.5, 226.2+123.7 and 85.3+52.2 pg/ml). (P<0.0001). MMP-2 was also significantly higher in severe fibrosis (group 3) than group 2 or group 1 (1196.2+119.5, 918.1+175.8 and 841.1+224.5 pg/ml) respectively (P<0.001). SHA and MMP-2 were not correlated to age, S bilirubin AST, ALT or spleen size. Group 3 was correlated significantly to the SHA and MMP, platelet count, S albumin and liver size but not correlated to AST, ALT, S. bilirubin or spleen size. The Specificity of fibrosis markers SHA and MMP-2 in prediction of severe fibrosis were 94.4% and 90.0% respectively and the sensitivity were higher to SHA 90.0% than MMP-2 80% but not a predictor of mild or normal biopsy. The cut of value of SHA, MMP-2, platelet count and prothrombin time (PT Activity), in diagnosis of severe fibrosis were 294.84 pg/ml, 1003 pg/ml., 115.084/cmmm, 72.116% respectively. Measurement of SHA and MMP-2 can be used to differentiate cirrhotic from non-cirrhotic patient and can be regarded as a useful non invasive test in the diagnosis of liver cirrhosis. [Elham Ragab Abdel-Samea, Soma Sherif Abd El Gawad and Mohammed Abd El Hamid Ali: Evaluation of non invasive markers of hepatic fibrosis. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):19-25] (ISSN:1097–8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Hyaluronic Acid, hepatic Fibrosis, Matrix metalloproteinase

5 The Effects of Tourism on Quality of Life: A Case Study of Shiraz, Iran

Fariborz Aref School of Management and Economics, Science and Research Branch Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran [email protected]

Abstract: Does tourism contribute to quality of life in tourism destinations? This study investigates the effect of tourism upon quality of life in Shiraz, Iran. The results revealed that tourism has the positive effect on quality of life of residents. According to the survey, the strongest tourism impacts are found to be linked with emotional well-being, community well-being, and income and employment. While health and safety well-being are found to be the least favorable in terms of the effect of tourism on quality of life. The findings of this study will aid in the planning of strategic development programs for tourist destinations. [Fariborz Aref. The effects of tourism on quality of life. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):26-30] (ISSN:1097–8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: quality of life, tourism, community, well-being

6 Zinc and Boron Fertilization on Concentration and Uptake of Copper and Nitrogen in Corn Grain in a Calcareous Soil

Farshid Aref Department of Soil Science, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Fars, Iran [email protected]

Abstract: A farm experiment was conducted to study the effect of Zn and B interaction on the concentration and total uptake of Nitrogen (N) and Copper (Cu) in corn grain at Fars Province, Iran. Treatments including five levels of Zn (0, 8, 16 and 24 kg ha-1 and Zn foliar spray) and four levels of B (0, 3, and 6 kg ha-1 and B foliar spray) in a completely randomized block design were set up. A high Zn content in the soil helped increasing the concentration and uptake of N in the grain by B application; that is, at high levels of Zn, there was a synergism between B and N. Boron spraying helped with increasing the concentration and uptake of N in the grain by Zn application. There was a negative correlation between N and Cu concentration in the grain and a positive correlation between N and Cu uptake in the grain. [F. Aref. Zinc and boron fertilization on concentration and uptake of copper and nitrogen in the corn grain in a calcareous soil. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):31-37] (ISSN:1097–8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: Antagonism, Deficiency, Fertilizer, Interaction, Nutrients, Synergism

7 Rural Cooperatives for Poverty Alleviation in Iran

Abrisham Aref School of Humanities and Social Science, Science and Research Branch Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran; [email protected]

Abstract: This paper provides evidence on the contribution of rural cooperatives to poverty alleviation in Iran. Rural cooperatives are certainly a major contributor to poverty alleviation in many countries. But, there are a significant number of barriers to effectively using rural cooperatives as a tool for poverty alleviation in developing countries. The result of this study found that rural residents have negative perception towards contribution of rural cooperatives for poverty alleviation. They refereed to the dependency of rural cooperatives to government and lack of cultural capacity for group collaboration as main barriers related poverty alleviation through rural cooperatives. The finding can assist the rural developers at the local and national level for remove this problem in face of rural cooperatives for poverty alleviation. [Abrisham Aref. Rural Cooperatives for Poverty Alleviation in Iran. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):38-41] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Life Science Journal, 2011;8(2) Contents http://www.lifesciencesite.com

Key words: Poverty alleviation, rural cooperatives, rural development

8 Awareness of Hospital Internal Disaster Management Plan among Health Team Members in A University Hospital

Hemat Abd elazeem1, Samia Adam*1, and Gehan Mohamed2 1Faculty of Nursing, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt 2 Faculty of Nursing, Helwan University, Helwan, Egypt. *[email protected]

Abstract: A disaster management plan is a formal plan of action which enables the hospital staff to respond effectively and efficiently when confronted with a disaster. The aim of this study was to assess the awareness of health team regarding hospital internal disaster management plan at a university hospital. The study was conducted in a university hospital using a cross-sectional design. It included six groups of subjects namely, medical leaders, head nurses, staff nurses, technicians, employees, housekeepers, in addition to a jury group to test validity of the study tool. A self-administered questionnaire form was used to assess staff awareness about the internal disaster management plan in the hospital. The results showed the absence of a disaster plan in the study setting and absence of a hospital evacuation plan. Also the majority of various categories of the study subjects had low awareness about all items of the disaster plan. It is concluded that there is a need for an internal disaster plan for the hospital, and the awareness of study subjects about internal disaster preparedness need to be raised. Therefore, it is recommended that the hospital administration should develop policies for disaster management and pay more attention to the problem of internal disasters and preparedness for their management. Training programs are essential for all categories of hospital staff in order to increase their awareness about disaster management. [Hemat Abd elazeem1, Samia Adam*1, and Gehan Mohamed. Awareness of Hospital Internal Disaster Management Plan among Health Team Members in A University Hospital. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):42-52] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: Internal disaster, disaster management plan, hospital preparedness

9 Patient Safety: Assessing Nurses' Perception and Developing an Improvement Plan

*1Neamatallah Goma Ahmed, 2Samia Mohamed Adam and 3Iman Ibrahim Abd Al-Moniem

1Department of Medical Surgical Nursing, 2 Nursing Administrations and 3 Paediatric Nursing Faculty of Nursing, Ain Shams University. Cairo., Egypt. *[email protected]

Abstract: patients' safety is a core value of healthcare service. A positive patient safety culture contributes to the environment necessary to maintain patient safety and avoid needless patient deaths. The impact of medical errors has been widely reported. The traditional blame and shame culture in healthcare organization have been criticized for being largely responsible for causing medical errors and obstructing the possibility of learning from those errors. Employees' perceptions about safety are important because organizations with strong safety culture consistently report fewer workplace injuries and fewer harmful events than do organizations with weak safety culture. The study aims to assessing nurses' perceptions of patient's safety culture at medical and paediatric hospitals and developing an improvement plan to enhance patient safety at the study settings. The study was conducted in tow university hospitals using a descriptive design. Sample: 148 nurses (120 staff nurses and 28 head nurses) were included in the study. Tools of the study included 1) Interview questionnaire sheets were used to collect the participants' characteristic data, 2) The Hospital Survey of Patient Safety Culture (HSPSC) developed by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, AHRQ (2004). Results: nurses perceive patient safety culture more positive. There were statistically significant differences between perception of nurses working in critical care units and perception of nurses working in general wards in two dimensions. There were a statistically significant differences between perception of the staff nurses and perception of head nurses in all items related to patients' safety except organizational learning. The highest percentages of the nurses working in the general wards and critical care units scored their hospital as very good (59.5% & 33.7%, respectively). While half of the head nurses scored the hospital as acceptable (50%). The highest percentage of the staff nurses (34.2%) reported no events related to patients safety over the past 12 months. No correlation was found between head nurses age and perception of patient safety culture, while there was a positive weak correlation between staff nurses' age and their perception. Conclusion: nurses perceive patient's safety culture more positively. There was a statistically significant difference between nurses working in critical care units and nurses working in general wards. Head nurses perceived the patient's safety culture more positively than staff nurses did. The majority of the nurses did not report events related to patient's safety. Non-punitive environment scored high negative responses. Recommendation: nurses need to be encouraged to improve the reporting events related to patients' safety. Further studies are needed for testing the reliability of the suggested developed improvement plan and accordingly implementing it at the study settings. [Neamatallah Goma Ahmed, Samia Mohamed Adam and Iman Ibrahim Abd Al-Moniem. Patient Safety: Assessing Nurses' Perception and Developing an Improvement Plan. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):53-64] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: Patient; Safety; Nurse

10 Detection and Quantification of Porphyromonas gingivalis from Saliva of Schizophrenia Patients by Culture and Taqman Real-Time PCR: A Pilot Study

1*Maggie M. Fawzi, 2Mounir M. Fawzi, 2Hany M. El-Amin, 3Mahmoud H. Elafandy 1Clinical Pathology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt 2 Psychiatry Department, Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt. 3Prosthodontic Department, Faculty of Dentistry, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt *[email protected]

Abstract: P. gingivalis is a periodontopathogen implicated in a number of systemic diseases, particularly cardiovascular disease. Little, if any, is known about the prevalence and quantity of this organism in the mouth of patients with schizophrenia who are, nevertheless, known to have poor oral health and die early from cardiovascular disease. Aim: to estimate the prevalence and quantity of P. gingivalis in saliva of schizophrenia patients compared to non-psychiatric controls and to correlate the quantity of P. gingivalis with the severity of psychopathology of schizophrenia. Materials and methods: Thirty five consecutive attendees of the out-patients clinic of a psychiatric Hospital in Jeddah, with a diagnosis of schizophrenia, were assessed by the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) and compared with 35 non-psychiatric controls, in terms of the prevalence and quantity of P. gingivalis in their saliva. For this purpose, anaerobic culture and real-time PCR with TaqMan probe were used. Results: Real-time PCR results were matching those obtained with anaerobic culture in 95.7% of cases. Using Real-time PCR, P. gingivalis was detected in 25 patients (78% ) and 6 controls (17%) (p=0.000). The P. gingivalis median (range) number of copies in salivary samples of patients and controls were 5.3x107 (0- 2.7310) and 1.91x105 (0- 6.817), respectively (p=0.009). Also, the P. gingivalis levels were significantly positively correlated with the scores on all the PANSS scales. Conclusion: real-time PCR, in confirmation of the results of quantitative culture, demonstrated (a) significantly higher prevalence and quantity of P.

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Life Science Journal, 2011;8(2) Contents http://www.lifesciencesite.com

gingivalis in saliva of schizophrenia patients compared to non-psychiatric controls and (b) positive correlation between quantity of P. gingivalis cells and severity of psychopathology of schizophrenia. Hopefully, the results of this pilot study will encourage further research into the relationships between oral microbiota and schizophrenia. Real-time PCR is a promising tool in this area. Hopefully too, some preventive dental programs will become an integral part of psychiatric management to meet the need of this vulnerable group of population. [Maggie M. Fawzi, Mounir M. Fawzi, Hany M. El-Amin, Mahmoud H. Elafandy. Detection and Quantification of Porphyromonas gingivalis from Saliva of Schizophrenia Patients by Culture and Taqman Real-Time PCR: A Pilot Study. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):65-74] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: Oral health, PANSS, PCR, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Quantification, real-time, schizophrenia, TaqMan

11 The role of information and communication technologies (ICT) in rural development

Sharareh Khodamoradi1 and Mohammad Abedi2 1Department of Agricultural Extension Education, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran 2Department of Agricultural Management, Islamic Azad University, Qaemshahr Branch, Iran *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Review of literature shows that intervention of information and communication technologies (ICT) in rural development initiatives are capable of development, but are not successful. Lack of community participation, absence of an integrated approach and non-inclusion of traditional knowledge systems (TKS) in the project designs are the major impediments. We therefore suggest a systems-based approach in the design of e-Governance projects, and brief some future directions. Sustained development using rural informatics is possible, only if ICT interventions are able to respond to the local needs and re-adjust as per the prevailing knowledge (Traditional Knowledge Systems- TKS) of the rural areas. To capture the needs and local knowledge prevalent at the grassroots, these interventions should preferably have an effective bi-directional link. [Sharareh Khodamoradi and Mohammad Abedi. The role of information and communication technologies (ICT) in rural development. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):75-80] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: information and communication technologies (ICT), rural development

12 Evaluation of Curvularia lunata as an Biological Control Agent in Major Weeds of Rice Paddies Mohammad Reza Safari Motlagh1 1. Department of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture, Islamic Azad University, Rasht Branch, Rasht, Guilan Province 41335-3516, Iran. Tel:00989111384168 *Corresponding author’s email: [email protected] Abstract: Common water-plantain (Alisma plantago-aquatica L.), arrowhead (Sagitaria trifolia L.) and Echinochloa spp. (L.) are among the most important damaging weeds of rice paddies. In this research, Curvularia lunata (Waker) Boedijn was isolated from the said weeds. Then, its effect in different growth stages, i.e. seed, 2-3 leaf stage (seedling) and also in greenhouse conditions was examined in Alisma plantago-aquatica, Sagitaria trifolia, Echinochloa spp., and five rice cultivars including 2 bred (Sepidroud and Khazar) and 3 indigenous (Ali Kazemi, Hashemi and Binam) ones in a totally random design with three replications. To do so, pure fungal colonies and a spore suspension containing 10 conidia/ml distilled water were used. The disease rating caused by this fungus in the 2-3 leaf stage (seedlings) of the said weeds was more than that in the rice cultivars. Also, the fungus decreased the germination of the weeds seeds. Results showed that in the evaluation of the disease rating, the studied rice cultivars showed no significant reaction to greenhouse conditions while weeds’ reactions were significant. The greatest effect of C. lunata was on Alisma plantago-aquatica. The evaluation of fresh weight, dry weight and height of the said weeds and rice cultivars indicated that the above-mentioned fungus could affect these traits in weeds and rice cultivars and would reduce them. Hence, Curvularia lunata can be considered as a probable agent for the biological control of Alisma plantago-aquatica, Echinochloa spp., and Sagitaria trifolia provided that modification of rice cultivars is done with useful traits. [Mohammad Reza Safari Motlagh. Evaluation of Curvularia lunata as an Biological Control Agent in Major Weeds of Rice Paddies. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):81- 91] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: Alisma plantago-aquatica; biological control; Curvularia lunata; Echinochloa spp. ;Sagitaria trifolia

13 Review the reasons for the decentralization of agricultural extension

Sharareh Khodamoradi1 and Mohammad Abedi2 1, 2 Department of Agricultural Extension Education, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Agricultural extension is a non-formal type of education that provides advisory services by the use of educational approach in acquiring knowledge and skills to deal with the growing needs of global world. Diverse agricultural extension funding and delivery arrangements have been undertaken since the mid-1980s by governments worldwide in the name of "privatization." When agricultural extension is discussed, privatization is used in the broadest sense – of introducing or increasing private sector participation, which does not necessarily imply a transfer of designated state-owned assets to the private sector. In fact, various cost-recovery, commercialization, and other so-called privatization alternatives have been adopted to improve agricultural extension. The form and content of decentralization has dominated development discourse and public sector reform agenda in Kenya in the last two decades. The case of agricultural extension service presents decentralization in a difficult context partly due to lack of information on its possible diverse impacts especially on resource poor farmers. [Sharareh Khodamoradi and Mohammad Abedi. Review the reasons for the decentralization of agricultural extension. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):92-99] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: Decentralization, Agricultural extension

14 Ceftriaxone versus Chloramphenicol for Treatment of Acute Typhoid Fever.

Osama Mohamed Hammad1, Tamer Hifnawy2*, Dalia Omran3, Magda Anwar El Tantawi4 and Nabil Isaknder Girgis5 1Tropical Medicine Department, Faculty of Medicine, Beni Suef University-Egypt. 2Public Health & Community Medicine Department Faculty of Medicine, Beni Suef University-Egypt. 3Tropical Medicine Department, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Egypt. 4Bacteriology Department, Abbassia Fever Hospital. 5Former NAMRU3, Cairo, Egypt. *[email protected]

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Abstract: Typhoid fever is a global health problem, with an estimated 20 million cases and 700.000 deaths annually. In Egypt, since the beginning of the 1980s, there has been an increase in the prevalence of multidrug resistance to the first line antimicrobials used in the treatment of the disease such as chloramphenicol, ampicillin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) and thus other drugs , the fluoroquinolones and third generation cephalosporins, had to be evaluated for their efficacy in the treatment and their side effects. The aim of this study was to compare the efficacy of chloramphenicol, which was the classical drug for treatment of acute typhoid fever in Abbassia fever hospital (AFH) and many parts of the world where typhoid fever is endemic, with ceftriaxone which became a first line drug for treatment of it after the appearance of multidrug resistant MDR isolates of Salmonella typhi (S. typhi )in the last fifteen years. .As part of the study we investigated whether or not the organisms were still sensitive to the quinolones and third generation cephalosporins and to detect if multidrug resistant (MDR) typhoid fever was still a problem in Egypt. A phase IV open label, prospective, randomized clinical trial study was implemented in the period between March 2007 and June 2009. Fifty two patients with positive blood culture for S. typhi were included in this study. They were 32 (62%) males and 20 (38%) females ranging in age from 3 to 47 years (meanSD: 228.5years). Drug sensitivity tests showed that 4 (8%) of Salmonella typhi isolates were resistant to chloramphenicol and 18 (35%) and 21 (40%) isolates were resistant to ampicillin and TMP-SMX respectively. Two (4%) isolates were resistant to chloramphenicol, ampicillin and TMP-SMX. No isolates were resistant to ciprofloxacin or ceftriaxone. Twenty seven (52%) patients were treated with chloramphenicol and twenty five (48%) patients were treated with ceftriaxone. All patients were cured. The mean time (meanSD) for patients to become afebrile was 3.31.2 days for ceftriaxone and 5.81.2 days for chloramphenicol. In patients treated with ceftriaxone the time taken to become afebrile was shorter with chronic infection as compared to those treated with chloramphenicol(P value= 0.0001 95% CI= 1.831-3.169). From this study, it can be concluded that: ceftriaxone was associated with a significantly shorter time of defervescence making it the drug of choice for treatment of severe and complicated cases of typhoid fever.There is a marked reduction of the prevalence of MDR Salmonella typhi isolates and marked increase in the susceptibility of these isolates to chloramphenicol, returning it to be one of the drugs that could be used in the treatment of acute typhoid fever in most of the underdeveloped parts of the world where the disease is endemic and medical resources are limited.No drug resistance to ceftriaxone and ciprofloxacin was reported after many years of using them for treatment of acute typhoid fever.Due to high degree of resistance to ampicillin and TMP-SMX, they should not be used as first line drugs for treatment of acute typhoid fever. [Osama Mohamed Hammad, Tamer Hifnawy, Dalia Omran, Magda Anwar El Tantawi and Nabil Isaknder Girgis. Ceftriaxone versus Chloramphenicol for Treatment of Acute Typhoid Fever. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):100-105] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Key words: Typhoid fever, Multidrug resistance, Chloramphenicol, Ceftriaxone

15 Exposure of Adult Male Rats to Cadmium: Assessment of Sexual Behaviour, Fertility, Aggression as well as Anxiety like Behaviour with Special Reference to Biochemical and Pathological Alterations.

Mervat M .Kamel1*, Abeer H. Abd El Razek 1 , Kawkab A . Ahmed 2 and Gehan M. Kamel 3 1Department of Veterinary Hygiene and Management, 2Department of Pathology, 3 Department of Pharmacology . Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo , Egypt. * [email protected]

Abstract: Because Cadmium is widely used in industry and in our daily life, it’s likely that many people are exposed to it . The main aim of this study is to further investigate the effects of cadmium on sexual and aggressive behaviour as well as anxiety – like behaviour in adult male rats. Forty five male Wistar rats weighing (140- 160 g) were administered CdCl2 in drinking water at one of three concentrations: 0, 5 and 50 mg / L for a period of 12 weeks .Sex organs tissues (testes, prostate glands & seminal vesicles), representing all treatments were taken for biochemical, histopathological examination and male fertility assessment (semen quality analysis). Results revealed marked impairment in sexual activity with noticed influence on both territorial aggressive behaviour and anxiety – like behaviour in males exposed to CdCl2. These behavioural alterations were paralleled by biochemical changes, showing that CdCl2 at concentrations (5mg) and (50 mg ) induced a serious decrease in the level of testosterone and a significant elevation in serotonin. Additionally, increased oxidative stress in testicular tissue. Poor semen quality (sperm count, sperm motility, sperm viability) was observed in the treated male rats. furthermore, histopathological alterations were observed in the testes, prostate gland and seminal vesicles of the cadmium treated rats . Our results strongly suggest that Cd intoxication produces adverse effects on sexual behaviour, aggression, fertility and anxiety – like behaviour , with biochemical and pathological alterations in adult male rats. [Mervat M .Kamel, Abeer H. Abd El Razek, Kawkab A . Ahmed and Gehan M. Kamel. Exposure of Adult Male Rats to Cadmium: Assessment of Sexual Behaviour, Fertility, Aggression as well as Anxiety like Behaviour with Special Reference to Biochemical and Pathological Alterations. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):106- 119] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: Cadmium chloride (CdCl2), sexual behaviour, aggression, anxiety–like behaviour, fertility, testosterone, serotonin, SOD, TBARs, histopathological changes

16 Vitamin D Receptor Gene Polymorphism and Growth Pattern in Egyptian Rachitic Children

Somaia Ismail1; Moushira Erfan2*; Manal Abd EL-Salam3; Sanaa Kamal 2; Soheir Ibrahim3; and Hala Nasr1 1Medical Molecular Genetics Department, Human Genetics Research Division, National Research Centre (NRC) 2Biological anthropology Department, Medical Research Division, National Research Centre (NRC) 3Pediatric Department, Faculty of medicine (for girls) AL-Azhar university. *[email protected] Abstract: Nutritional rickets may be caused by either calcium or vitamin D deficiency. Vitamin D affects skeletal metabolism indirectly. The association between Vitamin D receptor (VDR) gene polymorphisms and genetic and environmental factors plays a role in the majority of cases. Several studies reported association between rickets and VDR gene polymorphism and growth parameters. Vitamin D affects skeletal metabolism by regulating calcium and phosphate homeostasis. The aim of this study was to examine the association between VDR gene polymorphism and vitamin D deficiency in Egyptian children with rickets and assess the relationship between the VDR gene polymorphisms and growth parameters. The study included 42 (16 girls and 26 boys) patients recruited from AL-Zharaa hospital, AL-Azhar University. Their age ranged from 4-36 months. Forty eight healthy individuals matched in age and sex with patients was recruited for comparison.VDR gene ApaI, FokI, and TaqI polymorphisms, biochemical and growth parameters were studied. Results showed that the most common VDR genotype was Ff among patients and Aa among controls, with no significant differences. The allele frequency showed significant increase in the “f” (FokI) allele in patients compared to controls (33.3% vs 20.8%, P=0.04). While, there were no significant differences between patients and controls in frequency of TaqI and ApaI alleles. The frequencies of combinations of VDR genotypes for the FokI, ApaI, and TaqI polymorphic sites, were significantly different between rachitic and control subjects (p <0.01). The AaFfTT genotype was the most frequent one among the rachitic group, while the AaFFTT is the most predominant in the control group. The FF and tt genotypes were associated with reduced SDS of weight and height. This denotes that the VDR polymorphism has functional significance on growth parameters. In conclusions, the study shows that there is a relation between VDR gene polymorphisms and susceptibility to rickets. These results might help in risk assessment of rickets and in predicting response to treatment. [Somaia Ismail; Moushira Erfan; Manal Abd EL-Salam; Sanaa Kamal; Soheir Ibrahim; and Hala Nasr.Vitamin D Receptor Gene Polymorphism and Growth Pattern in Egyptian Rachitic Children. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):120-131] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keyword: Vitamin D; Receptors; Gene polymorphism; Rickets, Egyptians

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17 Lifestyle factors influencing bone mineral density in postmenopausal Malaysian women

Fatemeh Mohammadi 1 , Tengku Aizan Hamid 2 , Mohd Nazri Yazid 3 , Zanariah Othman 4 , Rozi Mahmud 5 , 1. Institute of Gerontology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia 2. Ph.D., Professor, Director of Institute of Gerontology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia 3. Ph.D., Associate professor, head of Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science. Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia 4. M.D., Lecturer in Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science. Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia 5. Ph.D., Associate professor, Lecturer in Imaging Department, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science. Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia [email protected]

Abstract: Reduced bone mineral density (BMD) and subsequent osteoporosis is a major public health problem affecting millions of people, especially elderly and postmenopausal women worldwide. Although the key role of a healthy lifestyle on chronic diseases has been established, the importance of these characteristics along with other factors influencing BMD is still controversial. Further, previous studies addressing this issue in postmenopausal Malaysian women are very limited. This study aimed to determine the lifestyle habits that may affect BMD in postmenopausal Malaysian women. In a cross-sectional study, a total of 201 healthy postmenopausal women were interviewed to obtain information on their socio-demographic, reproductive, and lifestyle status. Calcaneal BMD was measured by quantitative ultra sonography (QUS) and was expressed in broadband ultrasound attenuation (BUA) as well as T-score. Food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) was used for calcium intake evaluation and visual analog scale (VAS) was applied for activity level assessment. Correlations of lifestyle factors with BMD were investigated using Pearson's correlation test and multiple regression analysis. A chi-square test and an independent-sample t-test were conducted to compare categorical and continuous lifestyle variables, respectively, in subjects. A hierarchical multiple regression analysis was employed to explore independent variables associated with BMD. All tests were two- tailed, and a 5 percent level of statistical significance was chosen. In a total of the 201 postmenopausal women, 28.4 percent of individuals were osteoporotic and 71.6 percent were normal. BMD was correlated with calcium intake and physical activity while there was no correlation between BMD and coffee consumption. Significant relationships were found between BMD and most investigated socio-demographic and reproductive factors. However, results from a two-step hierarchical multiple regression analysis revealed that the factors that remain significant after adjustment were age, BMI, osteoporosis history, lactation, calcium intake, and physical activity. On the basis of our data, calcium intake and physical activity seem to be major determinants of BMD in post-menopausal Malaysian women. [Fatemeh Mohammadi, Tengku Aizan Hamid, Zanariah Othman, Rozi Mahmud, Mohd Nazri Yazid. Lifestyle factors influencing bone mineral density in postmenopausal Malaysian women. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):132-139] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: Bone mineral density; Lifestyle; Osteoporosis; Physical activity; Calcium intake; Postmenopause

18 Nurse – physician collaboration: A comparative study of the attitudes of nurses and physicians at Mansoura University Hospital.

Karima A. EL Sayed1; Wafaa F. Sleem2 and Neamat M.EL Sayed2 1Department of Nursing Adminstration, Tanta Univeresity - Egypt 2 Department of Nursing Adminstration, Mansoura Univeresity - Egypt

Abstract: Collaboration and team work between physicians and nurses is crucial for patient care and morale, each team member has his or her own perspective regarding assessment and plan of care for a patient and only through collaboration and an exchange of information can appropriate treatment plans be made. The study aims to study attitudes of nurses and physicians regarding nurse-physician collaboration in general medical and surgical units at Mansoura University Hospital and to measure differences in attitudes of nurses and physicians regarding nurse – physician collaboration. All nurses and physicians (n=135) available at time of data collection, who were working in medical and surgical units. Data were collected by using Jefferson scale of attitudes toward nurse-physician collaboration. The Jefferson scale has four subscales that measure:(a) shared education and teamwork (7 items with responses from 1-4, with a subscale score range of 7-28); (b) caring versus curing (3 items with a subscale score range of 3-12); (c) autonomy (3 items with a subscale score range of 3-12) and physician dominance (2 items, with a subscale score range of 2-8). Results revealed that the total scores indicated that nurses have more positive attitudes toward nurse- physician collaboration than physicians. [Karima A. EL Sayed1; Wafaa F. Sleem2 and Neamat M.EL Sayed. Nurse – physician collaboration: A comparative study of the attitudes of nurses and physicians at Mansoura University Hospital. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):140-146] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: Collaboration, mercury, Jefferson scale, surgical units, physician collaboration.

19 Analysis of different techniques in Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)

Mohammad Abedi1 and Sharareh Khodamoradi2 1Department of Agricultural Management, Islamic Azad University, Qaemshahr Branch, Iran 2Department of Agricultural Extension Education, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: PRA is intended to enable local communities to conduct their own analysis and to plan and take action . PRA involves project staff learning together with villagers about the village. The aim of PRA is to help strengthen the capacity of villagers to plan, make decisions, and to take action towards improving their own situation. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is considered one of the popular and effective approaches to gather information in rural areas. This approach was developed in early 1990s with considerable shift in paradigm from top-down to bottom-up approach, and from blueprint to the learning process. In fact, it is a shift from extractive survey questionnaires to experience sharing by local people. PRA is based on village experiences where communities effectively manage their natural resources. [Mohammad Abedi and Sharareh Khodamoradi. Analysis of different techniques in Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):147-157] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)

20 Micro Vascular Free Tissue Transfer Surgeries : Impact of a Designed Teaching Protocol on Nurse's Performance for Reduction or Prevention of Post Operative Flap Failure

Samia Y. Sayed*1, Hala M. Ghanem1, Warda Y. Mohamed2 and Tarek A. El-Gamal3 *1Adult Nursing Department, Faculty of Nursing, Asiut Univesity., Asiut, Egypt

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2 Medical Surgical Nursing Department, Faculty of Nursing Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt 3 Orthopedic Surgery Department, Faculty of Medicine Assiut University, Asiut, Egypt

Abstract: Introduction: Micro vascular transplants, also known as a free flap or free tissue transfer, involves transplanting nonessential donor tissue from one part of the body to another to restore form or function using microsurgical techniques. The transplanted tissue must have a single blood supply with an artery and draining vein that are both adequate to sustain circulation and life in the transplant. The free flap is anastomosed (blood vessels connected) to the recipient vessels and blood flow is re- established. Aim of the study is 2-fold: first: to design a teaching protocol for nurses working with patients undergoing microvascular free tissue transfer surgeries, and second: to evaluate the effect of implementing the designed teaching protocol on nurse's performance for reduction or prevention of post operative flap failure. Quasi- experimental research design has been utilized in this study. Subjects and Methods: A study was conducted in Assiut University Hospitals. A sample of convenience including all nurses working in Reconstructive Microsurgical Unit (10) & Traumatology Care Unit (20) in addition to (30) patients with free tissue transfer surgeries. Tools utilized were:-a) Nurses performance regards care of patients undergoing free tissue transfer surgeries questionnaire sheet to assess nurse's knowledge in addition to some sociodemographic data.b) Nurses performance regards care of patients undergoing free tissue transfer surgeries observation checklist sheet to assess nurse's skills.c) Flap observation checklist sheet among patients undergoing free tissue transfer surgeries to monitor postoperative free tissue transfer surgeries complications , D) Patients assessment sheet for free tissue transfer surgeries to assess flap failure that might develop among all patients admitted to reconstructive microsurgery. Results: A sharp improvement in the mean knowledge and practice scores were found after the application of the teaching protocol. The flap failure decreased from 20% pre-protocol to 3.3% after protocol implementation. A positive correlation was found between nurse's knowledge and practice scores immediately and 2 months after application of the teaching protocol. A significant relationship was found between flap failure and other complications as regards hyperthermia, pain, venous and arterial obstruction. Venous and arterial obstructions are significantly correlated with ischemia time. Conclusions and Recommendations: Patients with free tissue transfer surgeries are at high risk for postoperative complications, which in turn increase the development of the flap failure. These complications include hyperthermia, pain, infection, venous and arterial obstructions and need effective measures to prevent/reduce this considerable profound problem. Improving nurses' knowledge and practice can favorably affect the incidence and outcome of flap failure. Continued nursing education and in-service training programs on reconstructive microsurgery should be well organized within Assiut University Hospital and equipped with the necessary educational facilities and materials necessary to upgrade the knowledge and skills of practicing nurses, which will be reflected on better outcome and service for inpatients. [Samia Y. Sayed, Hala M. Ghanem, Warda Y. Mohamed and Tarek A. El-Gamal. Micro Vascular Free Tissue Transfer Surgeries : Impact of a Designed Teaching Protocol on Nurse's Performance for Reduction or Prevention of Post Operative Flap Failure. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):158-170] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Key ward: Micro vascular free tissue transfer surgeries, flap failure and nurse's performance

21 Effects of livin over-expression on myocardial ischemia reperfusion injury in rats

Yanyan Zhao, Yu nwei Li, Guojie Yang, Zihan Wei Department of Geriatric Cardiology, the first Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, China. [email protected]

Abstract： To evaluate the effects of livin over-expression on myocardial ischemia reperfusion injury. Rats were subjected to 30 min of left coronary artery occlusion followed by 120 min of reperfusion with treating the rats by retroviral vector expressing livin 24h before left coronary artery occlusion. Both caspase-3 and livin mRNA expression were detected by real time PCR and the caspase-3 protein was detected by immunohistochemical study; Cardiomyocyte apoptosis was evaluated with TUNEL assay. Myocardial infarction size were detected by TTC dyeing mehod. Caspase-3 mRNA expression increased during IR and decreased significantly after the transfection of retroviral vector expressing livin. Meanwhile the apoptosis index and MI size were increased in IR group and decreased significantly in livin group. Livin overexpression could down-regulate the expression of caspase-3, attenuate myocardial apoptosis, and decrease myocardial infarction size. [Yanyan Zhao, Yunwei Li; Guojie Yang ； Zihan Wei. Effects of livin over-expression on myocardial ischemia reperfusion injury in rats. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):171-175] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Key words: myocardial infarction; acute; livin; apoptosis

22 Selected Ventilatory Functions Response to Closed and Open Kinematic Chain training of the arm in elderly

Olfat A Diab Kandil*1 and Hala M. Ezz El-Deen Hamed 2 1Department of Basic Science (Biomechanics Unit) College of Physical Therapy, Misr University for Science and Technology, Cairo, Egypt 2Department of Physical Therapy for Cardiopulmonary Disorders and Geriatrics, Faculty of Physical Therapy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt *[email protected]

Abstract: Aging is associated with pulmonary alterations; these changes culminate in a decrease in muscle strength, lower level of endurance and impairment of mobility. Fortunately, increasing the level of physical activity may affect the declines of these parameters. The present work aimed to investigate the effect of open vs. closed kinematic chain exercises on ventilatory functions in elderly subjects. Thirty elderly subjects (13 female and 17 male) participated in the study their age ranged from 60 to 75 years. They were divided into two study groups equal in number. Group І comprised of 15 subjects received a training program of closed kinematic chain "supported arm exercise" and group Π received a training program of open kinematic chain "unsupported arm exercise". Hand held Spirometer was used for measuring ventilatory functions. Arm ergometer, was used for closed kinematic chain (supported arm exercise group). Both groups were trained for 8 weeks, three times a week. The results showed that the vital capacity, the forced expiratory volume in 1st second, and the maximum voluntary ventilation were significantly improved in both groups but the percentage of improvement was significantly higher in group I of closed kinematic chain training. It is concluded that the outcomes of this study may help to outline the most effective, curative and safety type of arm exercise to be included in training programs for pulmonary and orthopedic problems in elderly. [Olfat A Diab Kandil and Hala M. Ezz El-Deen Hamed. Selected Ventilatory Functions Response to Closed and Open Kinematic Chain training of the arm in elderly. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):176-186] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Key words: kinematic chain, mechanics of shoulder elevation, pulmonary functions

23 Cultural & social effects of rural women's financial self-reliance

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Abstract: Rural women are among those major groups at society who previously were considered less by planners, due to specific reasons in the past. And this problem is more observable at developing countries. If rural women can work through receiving credits , loan and others finance facilities at favorite jobs and live through earned income (as it called “self-reliance and independence”), so undoubtedly we would see changes in social, economic and cultural relations of village. [Mohammad Abedi and Sharareh Khodamoradi. Cultural & social effects of rural women's financial self-reliance. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):187-192] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: financial self-reliance, rural women

24 The Immune Function as Response to Level and Source of Protein in Pre-Mature and Mature Male Rats.

*Eman I. Abd El-Gawad and Amal I. Hassan Radioisotopes Department, Atomic Energy Authority, Egypt [email protected]

Abstract: Dietary protein plays a significant and site-specific role in the developmental expression of the secretary immune system. In this sense, the aims of this study were as follows: 1) to evaluate in rats the severity effect of a protein-deficient diet (4%) on non specific cellular immune response (phagosytosis, killing and lymphocytes transformation index), immunoglobulins (IgG and IgM) and cytokine (IL-6). 2) to assess these parameters in rats re-fed on normprotein diet (20% casein) and rats re-fed on faba bean (20% raw bean) as alternative sources of protein. 3) to compare between premature and adult rats under the various levels and source of dietary protein. Forty eight rats were used in the present study, premature aging 40 days (weighted 85±5 gm) and adult aging 120 days (weighted 170 ±10 gm). Each animal age was divided into two groups, control (n=8) and experimental groups (n=16). Control group fed on a normoprotein chow, while experimental group fed on a diet having 4% protein (diet 1), for 3 weeks. After then, the experimental group of each age was divided into two groups. The first group received a normoprotein diet containing 20% casein (diet 2) and the second group received a diet containing 20% faba bean (diet 3) as alternative source of protein. The experiment was lasted for six weeks and the animal mortality and body weight were regularly recorded. At the end of experiment, the blood samples were collected through cardiac puncture from all animals under light anesthesia. The blood of each animal was split into two essay tubes, one heparinzed for the determination of the complete phagocytosis, killing and lymphocyte transformation index and the other wasn’t; to obtain the serum for subsequent analyses of IgG, IgM and IL6 activity, total protein, albumin and thyroxin activity (T3 and T4). The results revealed that the body weight was reduced in protein-deficient rats as related to age associated with appearance of some cases of mortality. The rats re- fed on normoprotein chew (diet 2) showed increase in body weight more than the animal received diet 3 (20% faba bean) and this increase was more pronounced in premature rats. As a function of circulating levels of total protein, albumin and thyroxin, hypoproteic diet induced significant decrease in total protein content as well as T3 activity in both ages but the albumin and T4 level showed insignificant decrease. Nutritional recovery by diet containing 20% casein (diet 1) decreased the activity of T3 in premature rats. Regarding to rats re-fed on either diet 1 or diet 3, they showed significant increase in protein, albumin, T3 and T4 levels as compared to protein- deficient rats but this recovery was more pronounced in rats re-fed on a diet 1. With respect to immune function, low dietary protein induced disorder in the activity of phagocytosis, killing, lymphocytes transformation index (TL index) as well as IgG, IgM & IL6 in premature than in mature rats. But, these remarks of immune function were improved in both ages rat re-fed on diet 1 more than rats re-fed on diet 3. From the present results, it could be suggested that poor protein nutrition or inclusion of faba bean as the only source of protein in diet especially, young rats bring about a reduction in growth as well as impairment of undeveloped immune system because the absence of essential amino acids will comprise the ability of tissue to grow, be repaired or be maintained. [Eman I. Abd El-Gawad and Amal I. Hassan. The Immune Function as Response to Level and Source of Protein in Pre-Mature and Mature Male Rats. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):193-203] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Key words: hypoprotein diet, non cellular immune cells, immunoglobulin, cytokine, thyroxin, total protein.

25 Molecular cloning and sequence analysis of SGLT1 gene and tertiary structure prediction of deduced protein in Cyprinus carpio L.

Guoxing Nie*, Caixia Hou¶, Junli Wang, Jianxin Zhang, Dongying Song, Bei Wang, Xuejun Li, Xianghui Kong College of Life Science, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, Henan, P R .China [email protected]

+ + Abstract:Na /glucose cotransporter SGLT1 plays an important role in transporting Na and glucose and maintaining the adjustment of metabolism. The aim to study gene + SGLT1 is to further understand the regulation mechanism of SGLT1 gene in fish. In this study, the full-length cDNA of Na /glucose cotransporter gene was cloned in intestine of Cyprinus carpio L. using RT-PCR and RACE methods, which included 2856 bp involved in 113 bp 5'-untranslated region, 766 bp 3'-untranslated region, and 1977 bp open reading frame (ORF) which encoded 658 amino acids. The predicted amino acid sequence was the highest similar with that of Danio rerio (90.70%), and the lowest similar with that of rabbit (71.40%). Fourteen transmembrane domains were predicted in the 3-D protein model using comparative protein modeling program SWISS-MODEL. The structural core was comparative of 5 TM helices (TM2-TM6 and TM7-TM11) with the inverted repeat. It was demonstrated that Glucose might be bounded in the center of the structural core, and a possible Na+-binding site was located at the intersection of TM2 and TM9. Thereby, the functional roles and regulation mechanism of SGLT would provide unique opportunities to investigate the biochemical processes in intestine of Cyprinus carpio L., and lay the foundation for artificial culture of the species involved. [Guoxing Nie, Caixia Hou, Junli Wang, Jianxin Zhang, Dongying Song, Bei Wang, Xuejun Li, Xianghui Kong. Molecular cloning and sequence analysis of SGLT1 gene and tertiary structure prediction of deduced protein in Cyprinus carpio L. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):204-212] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: SGLT1 gene; cDNA sequence analysis; Protein tertiary structure; Cyprinus carpio L.

26 Towards Rural Women’s Empowerment and Poverty Reduction in Iran

Fatemeh Allahdadi School of Humanities and Social Science, Science and Research Branch Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran [email protected]

Abstract: This paper provides an approach for rural women’s empowerment to poverty reduction in Iran. Although, rural women are certainly a major contributor to poverty reduction in many rural areas in developed countries. But the result of this study found that women’s empowerment is limited by the same cultural restrictions that limit their access to education and health services, and these impose serious constraints on their autonomy, mobility, and on the types of livelihoods that are available

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to them. The finding can assist the local and national organizations for remove this problem in face of women’s participation for poverty reduction in Iran. [Fatemeh Allahdadi. Towards Women’s Empowerment and Poverty Reduction in Iran. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):213-216] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Key words: Poverty reduction, women’s empowerment, rural area

27 A Prospective and Retrospective Analysis of Patients with Post-Stroke Epilepsy Presenting at Tertiary Care Hospital

Baig S, Sallam K, Al Ibrahim I**, Amin TT* Department of Clinical Neurosciences and Family & Community Medicine*, College of Medicine Al-Ahsa, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia King Fahad Hospital, Hafuf, Saudi Arabia**; [email protected]

Abstract: Stroke is one of the most common causes of disability in Saudi Arabia and when seizures complicate the stroke, the disability, cost, psychological impact and post traumatic stress on the family are tremendously increased. As for the best of author’s knowledge there is no available data regarding the incidence, frequency, outcome and the risk factors or predictors of seizures after stroke in Saudi Population. Our study was conducted in King Fahd Hospital located in Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. It is the main tertiary care Hospital in the region. We collected our sample in three consecutive years from 2007 to 2009. In the first two years data was collected from medical records system and in the third year the data of patients and controls was collected from newly admitted stroke patients. The study concluded mean incidence of post stroke epilepsy (PSE) to be about 9.6 %. A lower blood sugar and higher Rankin Disability scores were found to be significantly higher amongst patients with post-stroke epilepsy. There was no significant difference in co morbid diseases on developing PSE. The present study also showed that the occurrence of post stroke epilepsy was positively associated with increasing age and male gender. [Baig S, Sallam K, Al Ibrahim I, Amin TT. A Prospective and Retrospective Analysis of Patients with Post-Stroke Epilepsy Presenting at Tertiary Care Hospital. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):217-221] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: Analysis; Patients; Post-Stroke; Epilepsy; Tertiary; Hospital

28 Assessing Employment of rural women and its effect on other empowerment

Sharareh Khodamoradi 1 and Mohammad Abedi2 1 Department of Agricultural Extension Education, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran 2Department of Agricultural Management, Islamic Azad University, Qaemshahr Branch, Iran *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Women form great part of total workforce that needed for agriculture part at universe, as one of the intangible factors at agriculture economy. So, statistics that was represented in relation to extent of women’s activity is very lower than real extent. Because in this statistics, mostly, seasonal jobs, part time job, no wage job and their housekeeping activities, aren’t considered. rural women, have different roles and duties such as husband, mother, crops producer, participate at ranching activities, planting ,maintaining, harvesting, processing, marketing and preparing food. Rural women maybe venturing to culture cash products, while cultivating subsistence products and if they have no farm land, they have to work for others instead receiving wage. We can consider such women as agriculture propagator, production expert and even in some case as policy maker. Other than activity at agriculture field, women’s participation at rural development is critical and is considered in order to supply adequate and needed food. [Sharareh Khodamoradi and Mohammad Abedi. Assessing Employment of rural women and its effect on other empowerment. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):222- 226] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: empowerment, rural women

29 Corneal Topography and in vivo Confocal Microscopy in Different Types of Posterior Polymorphous Dystrophy

Weihong Zhang1, Jinguo Wang1, Yang Jing2 1. The Nursing College of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, China. 2. Henan Eye Institute, Zhengzhou, 450052, China. [email protected]

Abstract: To observe the morphologic changes in the corneas of patients with posterior polymorphous dystrophy (PPMD), using in vivo confocal microscopy and Orbscan Ⅱ corneal topography. Four patients with clinical diagnosis of PPMD, presenting to the Henan Institute of Ophthalmology, were included in this observational case series. The eyes of the 4 patients were examined by slit-lamp biomicroscopy, Orbscan Ⅱ corneal topography, and in vivo confocal microscopy. Two patients presented with corneal steepening on topography, as well as large areas of irregular polymorphous changes of the corneal endothelium on in vivo confocal microscopy consistent with PPMD. Confocal microscopy demonstrated craters, streaks, and cracks over the corneal endothelium surface. Pleomorphism and polymegathism were present in eyes with PPMD. Guttata and clusters of abnormal endothelial cells were also identified in corneas of these PPMD patients. In vivo confocal microscopy is potentially useful for monitoring of disease progression and excluding suspected cases of subclinical PPMD. Abnormalities on the corneal topography were observed, this report brings forth the descriptions of morphologic changes on Orbscan topography. [Weihong Zhang, Yang Jing. Corneal Topography and in vivo Confocal Microscopy in Different Types of Posterior Polymorphous Dystrophy. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):227-238] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: posterior polymorphous dystrophy; topography; in vivo confocal microscopy

30 hTERT expression extends the life-span and maintains the cardiomyogenic potential of mesenchymal stem cells in human umbilical cord blood

Liu Rui Min, Bai Hui Ling, Du Yao Wu, Ma Yuan Fang Key Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Henan University. Kaifeng, Henan 475004,China. [email protected]

Abstract: Human umbilical cord blood-derived mesenchymal stem cells (UCBMSCs) represent a population of stem cells that are capable of differentiation into multiple lineages and are expected to serve as an excellent alternative to bone marrow-derived human mesenchymal stem cells. However, these cells exhibit senescence-associated

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growth arrest and phenotypic changes during long-term culture. To overcome this problem, we established UCBMSCs (hTERT-MSCs) with human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) gene. We found that the hTERT-MSCs proliferated faster than non-infected and had longer life-span. Induced hTERT-MSCs with 5-azacytidine to cardiac muscle and detected the specific marker of myocardiocyte. The hTERT-MSCs were able to form cardiomyocyte evidenced by positive staining for Connexin- 43 and α-Sarcomeric actin. We concluded that the hTERT gene does not influence some type of differentiation potential of MSCs. [Liu Rui Min, Bai Hui Ling, Du Yao Wu, Ma Yuan Fang. hTERT expression extends the life-span and maintains the cardiomyogenic potential of mesenchymal stem cells in human umbilical cord blood. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):239-243] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: hTERT; mesenchymal stem cell; life span; cardiomyogenic potential

31 Phenol Toxicity Affecting Hematological Changes in Cat Fish (Clarius lazera)

Mona S. Zaki*1, Olfat, M. Fawzi2 and S. I. Shalaby 1Department of Hydrobiology, National Research Center, Cairo, Egypt 2Department of Biochemistry National Research Center, Cairo, Egypt 3Department of animal Reproductive, National Research Center, Cairo, Egypt [email protected]

Abstract: Phenol and phenolic compounds are xenobiotics stressful environmental factors to which fish and animals are subjected to, and have become environmental problem due to anthropogenic impact on the environment The present study aimed to investigate the effect of phenol pollution on fish with special reference to the hematological, immunological, serum biochemical parameters, where fifty healthy Clarius lazera fish were divided into 3 groups. Fish of gp1 served as a control. Fish of gp. 2 & 3 were used for the determination of acute lethal concentration dose and the pathological effect of Phenol on the exposed fish. Blood samples were collected to obtain serum for biochemical studies and heparinized blood for hematological investigations. RBCs, Hb, HCt, and MCHC showed significant elevations, the serum GPT and GOT were increased significantly. L.D.H, glucose and cortisol were elevated, while serum cholesterol concentration was reduced significantly in high tem30oC. [Mona S. Zaki, Olfat, M. Fawzi and S. I. Shalaby. Phenol Toxicity Affecting Hematological Changes in Cat Fish (Clarius lazera). Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):244-248] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Key words: Phenol pollution, Tilapia Zilli, Biochemical changes

32 Oxdative stress on sertoli cells of rats induced by microcystin-LR☆

Dan Yi1, Xiaohui Liu1,2, Fengquan Zhang1, Jun wang1,Yang Zhao1, Dongjie Sun1, Jinwei Ren1, Huizhen Zhang1 1.College of Public Health, Zhengzhou University, Zheng zhou 450001, China2. School of Basic Medicine, Henan University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, Henan 450008, China [email protected]

Abstract: Objective: To study the oxidative stress effects of microcystin-LR on rats sertoli cells, and to explore the toxic mechanisms of microcystin-LR on reproductive system. Methods: Extracted sertoli cells were exposed to different concentrations of MC-LR. Feulgen staining method was used to identify the purification and viability of Sertoli cells. Subsequently we established the growth curve of Sertoli cells in vitro and ascertained the maximum dose of non-cytotoxicity of MC-LR on Sertoli cells with MTT method. Sertoli cells were cultured with different concentrations (0 μg/L, 0.15 μg/L, 1.5 μg/L, 15 μg/L) of MC-LR for 6, 12, 24h. Then LDH, MDA, SOD, ROS of Sertoli cell line were analyzed. Results: The Sertoli cells model was obtained to study the toxic effects of MC-LR. The highest non-toxicity concentration of MC-LR was 15μg/L. The level of ROS in cells increased after exposed to the different MC-LR, and there was a statistically significant difference when cells were exposed to 15g/L (P<0.05). There was no statistically significant difference of MDA between cells exposed and contrast cells (P>0.05). The changes of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) leakage amount were not significant after cells were cultured with the different concentration of MC-LR (P>0.05). The decreases of superoxide dismutase (SOD) were found to be dependent on the dose (P＜0.05). Conclusion: MC-LR in this study caused change of ROS, but it had no effects on MDA. MC-LR had no effects on leakage rate of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) but enhanced the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD). The results suggested that MC-LR can induce oxidative stress in primary cultured rat sertoli cell, but can not lead to lipid peroxidation. [Dan Yi, Xiaohui Liu, Fengquan Zhang, Jun Wang, Yang Zhao, Dongjie Sun, Jinwei Ren, Huizhen Zhang. Oxdative stress on sertoli cells of rats induced by microcystin- LR. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):249-253] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: MC-LR, Sertoli cells, oxidative stress

33 The role of agricultural extension in Integrating indigenous knowledge and modern knowledge in rural

Mohammad Abedi1 and Sharareh Khodamoradi2 D epartment of Agricultural Management, Islamic Azad University, Qaemshahr Branch, Iran 1Department of Agricultural Management, Islamic Azad University, Qaemshahr Branch, Iran Department of Agricultural Extension Education, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran 2Department of Agricultural Extension Education, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran *Corresponding author: skhodamoradi2007@ yahoo.com *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Experience shows that indigenous knowledge not only has no contradiction with formal knowledge but different indigenous knowledge features, put it as well complementary for formal knowledge. Indigenous knowledge is accessible, useful and cheap. Its perspective is holistic and its transmission is verbal. Knowledge is dynamic and time-tested, and while it has grown within local natural and social environment, so it is very sustainable with indigenous condition. Indigenous knowledge refers to both component and whole part of culture of each nation and this component and whole integration is so that stop to change traditional society of life without indigenous knowledge out of its cultural origin and therefore would lose it concept and effectiveness. [Mohammad Abedi and Sharareh Khodamoradi. The role of agricultural extension in Integrating indigenous knowledge and modern knowledge in rural. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):254-258] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: agricultural extension, indigenous knowledge, modern knowledge

34. The detection of Chlamydia Trachomatis Antigen in cervical secretions and serum antibodies in infertile females undergoing ICSI and its impact on pregnancy success.

Salah Abd- Raboh1 , Hesham Ali Saleh1, Nesrine Fathi Hanafi2, Huda Basiony Darwish1 1Obstetrics& Gynecology,2 Medical Microbiology& Immunology. Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University. [email protected]

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Abstract: Background: Chlamydia vaginosis is a commonly reported bacterial infection, with an incidence that varies according to population. Some researchers have studied the association of such condition and infertility. In our study we aimed at evaluation of the incidence of cervical Chlamydia trachomatis infection in infertile women undergoing assisted reproductive techniques & its impact on its success to achieve pregnancy. Methods: A study group of 150 infertile females attending infertility centers for ICSI and a control group of 150 multiparus females attending outpatient clinics for IUD introduction have been included. Endocervical swabs from cases and controls have been examined for chlamydial antigen using immunochromatography. Also sera were examined for IgG and IgM for Chlamydia trachomatis in both groups. Results: 12 positive cases for serum Ig G in study group (8.0%) and 16 in controls (10.67%) has been revealed. While serum IgM was found in 4 study cases (2.7%), with no positives in the controls. Regarding chlamydia antigen detection in endocervical swab, there was 6 positive study group cases (4.2%), while no cases were positive in controls. Conclusion: our study reports a very low prevalence rate of Chlamydia trachomatis infection in Egyptian females, which minimizes its role as cause of infertility in Egyptian population and subsequently its impact on success of ICSI is not much expressed. Cultural impact on sexual life style in Egyptian population could justify our findings. [Salah Abd- Raboh, Hesham Ali Saleh, Nesrine Fathi Hanafi, Huda Basiony Darwish. The detection of Chlamydia Trachomatis Antigen in cervical secretions and serum antibodies in infertile females undergoing ICSI and its impact on pregnancy success. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):259-263] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Key words: Chalmydia, antigen , antibody

35 A study on GRP ground wave method for the variation of dune in surface soil water content in summer

Khampasith Thammathevo1, Prof. Dr Jianguo Bao1*, Assistant Prof. Dr. Mupenzi Jean de la Paix1, 2, Bounthanome Singsuaisagna3 1China University of Geosciences, Environmental studies school, 388 Lumo road, Wuhan, 430074 Hubei, China 2 Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences; Key laboratory of oasis ecology and desert environment, 818 Beijing Road South, Urumqi, Xinjiang, 830011, China 3 Civil Engineering Departments, Engineering Faculty, National University of Laos, Sokpaluang Campus; P.B 1366. Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: The Changes in soil moisture in summer is one of the important factors that influence the state of germination and plant growth. The variation of dunes in the surface of the soil water content was measured using GPR ground wave method from May to July 2010. The results show that in this period, the water content of soil on top of the dunes is declining. It shown that during summer, the appearances of the high amount precipitation and the evaporation were the important factor in the distribution of soil water content. [Khampasith, T., Jianguo, B., Mupenzi, J.P. and Bounthanome, S. A study on GRP ground wave method for the variation of dune in surface soil water content in summer. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):264-268] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: GPR ground wave method; precipitation and Evaporation; soil water content

36 Assessing Criteria of rural women empowerment

Abstract: Enabling is process that, during it, people of society do activities to overcome barriers of advancement that finally cause their domination to determine their own density. The term “enabling” means overcoming fundamental inequalities. So it is different from self-reliance. Enabling, enables individual to overcome any problematic condition and consider barriers and problems as part of life and positive campaign. Finally, enabling provides energy to overcome most intellectual barriers and external problems at private life. [Mohammad Abedi and Sharareh Khodamoradi. Assessing Criteria of rural women empowerment. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):269-274] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: empowerment, rural women

37 Adiponectin in African Egyptian Obese Adolescents

Nayera E. Hassan1, Sahar A. El-Masry*1, Tarek S. Ibrahim2, Walaa A. Fouad3, Wagdi M. Hanna2, and Mehrevan M. Abd El-moniem4 1Biological Anthropology Dept., 2Child Health Dept.,3Community Medicine Dept, 4Medical Biochemistry Dept., Medical Research Division, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza, Egypt *[email protected]

Abstract: Background: Adiponectin is the most abundant adipokine shown to have insulin-sensitizing, antiatherogenic, and anti-inflammatory properties. Adiponectin level, unlike that of other adipocytokines, is decreased in obesity and type 2 diabetes and increased after weight reduction. Recent studies suggest that adiponectin plays an important role in linking obesity with different cardiometabolic risk factors. Neverseless, a few studies have investigated this relationship in obese children. Racial differences in adiponectin level were observed, but little work has been done to determine if plasma adiponectin concentrations differ as a result of ethnicity. In few studies in African American, lack of a relationship between plasma adiponectin, obesity, and insulin sensitivity were reported despite the prevalence of obesity, diabetes, and insulin resistance in this population. However todate, there are no reports examining similar relationship of adiponectin and different cardiometabolic variables in African Egyptian. Aim of the study: To investigate the relationship between adiponectin, and different cardiometabolic and anthropometric variables in African Egyptian adolescence, in a trial to further explore, whether this relation in the African race differ from other ethnic population. Subjects and methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted by the National Research Centre, Egypt. The survey comprised 3708 adolescents (48% boys and 52% girls), aged from 12 to 18 years (+ 6 months). Of the total sample, only 340 students (9.2%) were obese (8.1% boys and 10.2% girls); with mean age 14.36+1.66 years. The included 180 obese students; who accepted to share in the laboratory tests; underwent complete physical examination, including different anthropometric measures (Height, weight, body mass index, waist circumference, hip circumference and waist/hip ratio). Blood pressure was also measured. Fasting venous blood samples were collected to detect fasting blood glucose, fasting serum insulin and adiponectin levels. Meanwhile insulin resistance was calculated. Results: Serum adiponectin level was low compared to the kit reference range. It did not show any significant correlations with the studied anthropometric parameters; both the systolic and diastolic blood pressure, the fasting plasma glucose, insulin

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level and insulin resistance (HOMA-IR). Conclusion: Although the present study, proved that serum adiponectin level was low in the studied African Egyptian obese adolescence, but it could not prove a direct link between adiponectin and the studied anthropometric measures, and cardiometabolic variables. This may provide additional support for the notion that what applies to other ethnic populations might not apply to the African population. [Nayera E. Hassan, Sahar A. El-Masry, Tarek S. Ibrahim, Walaa A. Fouad, Wagdi M. Hanna, and Mehrevan M. Abd El-moniem. Adiponectin in African Egyptian Obese Adolescents. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):375-380] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: Adiponectin; African; Egyptian; Obese; Adolescent

38 Memantine decreases apoptosis and attenuates the activation of caspase-3 and MDA release in Rats with ischemia-reperfusion Injury

Shilei Sun, Yanpo Zhao, Haowen Xu, Jie Qin Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450052, China E-mail [email protected]

Abstract: To investigate the effects of memantine on the expression of Caspase-3, malonaldehyde (MDA) and apoptosis after cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury in rat. 135 male Wistar rats were randomly divided into 3 groups: sham operation group, cerebral ischemia-reperfusion model group and memantine intervention group. The changes of cell morphology and the expression of caspase-3 in cerebral cortex neurons at 12h, 24h, and 48h after ischemia-reperfusion were observed by Haematoxylin Eosin (HE) stain and immunohistochemistry respectively. The expression of caspase-3 activity and MDA levels at different time points were detected by spectrophotometer. Investigating the apoptosis in situ in the CA1 region of hippocampus of the rats with TdT-mediated dUTP nicked labeling (TUNEL) method. The results show that in memantine intervention group, the expression levels of caspase-3 and MDA in ischemia-reperfusion injury region increased, in comparison with sham-operated group (p=0.00), while lower than that of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion model group (p =0.00). Caspase-3 activity remarkably increased in ischemia- reperfusion brain in rats in a time-depended manner. The number of TUNEL positive cells in the CA1 region of hippocampus in the memantine treated rats (7.00±2.04) and model rats (11.57±2.64) were significantly increased compared with the sham operation controls (1.57±4.72) (p =0.00), while the number of TUNEL positive cells in the memantine treated rats decreased as compared with that of the model rats (p =0.00). Suggesting that mamantine may probably have the function of neuroprotection in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury model by suppressing the expression of caspase-3 activity and MDA and inhibiting the apoptosis of pyramidal neurons in the CA1 region of hippocampus in ischemia-reperfusion rats. [Sun Shilei, Zhao Yanpo, Xu Haowen, Qin Jie. Memantine decreases apoptosis and attenuates the activation of caspase-3 and MDA release in Rats with ischemia- reperfusion Injury. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):281-285] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Key words: Mamantine; cerebral ischemia-reperfusion; Caspase-3; MDA; apoptosis

39 Two Different Methods of Endovascular Treatment for Ruptured Intracranial Aneurysm Associated with Moyamoya Disease and Review of the Literature

Xu.Hao.Wen1, Li.Meng.Hua2, Guan.Sheng1, Sun.Shi.Lei3 1 Department of Interventional Radiology, The First Affiliated hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450052, China 2 Department of Interventional Radiology, Shanghai Sixth People’s hospital, Shanghai 260000,China 3 Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450052, China [email protected]

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to evaluate efficacy and feasibility of two different embolization methods for the treatment of intracranial aneurysm with moyamoya disease. Two intracranial aneurysms with moyamoya disease treated with coils embolization and glue embolization respectively between September 2006 and December 2010 were analyzed and the related literatures were reviewed as well. The two intracranial aneurysms were successfully embolized and no complication of endovascular therapy occurred. We think that endovascular treatment may be a safe and efficacious method for the intracranial aneurysm with moyamoya disease, if coil embolization is difficult for some aneurysm, glue emboliation may be a choice. [Xu.H.W, Li.M.H, Guan.S, Sun.S.L. Two Different Methods of Endovascular Treatment for Ruptured Intracranial Aneurysm Associated with Moyamoya Disease and Review of the Literature. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):286-289] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: Endovascular treatment; intracranial aneurysm; moyamoya disease

40 How the villagers participate in Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)

Sharareh Khodamoradi 1 and Mohammad Abedi2 1 Department of Agricultural Extension Education, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran 2Department of Agricultural Management, Islamic Azad University, Qaemshahr Branch, Iran *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Much of the spread of participatory rural appraisal (PRA) as an emerging family of approaches and methods has been lateral, South-South, through experiential learning and changes in behavior, with different local applications. Rapid spread has made quality assurance a concern, with dangers from “instant fashion”, rushing, formalism and ruts. Promising potentials include farmers’ own farming systems research, alternatives to questionnaire surveys, monitoring, evaluation and lateral spread by local people, empowerment of the poorer and weaker, and policy review. Changes in personal behavior and attitudes, and in organizational cultures, are implied. PRA parallels and resonates with paradigm shifts in the social and natural sciences, business management, and development thinking, supporting decentralization, local diversity, and personal responsibility. [Mohammad Abedi, Sharareh Khodamoradi. How the villagers participate in Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):290-294] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), participation

41 Information and communication technologies (ICT) and agricultural extension

Sharareh Khodamoradi 1 and Mohammad Abedi2 1 Department of Agricultural Extension Education, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

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2Department of Agricultural Management, Islamic Azad University, Qaemshahr Branch, Iran *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Policy makers and service providers have increasingly come to view information and communication technologies (ICT), and particularly the Internet, as an important tool in providing disadvantaged groups and areas with access to information, services and markets that would otherwise be inaccessible. The concept of development of the rural, today, is not just project initiatives and governance; it is much more beyond that. This paper uncovers a whole plethora of ICT emergence as a technology of the new millennium. Against the backdrop of the ongoing ICT boom, this paper makes an attempt towards studying its applications and usage planning process and policy making for the rural communities focusing on how it helps in aligning the key factors and reduce the problems of alienation, fragmentation and dislocation of knowledge. [Mohammad Abedi, Sharareh Khodamoradi. Information and communication technologies (ICT) and agricultural extension. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):395-399] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: information and communication technologies (ICT), agricultural extension

42 Myeloid and lymphoid neoplasms with FGFR1 rearrangement—one case report and lecture review

Li Yulong, Shang Baojun , Zhai Yaping,Chen Xiangli, Shi Jie, Lei Pingchong, Cheng Wei Institute of Hematopathy, People’s Hospital of Henan Province, Zhengzhou, Henan 450003, China [email protected]

Abstract: We report one case of myeloid and lymphoid neoplasms with FGFR1 rearrangement (EMS) here. The patient presented with generalized lymphodenopathy and fever.The bone marrow aspirates indicated CML but karyotype analysis discovered the translocation of t(8;13)(p11;q12),not t(9;22) and the BCR-ABL fusion transcript was not found.The histology was T-cell lymphoblast lymphoma(LBL) from the lymph node biopsy. Therefore the diagnosis of EMS was made.After chemotherapy,bone barrow assessment improved and most of the lymph nodes shrinked to untouchable.But the t(8;13) still remained.From the lecture review,we can see that on most occasions EMS presents as an atypical myeloproliferative disease characterized by myeloid hyperplasia, eosinophilia, translocation always involes the band 8p11 and high incidence of T-LBL.The fibroblast growth factor receptor-Ⅰ which locates at 8p11 is broken and fuse the other paterner gene to start the malignant transformation. By now, only allogeneic stem cell transplantation appears to cure. [Li Yulong, Shang Baojun , Zhai Yaping,Chen Xiangli, Shi Jie, Lei Pingchong, Cheng Wei. Myeloid and lymphoid neoplasms with FGFR1 rearrangement—one case report and lecture review. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):300-304] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. [Key words] Myeloproliferative disease; Eosinophilia; 8p11; Lymphoma; Fibroblast growth factor receptor-Ⅰ

43 Effective technological pectinase and cellulase by Saccharomyces cervisiae utilizing food wastes for citric acid production

Magdy Mohamed Afifi1&2* 1Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Assuit 71524, Egypt. 2Department of Applied Medical Science, Faculty of Science and Arts, King Khalid University, Bisha 551, Saudia Arabia. [email protected]

Abstract: The production of a notable and highly effective pectinase and cellulase, by the commercial baker’s yeast Saccharomyces cervisiae utilizing potato processing wastes, was achieved in 5-day solid state fermentation (SSF) cultures, at temperature 25 °C, pH range 4.0-5.0 and additive of ferric chloride. Pectinase and cellulase activities were stimulated by using potato wastes supplemented with urea, as the sole carbon and nitrogen sources, resulted in 70.20 and 98.85 % reduction of viscosity. It is concluded that citric acid production from pectinolytic and celluolytic Saccharomyces cervisiae optimization with Aspergillus niger MAF3, maximally 46.67 and 68.44 g/kilogram solid potato wastes. [Magdy Mohamed Afifi. Effective technological pectinase and cellulase by Saccharomyces cervisiae utilizing food wastes for citric acid production. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):305-313] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: Saccharomyces cervisiae, Potato wastes, Solid state fermentation (SSF), Pectinas and cellulase, Citric acid

44 Field Trial Evaluation of Levofloxacin and Erythropoietin in Treatment of Hemorrhagic Enteritis in Dogs

Wael, M. Kelany Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Vet. Med., Cairo University, Giza, Egypt. [email protected]

Abstract: Enteric fever was a marked problem allover the world in domestic pets and it plays a major role in zoonosis to contact human. The target of our investigation to confirm diagnosis of enteric fever caused by S. paratyphi A using rapid Widal test and isolation and identification of the causative organism. Also the present study was aimed to evaluate clinically and clinicopathologically by a field work-up, the therapeutic value of levofloxacin and human erythropoietin. The present study was carried out on fourteen dogs (9 diseased dogs and 5 apparently healthy dogs). Clinical manifestations were severe watery bloody diarrhea (n.=3), acute diarrhea with occult blood in fecal examination (n.=4), high fever (n.=7), prolonged capillary times (n.=7), enophthalmos (n.=7), loss of skin turgor (n.=7), increased respiratory and pulse rates (n.=7). Clinical examination was revealed abdominal distension (n.=3), hepatomegally (n.=2), abdominal tenderness (n.=7), tympanic sound (n.=7) and increased peristaltic movements (n.=7). Clinical remission of signs occurred after treatment with levofloxacin within 14 days. Widal agglutination test was displayed the titer of 7 positive cases ranged from 1:80-1:320 and 2 negative cases (1:40). Isolation and identification was revealed S. paratyphi A (100%) and S. paratyphi B (22.2%). Significant decreases of PCV %, hemoglobin concentration, erythrocytes and leucocytes count was recorded which was became significant increases after treatment within 8 weeks. Significant increase of ALT activities was denoted hepatic involvement during the infection. Erythropoeitin exerted an excellent therapeutic effect within 4- 8 weeks on basis of erythrogram investigations. It was concluded that combination of levofloxacin and human erythropoietin was the first record for treatment of hemorrhagic enteritis caused by S. paratyphi A in companion dogs in Egypt. (n.= number) [Wael, M. Kelany. Field Trial Evaluation of Levofloxacin and Erythropoietin in Treatment of Hemorrhagic Enteritis in Dogs. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):314-322] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: Dogs, S. paratyhi A, Widal, hemorrhagic, enteritis, levofloxacin, Erythropoeitin

45 Agricultural Labor among School Children in Rural Assiut, Egypt

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Safaa A. M. Kotb*, Asmaa G. Mohamed * Ekram M. Abdel Khalek**, Doaa A. Yones*** * Community Health Nursing, Assiut Faculty of Nursing. ** Public Health & Community Medicine, and *** Parasitology, Assiut Faculty of Medicine, Egypt. [email protected]

Abstract: Background: Child labor is alarmingly prevalent in Egypt, a country with a population of nearly 75 millions; there are some 1.5 million (12%) child workers between 6 and 15 years. Agricultural work posses several characteristics that are risky for health: exposure to extremes of weather, close contact with animals and plants, extensive use of chemical and biological products, difficult working postures and lengthy hours and use of hazardous agricultural tools and machinery. Aim of the study: Determine the causes of agricultural child labor in Koom Abousheel village, Assiut, Egypt and highlight some of its related health problems. Methods: Descriptive cross sectional study included 630 randomly selected students enrolled in primary and preparatory schools aged from 6 to 17 years old in Koom Abousheel village 2008-2009. Data collection from the target population using structured personal interview. Anthropometric measures: weight, height and body mass index were measured. Laboratory investigations including urine and stool examination were done to detect parasitic infections in these children. Urine samples were collected, centrifuged and examined microscopically. Stool examination was done macroscopically and stored in two different fixative (10% formalin and sodium acetate-acetic acid-formalin), concentrated and examined microscopically by: direct wet mount using saline, iodine and lacto-phenol cotton blue and stained by modified Kinyoun acid-fast stain. Data analyzed using SPSS version 16. Results: 52.7% of the studied students worked in agricultural duties and 73.2% of them began work at early age (less than 10 years). Boys were more often involved in labor activities than girls. About half of the worked students helped their fathers in their work. Worked students reported negative impact on their education and social life. Health hazards at the farm such as exposure to high temperature, animal bite, and injuries were prevalent among them. Parasitic infections were more prevalent in worked students (69.3 %). The detected parasites were Ascaris lumbricoides, Ancylostoma doudenale, Hymenolepis nana, Enterobius vermicularis, Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium parvum, Blastocystis hominis and Entamoeba coli. Conclusion: The problem of child labor is serious. In rural areas especially, children work as cheap labor because their parents are poor and do not earn enough to support the family, thus the problem of child labor will persist and it exposes the children to many health hazards and risks. Improving legislation and enforcement measures to establish a legal minimum age for work, community education and mobilization are essential and have been the traditional response to the problem of child labor. [Safaa A. M. Kotb, Asmaa G. Mohamed Ekram M. Abdel Khalek, Doaa A. Yones Agricultural Labor among School Children in Rural Assiut, Egypt. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):323-339] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Child labor – agricultural work– occupational health problems - school students

46 The role of rural women in agricultural activities

1 Mohammad Abedi, 2 Ali Badragheh 1, 2 Department of Environment, Damavand Branch, Islamic Azad University, Damavand, Iran *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Women form great part of total workforce that needed for agriculture part at universe, as one of the intangible factors at agriculture economy. So, statistics that was represented in relation to extent of women’s activity is very lower than real extent. Because in this statistics, mostly, seasonal jobs, part time job, no wage job and their housekeeping activities, aren’t considered. rural women , have different roles and duties such as husband , mother , crops producer , participate at ranching activities , planting ,maintaining , harvesting , processing , marketing and preparing food . Rural women maybe venturing to culture cash products, while cultivating subsistence products and if they have no farm land, they have to work for others instead receiving wage. We can consider such women as agriculture propagator, production expert and even in some case as policy maker. Other than activity at agriculture field, women’s participation at rural development is critical and is considered in order to supply adequate and needed food. [Mohammad Abedi and Ali Badragheh. The role of rural women in agricultural activities. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):340-344] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: Rural women, Agriculture

47 Importance of indigenous knowledge in rural areas

1 Mohammad Abedi, 2 Ali Badragheh 1, 2 Department of Environment, Damavand Branch, Islamic Azad University, Damavand, Iran *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Indigenous knowledge of each nation has enabled them to supply their needs from natural sources without reducing these sources. So, indigenous knowledge collection of world is valuable source of practices and time-tested tool that would be useful for sustainable development of all societies. At third world countries, unconsidered triumph of world development policies has led to various social, economic, cultural and environmental issues (Agrawal, 2002). Imbalance population growth, non-sustainable efficiency of natural sources and unequal distribution of resources, goods and services made involved societies in confusing issues and impasses. In these countries , inappropriate sampling of abroad countries and inordinate imports (e.g. heterogeneous and non-indigenous technology ) devastated independent collection of micro local systems , and instead has established heterogeneous and dependent system to global economy system , that obviously couldn’t supply people’s needs. Since , this development process is formed without considering social , cultural and environmental consequents so isn’t continuing and human have to find strategies which can make development sustainable and humane(Popzan, 2002) . [Mohammad Abedi and Ali Badragheh. importance of indigenous knowledge in rural areas. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):345-350] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: indigenous knowledge, rural

48 Micro-credit for rural women in Iran

1 Ali Badragheh, 2 Mohammad Abedi 1, 2 Department of Environment, Damavand Branch, Islamic Azad University, Damavand, Iran *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Nowadays micro-credits and supplying micro financial resources, has changed human’s life and cause to revive different societies at poorest and richest

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countries of world, so that we can see growth in human’s power to access to common financial services. By accessing to wide range of financial tools, families according to their priorities, invest on cases such as costs of education, healthcare, healthy and good nutrition or housing. Applicants for Microfinance resources mostly involved family supervisor women, pensioners, homeless people, frugal workers, small farmers and micro entrepreneurs. These people are divided into four groups: Poor, very poor, relatively poor and vulnerable poor. Whenever repayment afford , bond terms and accessing to data , in this classification will change , in order to supply sustainable financial needs of various clients , procedures and operation structures will be develop .Generally, in most countries, micro finance sources are considered for poor women. By women’s access possibility to finance services, they committed to loan and ensure its repayment and preserve their saving accounts and also enjoy insurance cover. Supplying programs for micro financial resources have strong message for families and societies. Most of qualitative and quantitative studies and researches have proven that accessing to financial services; will improve women’s conditions in family and society. Women’s confidence has increased and they are aware of their abilities. [Ali Badragheh and Mohammad Abedi. Micro-credit for rural women in Iran. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):351-356] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: Micro-credit, rural women, IRAN

49 Effect of Reflexology on Pain and Quality of Life in a Patient with Rheumatoid Arthritis

1Nadia Mohamed Taha and 2Zeinab Hussain Ali 1Medical Surgical Nursing, Faculty of Nursing, University of Zagazig, Zagazig, Egypt 2Adult Health Nursing, Faculty of Nursing, of Helwan, Helwan, Egypt [email protected]

Abstract: Patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) face considerable physical, social and emotional disabilities. In this chronic disease, for which a cure is not yet available, improving patients’ health, quality of life and reduce pain is of the utmost concern. The purpose of this work was to measure the effect reflexology has on pain and quality of life (QOL) in a patient with rheumatoid arthritis. Using an 8-week course of reflexology treatments were given to a patient who has RA. A quasi experimental research design was used with 2- month follow-up. The study was conducted in the outpatient clinic of the RA Departments at Zagazig University Hospitals. On 39 female adult patients diagnosed as having RA without deformity of bones or destruction of joints. The exclusion criterion was the presence of any other chronic illness that may affect patient's QOL as diabetes, ischemic heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and stroke. Perceived pain and QOL were assessed using three validated outcome measures: Bio-socio-demographic and disease (RA) characteristics, the Rheumatoid Arthritis Quality of Life (RAQOL) questionnaire, the Pain Assessment Questionnaire (Numerical Rating Scale) and Health assessment questionnaire (HAQ). The study results revealed that, improvements in patients' QOL, pain and health status at the post-intervention phase and at the follow-up phase. Satisfaction QOL scores had moderate statistically significant negative correlations with the duration of illness throughout the study phases, while the scores of the importance of QOL had weak to moderate statistically significant negative correlations with age and duration of illness. On the other hand, the poor health status scores had moderate statistically significant positive correlations with age and duration of illness throughout the study phases, while pain had no correlation with either of them. The study concludes that hands and feet reflexology applied to rheumatoid arthritis patients is effective in reducing their pain, improving their QOL and their total health status, and these positive impacts are not affected by patient’s age and duration of illness. Therefore, reflexology must be considered as a complementary treatment modality in rheumatoid arthritis. It should be introduced to nursing and medical students, and in postgraduate staff development programs. Further research is recommended for the long-term effects of this treatment modality in terms of pain and disablement. Research may also extend to assess the effectiveness of as a useful modality in geriatric care and for patients with other chronic conditions. [Nadia Mohamed Taha and Zeinab Hussain Ali. Effect of Reflexology on Pain and Quality of Life in a Patient with Rheumatoid Arthritis. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):357-365] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Reflexology; Rheumatoid arthritis; Quality of life; Pain; Health assessment questionnaire

50. Effect of Regular Aerobic Exercises on Behavioral, Cognitive and Psychological Response in Patients with Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder

Gehan M. Ahmed*1 and Samiha Mohamed2 1Department of Neuromuscular Disorder and its Surgery, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt 2Department of Health Rehabilitation Sciences, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia *[email protected]

Abstract: Background and purpose: Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a common behavioral disorder started in childhood and is characterized by one or a combination of three behaviors, named hyperactivity, inattentiveness and impulsiveness. The aim of this study was to find out the value of aerobic exercises on improvement symptoms of ADHD. Patients, Materials and Methods: This study included 84 students diagnosed as having ADHD. Their age ranged from eleven to sixteen years. The students were randomly divided into two equal groups. The exercise group received ten weeks aerobic exercises program included upper limb, lower limb, trunk and neck exercises as well as running three sessions per week( In the first four weeks the session lasted for about 40 minutes and in the last six weeks the session extended to be 50 minutes). Behavior Rating scale was used to assess the students behavior before starting and after the end of ten weeks of the exercise program. Results: Results of the exercise group revealed a significant improvement in three of the five items involved in the scale(attention, motor skills and academic and classroom behavior) with p < 0.05 while there was no improvement in the control group (p> 0.05). Conclusion: It could be concluded that regular aerobic exercises program has a positive effect in improving symptoms of ADHD. [Gehan M. Ahmed and Samiha Mohamed. Effect of Regular Aerobic Exercises on Behavioral, Cognitive and Psychological Response in Patients with Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder, Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):366-371] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Key words: Aerobic exercise-Cognition-Behavior-Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.

51 Effect of Low Level Laser Therapy on Bone Histomorphometry in Rats

Sahar M. Adel *1, Khaled E. Ayad2, Afaf A. Shaheen 1 1Department of Basic Science, Faculty of Physical Therapy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt 2Department of Musculoskeletal Disorders, Faculty of Physical Therapy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt [email protected]

Life Science Journal, 2011;8(2) Contents http://www.lifesciencesite.com

Abstract: The aim of this study was to assess the histological effect of Low Level Laser Therapy (LLLT) (904 nm) on the repair of standardized bone defects on the femur of rats. Sixty male wistar rats were assigned into two equal groups. Group (A: laser group) and group (B: control group). A surgical fracture was done in middle third of femur of all rats. In group (A) a continuous wave 904 nm infrared laser was applied at dose 4 j/cm2 at fracture site immediately post operative for 7 sessions, each session was 5 minutes. The animals were killed by over dose of general anesthesia on the 15th,30th and 45th days after surgery, The specimens were processed and stained with Hematoxylin-eosin (H/E ), special stain Masion trichrome and analyzed by light microscopy. The descriptive analysis of histological imaging showed greater degree of new bone formation, osteoblastic surface and collagen fiber in the irradiated group when compared with the control group. Based on the obtained results, this study concluded that LLLT was efficient in promoting bone healing, and increasing new bone formation in the process of surgically fractured femur in animal study .

[Sahar M. Adel, Khaled E. Ayad and Afaf A. Shaheen. Effect of Low Level Laser Therapy on Bone Histomorphometry in Rats. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):372- 378] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Key words: Wistar rats, Low Level Laser Therapy, Bone histomorphometry, Bone repair.

52 Study of the Derivatives of Benzimidazole and Applications For Organic Thin Film Transistor

An-Chi Yeh Department of Chemical and Material Engineering, Chengshiu University No. 840, Chengcing Rd., Niaosong Dist., Kaohsiung City 83347, Taiwan R.O.C.

Abstract: This article reviews the development of the derivatives of benzimidazole and applications for organic thin film transistor. With special molecular structure that causes the gathering of holes by electric field can increase the carriers’ mobility up to practical application stage. [An-Chi Yeh. Study of the Derivatives of Benzimidazole and Applications For Organic Thin Film Transistor. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):379-391] (ISSN:1097-8135).http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: organic thin film transistor; benzimidazole

53. Effect of Regular Aerobic Exercises on Behavioral, Cognitive and Psychological Response in Patients with Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder

Abstract: ackground and purpose: Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a common behavioral disorder started in childhood and is characterized by one or a combination of three behaviors, named hyperactivity, inattentiveness and impulsiveness. The aim of this study was to find out the value of aerobic exercises on symptoms of ADHD. Patients. Materials and Methods: This study included 84 students diagnosed as having ADHD. Their age ranged from eleven to sixteen years. The students were randomly divided into two equal groups. The exercise group received ten weeks aerobic exercises program included upper limb, lower limb, trunk and neck exercises as well as running three sessions per week( In the first four weeks the session lasted for about 40 minutes and in the last six weeks the session extended to be 50 minutes). Behavior Rating scale was used to assess the students behavior before starting and after the end of ten weeks of the exercise program. Results: Results of the exercise group revealed a significant improvement in three of the five items involved in the scale (attention, motor skills and academic and classroom behavior) with p < 0.05 while there was no improvement in the the control group (p> 0.05). Conclusion: It could be concluded that regular aerobic exercises program has a positive effect in improving symptoms of ADHD. [Gehan M. Ahmed and Samiha Mohamed. Effect of Regular Aerobic Exercises on Behavioral, Cognitive and Psychological Response in Patients with Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder, Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):392-397] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Key words: Aerobic exercise-Cognition-Behavior-Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.

54 Molecular Diagnosis of Schistosoma mansoni infection in human serum and feces by using Polymerase Chain Reaction

Samir H. Haggag and Saleh M. Abdullah*

M edicinal Chemistry Department, National Research Center, Cairo, Egypt. Medicinal Chemistry Department, National Research Center, Cairo, Egypt. * Medical Laboratory Department, College of Health Sciences, Jazan University, Saudi Arabia. * Medical Laboratory Department, College of Health Sciences, Jazan University, Saudi Arabia. [email protected] Abstract: A Fast, sensitive and specific detection of cercariae of human schistosomes is required for better definition of risk of infection. So, a novel method for the detection of Schistosoma mansoni in human samples that is based on the amplification of a highly repeated DNA sequence has been developed. By use of simple DNA extraction techniques and a rapid 2-step polymerase chain reaction (PCR), it was possible to amplify S. mansoni DNA in human fecal and serum samples. The high sensitivity of the approach enabled the detection of the parasite DNA in fecal samples containing as few as 3 eggs per gram of feces, which makes it 10 times more sensitive than the Kato-Katz examination. A detection limit of 1 fg of Schistosoma sp. DNA was determined when pure DNA was used as PCR template. The amplification reaction showed to be specific giving no cross-reaction with DNA from other helminths. The PCR assay developed in this study may constitute a valuable alternative for the diagnosis of the Schistosoma sp. infection. [Samir H. Haggag and Saleh M. Abdullah. Molecular diagnosis of Schistosoma mansoni infection in human serum and feces by using Polymerase Chain Reaction. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):398-404] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Key words: Schistosoma mansoni, molecular Diagnosis, DNA, PCR, serum, feces

55 Effect of Erythropoietin on Experimental Unilateral Testicular Torsion Detorsion in Rat Model

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Gehane M. Hamed*1, Ramadan M. Ahmed 1, Maher M. Emara2, and Manar H. Mahmoud 3 1Physiology Dept., 2Histology Dept., 3Biochemistry Dept. Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt. *[email protected]

Abstract: Testicular torsion is a common syndrome that could lead to infertility. In this study, we investigated the protective effect of erythropoietin on experimental unilateral testicular torsion detorsion in a rat model. Fourty male albino rats were divided into three groups: Group I (10): Sham operated rats, Group II (15) untreated torsion detorsion (T/D); torsion of the right testis by rotating the testis 720O (2 times around the longitudinal axis of the spermatic cord) in a clockwise direction for 2 hours, and after 2 hours, the right testis was detorted by rotating the testis 2 times (720o) in an anticlockwise fashion and then fixed in the right position for 30 days, Group III (15): treated torsion detorsion (T/D): the same surgical procedure was done as in group II, in addition EPO at a dose of 1000 IU/Kg was injected i.p, 3 times per week for 12 doses. After the end of the study, ECG was performed, abdominal aorta was exposed and blood samples were collected in plain tube and then centrifuged to obtain serum, to determine serum Testosterone, both testes were removed, weighed, then divided into 2 halves, one half for histopathological examination and the other half for determination of testicular malonyldialdehyde, testicular glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and testicular catalase levels. The results of the present study showed significant increase in Q wave voltage and ST segment slope in untreated T/D compared to sham operated rats. Biochemical parameters showed significant decrease in serum testosterone in untreated T/D rats compared to treated rats and to sham operated rats. In addition significant increase in right and left testicular MDA level and significant decreases in right and left testicular GPx and catalase levels compared to sham operated rats, these parameters were greatly ameliorated in treated T/D rats. These biochemical changes were further confirmed by histopathological examinations showing severe destruction of semineferous tubules of the right testes, left testes affection were also observed but to a lesser degree in untreated T/D. EPO treatment greatly ameliorated the damage of ipsilateral and contralateral testes of T/D model. In conclusion, the protective effect of erythropoietin on testicular torsion could serve as a promising intervention to oxidative stress associated infertility problems, such as testicular torsion. [Gehane M. Hamed, Ramadan M. Ahmed, Maher M. Emara, and Manar H. Mahmoud. Effect of Erythropoietin on Experimental Unilateral Testicular Torsion Detorsion in Rat Model. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):405-412] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Erythropoietin; Unilateral Testicular; Torsion; Detorsion; Rat

56 Laser versus Nerve and Tendon Gliding Exercise in Treating Carpal Tunnel Syndrome

Azza Mohamed Attya*1 and Waleed Talat Mansour2 D epartment of Basic Science, Faculty of Physical Therapy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt 1Department of Basic Science, Faculty of Physical Therapy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt 2Department of Physical Therapy for Neuromuscular Disorders and its Surgery, Faculty of Physical Therapy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt. *[email protected]

Abstract: Background: carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is a highly prevalent entrapment neuropathy with a major impact on hand functions. The purpose of this study was to compare the clinical effect of low level laser (LLLT) with nerve and tendon gliding exercise as a conservative treatment for carpal tunnel syndrome. Methods: Thirty female patients with mild to moderate carpal tunnel syndrome; ranged in age from 30-45 years, participated in this study. Patients were randomly divided into two groups of equal number; patients in group (A) received low level laser, while those in group (B) received nerve and tendon gliding exercises. Treatment was conducted three times / week for two successive months for both groups. Outcomes were assessed at the baseline and at the end of the two months using visual analogue Scale, grip strength measurement and nerve conduction studies. Results: Both groups showed a statistically significant reduction in pain, improvement of the grip strength and nerve conduction in favor to the group (A), that showed significant differences in all measured variables compared with group (B). Conclusion: LLLT has to be more effective treatment option than nerve and tendon gliding exercises for treatment of mild to moderate CTS. Further studies are recommended to investigate the combined effects of both interventions for treating CTS. [Azza Mohamed Attya and Waleed Talat Mansour. Laser versus Nerve and Tendon Gliding Exercise in Treating Carpal Tunnel Syndrome. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):413-420] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Key Words: carpal tunnel syndrome – low level laser –nerve gliding exercises –tendon gliding exercises

57 Andragogy implications and differences with children education

1 Mohammad Abedi, 2 Ali Badragheh

1, 2 Department of Agricultural Economic, Islamic Azad University, Marvdasht Branch, Marvdasht, Iran

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Teaching adults can be very challenging, but also very rewarding. Most teachers would agree that the benefits derived from a successful adult education program in agriculture far outweigh the costs. In addition to the direct benefits to adult participants, the teacher, the school, the community, and the secondary program also benefit from a quality adult education program in agriculture. Adults in agriculture use a number of sources to gain new information that can be used to help them solve problems. Persons employed in agriculture utilize newspapers, magazines, newsletters, radio, television, government publications, internet, and meetings to gather information which can be directly utilized in their business activities. In many communities, the agriculture teacher is the primary source of agricultural information. [Mohammad Abedi and Ali Badragheh. Andragogy implications and differences with children education. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):421-425] (ISSN:1097- 8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: Andragogy , education, adult education

58 Application of distance learning in adult education

1Ali Badragheh, 2Mohammad Abedi 1, 2 Department of Agricultural Economic, Islamic Azad University, Marvdasht Branch, Marvdasht, Iran *Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract: There are two types of programs offered by distance education schools: synchronous learning programs and asynchronous learning programs. With synchronous learning, distance education students must log on to the school’s website at a set time. Often, they interact with their peers and professors via group chats, web seminars, video conferencing, and phone call-ins. With asynchronous learning, distance education students complete all coursework on their own time. They often learn via assignment sheets, message boards, email, pre-recorded video lectures, mp3s, and traditional mail correspondence. Many students find that distance education

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courses give them the freedom to complete a degree while meeting their personal and professional obligations. Motivated learners are often able to complete distance education degrees in a fraction of the time often required. Distance education courses also allow students to network with participants from all over the nation. On the downside, distance education courses do not offer the face-to-face interaction found in traditional classrooms. Some students find that they struggle to stay motivated and meet deadlines due to the independent nature of distance education courses. [Ali Badragheh and Mohammad Abedi. Application of distance learning in adult education. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):426-432] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: distance learning, adult education

59 Assessing Principles of Adult Learning in agricultural education

Azita Zamani 1 and Nahideh Erfanirad2 1, 2 Mahabad Branch, Islamic Azad University, Mahabad, Iran *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Good assessment is a collaborative process involving the assessor, learners and others, where appropriate. Your assessment process should be transparent and allow for ongoing feedback from and to the learners. Remember these adult learners want to improve their skills in managing money and are not necessarily interested in formal recognition or being ranked against their peers in the group. Where possible, presenters should emphasize from the start that no-one is going to ‘fail’ the program. Even where students are seeking formal certification of their achievement, presenters can advise that there is no competition between the learners in the group or between an individual and the topic material – it’s all achievable and everyone can make it work for them. Your program should employ methodologies so that your trainers establish a friendly, open atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them learn rather than present as ‘experts’ imparting knowledge. No-one engages well with a trainer/teacher who is just ‘showing off’ what they know. Financial services have a plethora of jargon and complicated ideas that can put many lay people off. Exposing this sort of terminology and explaining it in simple terms – or deciding whether some of it needs exposure at all – is paramount to keeping your learner’s trust and interest. [Azita Zamani and Nahideh Erfanirad. Assessing Principles of Adult Learning in agricultural education. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):433-439] (ISSN:1097- 8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: adult learning, education

60 Cluster Analysis and Dendrogram Mapping of 51 Silkworm Varieties based on Phenotypic Data

Morteza Salehi Nezhad 1, Alireza Seidavi 2*, Seyed Ziaeddin Mirhosseini 3, Moeinoddin Mavvajpour 4 1. Young Researchers Club, Islamic Azad University, Rasht Branch, Rasht, 413353516, Iran 2. Department of Animal Science Islamic Azad University, Rasht Branch, Rasht, 413353516, Iran 3. Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Guilan University, Rasht, 4185743999, Iran 4. Iran Silkworm Research Center (ISRC), Rasht, 4185743999, Iran *[email protected]

Abstract: In different breeding programs, knowledge of inbreeding and genotype similarities and differences of various varieties is necessary. In many breeding projects, hybridization planning and in different crosses, there is a need to exist varieties with far and close genetic characteristics to each other. Based on this, it is necessary to identify the similarities between various breed. This experiment aiming to sort Japanese varieties group of Iran silkworm gene bank and to investigate genetic relationships between them based on individual economic characteristics was designed and planned. Data of the mentioned traits had been recorded based on performance tests. In order to group lines based on several important economic traits, Cluster analysis with UPGMA method performed on the studied genotypes using Ntsys-pc software. For each of concerned economic traits, the matrix analogous indicates Japanese varieties distance to each other had been determined and according this phylogenic diagram of this varieties that expressing near or far different varieties of Iran Japanese silkworm based on individual economic traits was drawn. According to the results from this research, the studied varieties can locate in different groups, accurately, and express their distance to each other. [Morteza Salehi Nezhad, Alireza Seidavi, Seyed Ziaeddin Mirhosseini, Moeinoddin Mavvajpour. Cluster Analysis and Dendrogram Mapping of 51 Silkworm Varieties based on Phenotypic Data. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):440-452] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Silkworm; dendrogram; reproduction; performance; larvae

61 Preliminary Study in diagnosis and early prediction of Preeclampsia by Using FTIR Spectroscopy Technique

Gehan A. Raouf1*, Abdel-Rahman L. Al-Malki2, Nesma Mansouri3, Rogaia M. Mahmoudi4 1Medical Biophysics Lab., King Fahd Medical Research Centre; Biochemistry Dep., Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, 21551 Jeddah –KSA B.O.Box:42805 2,4Biochemistry Dept., Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah –KSA 3 Obstet. Gyneo. Dept., Faculty of Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah–KSA *[email protected]

Abstract: Background: Preeclampsia is a heterogeneous condition, potentially involving several separate pathophysiological pathways; currently no clinical screening test is useful for prediction of preeclampsia development. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) holds great promise for clinical chemistry measurements. Methods: FT-IR spectra of serum samples from pregnant women -14 patients and 31 normotensive were obtained. Absorbance ratios, second derivative spectra, ANOVA test and personal correlation statistical analysis were tacking in comparison studies. The parameters studied were proteins and lipids. Results: Different absorbance ratios for specific bands were calculated and plotted versus the patient samples. These ratios yielded statistically significant increase/decrease among the groups under investigation. The results showed that among the normotensive control group three subjects later developed preeclampsia. The results obtained from the IR-measured (amide A/amide B) ratio of serum confirmed, with 92.9 % confidence level, the effectiveness of this technique for the diagnosis of preeclampsia. Normotensive pregnant women who developed preeclampsia were considered as subjects at high risk. Conclusion: This study suggests, for the first time that FT-IR spectroscopy can be successfully used as an accurate and rapid test, for diagnosis and early prediction of preeclampsia, starting from 20 week of gestation. [Gehan A. Raouf, Abdel-Rahman L. Al-Malki, Nesma Mansouri, Rogaia M. Mahmoudi. T. Preliminary Study in diagnosis and early prediction of Preeclampsia by

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Using FTIR Spectroscopy Technique. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):453-464] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Key words: Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR); Oxidative Stress; Dyslipidemia; Preeclampsia; Serum Abbreviations: Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)

62 Effects of Ten Dietary Management Programs on Performance of Silkworm Hybrids

Mohammad Molaei 1, Moeinoddin Mavvajpour 2, Afsane Merat 2, Alireza Seidavi 3* 1. Department of Animal Science, Kaleybar Branch, Islamic Azad University, Kaleybar, 4185743999, Iran 2. Iran Silkworm Research Center (ISRC), Rasht, 4185743999, Iran 3. Department of Animal Science, Rasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Rasht, 413353516, Iran *Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Abstract: The purpose of this experiment was to investigation on different delay times in starting of feeding in different instars, and their effects on the performance and uniformity of silkworm larvae. Silkworm egg production stages, egg washing, disinfecting, maintenance of silkworm eggs, microscopic tests in order to removing of contaminated samples against pebrin pathogen, first to fifth larval instars rearing, cocoon production framework and cocoon recording was conducted based on standard guidelines. Ten dietary management programs were used as ten treatments. Performance records analyzed using generalized linear models procedure. All the measured indices was compared between different treatments based completely randomized design model. From obtained results, it has showed that among studied methods, the highest level of best cocoon number belonged to 5th treatment (80.75), and 3rd treatment (44.70) remained at lower level than other methods (P>0.05). The highest level of best cocoon weight belonged to 5th treatment (80.75 gr), and 3rd treatment (44.70 gr) remained at lower level than other methods (P>0.05). The highest level of larva weight (5th day of 5th instar) belonged to 3rd treatment (3.48 days), and 9th treatment (3.24 days) remained at lower level than other methods (P<0.05). Among studied methods, the highest level of female cocoon weight belonged to 1st treatment (2.13 gr), and 2nd treatment (1.90 gr) remained at lower level than other methods (P<0.05). The highest female cocoon shell weight belonged to 1st treatment (0.42 gr), and 2nd treatment (0.36 gr) remained at lower level than other methods (P<0.05). Among studied methods, the highest level of female cocoon shell percentage belonged to 9th treatment (24.18%), and 2nd treatment (18.94%) remained at lower level than other methods (P>0.05). The highest level of male cocoon weight belonged to 6th treatment (1.69 gr), and 2nd treatment (1.56 gr) remained at lower level than other methods (P<0.05). [Mohammad Molaei, Moeinoddin Mavvajpour, Afsane Merat, Alireza Seidavi. Effects of Ten Dietary Management Programs on Performance of Silkworm Hybrids. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):465-475] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Silkworm; instar; feeding; schedule, performance; hybrid

63 Effect of Knowledge, Attitude and Constraints on Postharvest losses among plantain farmers and wholesalers in south-western Nigeria

1Ladapo M.A and 2Oladele O.I. Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development University of Ibadan, Nigeria Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, South Africa. E-mail: [email protected],

Abstract: Postharvest losses have been a constraining factor in plantain production such that increase in yield brought about by advances in technologies through research did not make any significant impact on the economy of small scale farmers. The study examined the influence knowledge, attitude and constraints on postharvest losses among farmers and wholesalers in south-western Nigeria. A combination of multistage random sampling and Snowball techniques were used to select farmers and wholesalers respectively. Primary data was collected through pre-tested structured questionnaire and analysed using frequency counts, percentages and t- test. The result shows a significant relationship between knowledge and constraints to postharvest activities and postharvest losses among farmers and wholesalers. Similarly, significant differences were recorded in the attitude (t = 4.04, p < 0.05) and knowledge (t = 2.23, p < 0.05) and postharvest losses (t = 3.98, p < 0.05) among the respondents, while no significant differences was observed in the constraints they faced with (t = 1.26, p < 0.05). The result shows that there is need for an improved knowledge on the postharvest activities, an improvement in the constraints faced by them to reduce the post harvest losses incurred. [Ladapo M.A and Oladele O.I. Effect of Knowledge, Attitude and Constraints on Postharvest losses among plantain farmers and wholesalers in south-western Nigeria. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):476-482] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: postharvest activities, postharvest losses, attitude, knowledge and constraints

64 Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):483-490] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. 8

65 Incidence of Nosocomial Infection with Nasal Continuous Positive Air Way Pressure Versus Mechanical Ventilation During Treatment of Respiratory Distress in Preterm Neonates

Amira Ahmed*, Hisham Waheed+, Wagdi M. Hanna+, Tarek S. Ibrahim+, Alaa Ali+, Ilham Ezzet++ Departments of +Child Health, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt. * Neonatology, ++ Microbiology Al Galaa Teaching, Hospital hishamwb@ yahoo.com

Abstract: Objective: to determine the incidence of nosocomial infections in preterm infants with respiratory distress, if treatment with continuous positive air way pressure (CPAP) compared to treatment with mechanical ventilation (MV). Patients and Methods: Sixty premature neonates admitted to the intensive care unit in Al Galaa Teaching Hospital, in their first day of life suffering from respiratory distress, the infants were divided into two groups, 1st group include 30 patients supported by CPAP and the 2nd group include 30 patients who were supported by mechanical ventilation. Blood cultures and early endotracheal cultures were taken in the 1st day of life from the sixty neonates in both groups then another late endotracheal culture was taken from them in the 5th day of life. Results: 36.67% of patients in the MV group had +ve blood culture and 63.33% had no growth, while in the CPAP group 16.67% had +ve blood culture and 83.33% showed no growth. Early endotracheal cultures showed +ve growth in 63.33% in the MV groups a 23.33% in the CPAP group. (P=0.002), on the other hand late endotracheal cultures showed +ve growth in 36.67% in the MV group and 16.67% in the CPAP group. Klebsiella was the most frequent organism in all +ve cultures. Conclusion: The incidence of positive infection in blood cultures and endotracheal cultures is higher in the MV group than in the CPAP group. The incidence of klebsiella among the whole population in the two studied groups

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was higher in MV group more than in the CPAP group in all the cultures. Within the cases having positive cultures, MV patients needed longer duration on ventilation than patients on CPAP (whether the cultures were taken from the blood or endotracheal). [Amira Ahmed, Hisham Waheed, Wagdi M. Hanna, Tarek S. Ibrahim, Alaa Ali, Ilham Ezzet. Incidence of Nosocomial Infection with Nasal Continuous Positive Air Way Pressure Versus Mechanical Ventilation During Treatment of Respiratory Distress in Preterm Neonates. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):491-497] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Premature infant, Respiratory distress, cultures, mechanical ventilation, continuous positive air

66 Perceived Impact of Education on Poverty Reduction in Rural Areas of Iran

Abrisham Aref School of Humanities and Social Science, Science and Research Branch Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. [email protected]

Abstract: Education and learning are widely recognized as essential to processes of development and poverty reduction. In many developing countries, issues of educational access, equity, and quality have been identified as prerequisites to the achievement of development goals. The objective of this study is, through reviewing the available evidences and analyses in the role of education in rural poverty reduction, to identify weaknesses pertinent to basic education achieving poverty reduction and to come out with some conclusions that can be taken into consideration in planning successful basic education for poverty reduction. The findings through focus group groups indicated that there are some rural structural barriers in educational system on rural poverty reduction. [Abrisham Aref, Perceived Impact of Education on Poverty Reduction in Rural Areas of Iran, Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):498-501] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Education, poverty reduction, rural development

67 Socio-economic constraints to sunflower production in Bojanala farming community of the North-West province, South Africa

Lekunze J, Antwi, M.A and Oladele O.I. Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, North –West University Mafikeng Campus. South Africa [email protected]

Abstract: This paper examined the socio-economic constraints to sunflower production in Bojanala farming community of the North-West province, South Africa. Simple Random sampling was carried out to select 150 farmers from a list of 257 farmers. Primary data based on 2006/2007 and 2007/2008 growing seasons were obtain by use of the questionnaires. Data were collected on socio-economic, output levels, inputs costs measured in rand; and key role players and analyze with SPPS using percentages and double log function of the linear multiple regression. Results of the analysis show that, very few young people below 30 years of age are engage in sunflower production in the Bojanala Region. On gender, 69.5% of all the sunflower producers were male, 51% of the farmers had household size of 4 to 6 children, while 59.8% were married, and 58.5% were with less than three dependants. Farmers with educational levels from standard 8 to 10 constitute 34.10%. Also, 59.7% had 1.1-1.5 tons as output per hectare. Sunflower farmers who had access to the extension services constitute 70.7%. Significant determinant of the socio-economic constraints include number of plantings per year, storage costs, price, income, access to market and farm size. [Lekunze J, Antwi, M.A and Oladele O.I. Socio-economic constraints to sunflower production in Bojanala farming community of the North-West province, South Africa. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):502-506] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: socio-economic characteristics, sunflower, South Africa, output, extension contact

68 Adult Learning and the related requirements

1 Mohammad Abedi, 2 Ali Badragheh 1, 2 Department of Agricultural Economic, Islamic Azad University, Marvdasht Branch, Marvdasht, Iran *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Adults learn most effectively when they have an inner motivation to develop a new skill or gain new knowledge. They resist learning material if it is forced on them, or if the only reason given is that the material will, in some vague way, be "good for them to know." Adults need to know why they are being asked to learn something; and they definitely will want to know what the benefits will be before they begin learning. This means the best motivators for adult learners are explicit interest and self benefit. If they can be shown that the program will benefit them pragmatically and practically, they will learn better, and the benefits will be much longer lasting. Typical motivations include a desire for better handling of personal money matters, say in retirement, wanting a new or first job, promotion, job enrichment, a need to reinforce old skills in say, handling credit or learn new ones, a need to adapt to community changes such as on-line banking and so on. Remember the tone of the program should be motivating. Your program should employ methodologies so that your trainers establish a friendly, open atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them learn rather than present as ‘experts’ imparting knowledge. [Mohammad Abedi and Ali Badragheh,. Adult Learning and the related requirements. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):507-513] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: adult education, Adult Learning

69 Assessing of Ways to Strengthen Adult Education

1Ali Badragheh, 2Mohammad Abedi 1, 2 Department of Agricultural Economic, Islamic Azad University, Marvdasht Branch, Marvdasht, Iran *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Adult learners have a different approach to learning. By the time you reach adulthood, you’re most likely responsible for your own success and you’re perfectly capable of making your own decisions once you have the information you need. Adults learn best when learning is focused on them, not the teacher. This is

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called andragogy, the process of helping adults learn. Types of content and educational resources in various parts of adult curriculum materials motivational book, course materials, supplementary materials, track materials (continued) participatory form and materials. Incentives aimed at providing content that audiences are produced primarily to attract different groups of adults interested in design, so that their participation in learning programs are encouraged. Motivational training materials for learners and have great importance even in support of successful applications over learners, planners and executors for educational programs is important. [Ali Badragheh, Mohammad Abedi. Assessing of Ways to Strengthen Adult Education. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):514-519] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Adult Education; learn; course

70 Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus - Post surgical Infections in Egyptian Hospital

Sherein I. Abd El-Moez 1*, Sohad M. Dorgham1, Eman Abd El-Aziz1 1 Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National Research Center, Giza, Egypt* [email protected]

Abstract: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a type of bacteria that is resistant to certain antibiotics including methicillin, oxacillin, penicillin and amoxicillin.Our study investigated the reason of Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection in an Egyptian hospital in which multiple drug resistant S. aureus was isolated from pus, sputum and blood of infected cases. Our objective was to detect the mec-A gene using PCR analysis to confirm that the multiple drug resistant S. aureus is MRSA as well to find the drug of choice to be used for competing such infections and to find a safe method for competing MRSA using probiotics. The antibacterial effect of probiotic strains isolated from different animals was tested against MRSA isolates. The results obtained from molecular analysis identified the mec-A gene in six out of seven tested samples with a great success. Moreover, the results revealed that cefobid as well as claforan are the drugs of choice for competing MRSA. B.subtilus followed by L. acidophilus isolated from colostrum of mare showed great capability of hindrance of MRSA, then L. palantarum, Bifidobacterium and finally L.acidophilus isolated from goat colostrums, L. acidophilus isolated from buffalo-cow milk on the contrary showed no activity against MRSA. Our study identified mec-A gene from MRSA strains was confirmed to be the main cause of MRSA outbreak in infected hospital patients subjected to stressful conditions due to severe skin infections. [Sherein I. Abd El-Moez, Sohad M. Dorgham, Eman Abd El-Aziz. Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus - Post surgical Infections in Egyptian Hospital. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):520-526] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: MRSA, PCR, mec-A gene, Antibiotic sensitivity, Human; Probiotic

71 Factors Influencing the Adoption of Nanocides in Controlling the Fire Blight among Apple Producers in Iran

Seyed Jamal Hosseini 1, Parnaz Alimoradian 2, Aida MirAlmasi2, Vida Pezeshki2 1. Department of Agriculture Extension and Education, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran 2. Department of Agriculture Development, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran [email protected]

Abstract: Apple producers in the Province of East Azarbaijan were surveyed in order to explore their perception about factors influencing the adoption of nanocides in controlling Fire Blight among apple producers in Iran. As the factor analysis showed, the factors were categorized into four groups, namely marketing, social, regulatory and economic, ordered by the magnitude of their impact. [Seyed Jamal Hosseini, Parnaz Alimoradian, Aida Miralmasi, Vida Pezeshki. Factors Influencing the Adoption of Nanocides in Controlling the Fire Blight among Apple Producers in Iran. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):527-530] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Apple producers, Nanotechnology, East Azarbaijan Province, Adoption, Nanocide, Fire Blight

72 Blood Ras-Association Domain Family 1 A Gene Methylation Status In Some Liver Diseases

Naglaa Ibrahim Azab*1, Heba Mohamed Abd El Kariem1, Tawheed Mowafi2, Hanan F. Fouad3, Awad M. El Abd1

1 Medical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Benha University - Egypt. 2 General Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Benha University - Egypt. 3 Medical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University - Egypt. [email protected]

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common human malignancies and its impact on mortality is significant and well documented. Biomarkers have been developed for early HCC detection, with serum α-fetoprotein (S.AFP) being the most widely used clinically, but with relatively low diagnostic sensitivity. Therefore new biomarkers are needed for early HCC detection to improve overall-survival rates. METHODS: Blood RASSF1A promoter methylation was evaluated using methylation specific PCR in patients with chronic liver diseases together with its potential use as a biomarker for detecting HCC in comparison to or in association with S.AFP. RESULTS: Blood RASSF1A promoter methylation was detected in 70% of HCC patients on top of hepatitis C virus- associated liver cirrhosis, 28.5% of hepatitis C virus-associated liver patients and 16.6% of bilharzial liver fibrosis patients. However none of the healthy control subjects showed blood RASSF1A promoter methylation. The sensitivity, specificity, PPV and NPP of blood RASSF1A promoter methylation for HCC diagnosis were 70%, 83.3%, 73.7% and 80.6% respectively. On the other hand the sensitivity, specificity, PPV and NPP of S.AFP with a cut off value of 33.6 for HCC diagnosis were 85%, 80%, 88.9% and 90.7% respectively. Moreover it was found that the combined use of RASSF1A promoter methylation status and S.AFP is better than S.AFP use alone in HCC prediction. CONCLUSION: RASSF1A promoter methylation plays an important role in the process of human hepatocarcinogenesis and is related to hepatic inflammation due to bilharziasis and viral hepatitis. Moreover it can be considered as an important biomarker for the diagnosis of HCC when combined with S.AFP. [Naglaa Ibrahim Azab, Heba Mohamed Abd El Kariem, Tawheed Mowafi, Hanan F. Fouad, Awad M. El Abd. Blood Ras-Association Domain Family 1 A Gene Methylation Status In some Liver Diseases. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):531-539(ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Key words: RASSF1A promoter methylation, AFP, HCC, Bilharziasis, Liver cirrhosis, blood.

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73 Different aspects of adult learning principles

1 Mohammad Abedi, 2 Ali Badragheh 1, 2 Department of Agricultural Extension and Education, Varamin Branch, Islamic Azad University, Varamin, Iran *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Learners must retain what the program delivers to them in order to benefit from the learning. In order for participants to retain the information taught, they must see a meaning or purpose for that information. They must also understand and be able to interpret and apply the information in their own real life contexts. Understanding includes their ability to assign the correct degree of importance to the material and its application in the future. The amount of retention is always directly affected by the degree of original learning. In other words if the learners did not learn the material well initially, they will not retain it well either. Retention by the participants is directly affected by their amount of practice during the learning. After the students demonstrate they can apply new financial skills, they should be urged to practice in their own time and for their own personal needs to retain and maintain the desired performance. [Mohammad Abedi, Ali Badragheh. Different aspects of adult learning principles. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):540-546] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: adult education, adult learning

74 Strengthen Adult Education: Methods and Procedures

1 Ali Badragheh, 2 Mohammad Abedi 1, 2 Department of Agricultural Extension and Education, Varamin Branch, Islamic Azad University, Varamin, Iran *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Learning activities such as activities outside the classroom, dialogue, role playing and ... Another type of content is presented. duties are placed on the learner, a resource for developing knowledge, skills and insights he considered. Curriculum content only from the training provided to learners or not, but put together their learning through activities that can inform or does, skills and attitude to achieve. In this case, apart from learning that the assays taught learners directly to sustainable and effective learning occurs in his. another way of providing content that is educational activities outside the learning environment possible for learning more and better enables adult learners. For example, hits, field trip experiences for learners or transfer is provided, develop knowledge, insight and skills they will. to ensure that science curriculum and educational aspects, according to community needs and audiences, application form is provided or not, the content selection criteria should be considered. These criteria is being include knowledge, effectiveness, flexibility, diversity, relevance and practical learning [Ali Badragheh, Mohammad Abedi. Strengthen Adult Education: Methods and Procedures. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):547-552] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Adult Education; learn

75 Lens Protein Changes Associated With Cigarette Smoking

Eman M.Aly * and Eman S. Elabrak Biophysics and Laser Science Unit, Research Institute of Ophthalmology, Giza, Egypt. *[email protected]

Abstract: Purpose: Smoking is an independent risk factor that has dose-response effect. The goal of the present work is to study the biophysical and biological effects of smoking on the crystalline lens of the rabbits. Materials and methods: Twenty New Zealand albino rabbits used in this study were classified into five groups in which group I (n=4) served as control. The other groups were exposed to different durations of cigarette smoke (five cigarettes per day). Animals were decapitated after 2, 4, 6 and 8 weeks and soluble lens proteins were separated and the following measurements were carried out: estimation of total soluble protein, refractive index measurement, sodium dodocyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and determination of sodium, calcium and potassium concentrations. Results: The results showed that, exposure of the animals to cigarette smoke resulted in decrease of the protein concentration and potassium content that was accompanied by an increase in the refractive index of the soluble lens proteins and an increase in sodium and calcium content. In addition, there were changes in the molecular structure of soluble lens proteins demonstrated by SDS-PAGE. Conclusion: smoking causes morphological and functional changes to the lens that may lead to cataract. [Eman M.Aly and Eman S. Elabrak. Lens Protein Changes Associated With Cigarette Smoking. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):553-558] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Key words: Ultrasound, Rabbits, Lens, Refractive index, Proteins, SDS

76 Key Factors in E- Banking: Concepts & Applications

Mohammad Taleghani Department of Management, Islamic Azad University, Rasht Branch, Iran. [email protected]

ABSTRACT - With the phenomenal growth of B2C e-commerce, most industries including banking and financial services sector have been influenced, in one way or another. Several studies suggest that customers have not adopted B2C e-commerce in the same degree primarily because of risk concerns and trust- related issues. This paper extends an area of information systems research into a marketing of financial services context by look in into the element of trust and risk in e- banking. A conceptual model of trust in e banking is proposed with two main antecedents that influence customer's trust: perceived security and perceived privacy. Trust is being defined as a function of degree of risk involved in the e- banking transaction, and the outcome of trust is proposed to be reduced perceived risk, leading to positive intentions towards adoption of e- banking. [Mohammad Taleghani. Key Factors in E- Banking: Concepts & Applications. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):559-564] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

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Keywords: Electronic Banking, Trust, perceived risk, satisfaction, Quality.

77 The role of indigenous knowledge toward improving agriculture

1 Mohammad Abedi, 2 Ali Badragheh 1, 2 Department of Agricultural Extension and Education, Varamin Branch, Islamic Azad University, Varamin, Iran *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Experience shows that indigenous knowledge not only has no contradiction with formal knowledge but different indigenous knowledge features, put it as well complementary for formal knowledge. Indigenous knowledge is accessible, useful and cheap. Its perspective is holistic and its transmission is verbal. Knowledge is dynamic and time-tested, and while it has grown within local natural and social environment, so it is very sustainable with indigenous condition. Indigenous knowledge refers to both component and whole part of culture of each nation and this component and whole integration is so that stop to change traditional society of life without indigenous knowledge out of its cultural origin and therefore would lose it concept and effectiveness. [Mohammad Abedi, Ali Badragheh. The role of indigenous knowledge toward improving agriculture. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):565-568] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: agriculture, indigenous knowledge

78 Aerobic Degradation of Synthetic-Based Drilling Mud Base Fluids by Gulf of Guinea Sediments under Natural Environmental Conditions

Okoro Chuma. Conlette. Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Caleb University Imota, Lagos, Nigeria [email protected]

Abstract: Synthetic-based fluids (SBF), which are composed mostly of linear alpha Olephins, Esters and Paraffins are used in drilling mud to lubricate the drill bit, control reservoir pressure and bring rock chips and cuttings to the surfaces which are subsequently released into the marine environment as a residue on the cuttings as they are discharged. Aerobic biodegradation is a major criterion for selecting synthetic –based fluids for drilling mud. In the present study, sediments were collected from four different locations in the Gulf of Guinea measuring from 100-500m depth and were used in indoor basin benthic chamber tests to measure degradation rates of 4 different Ester based synthetic fluids at room temperature over a 120 day test period. At each 30 day interval, residual organic carbons were measured by gas chromatograph while microbial populations were quantified with the most probable plate number method (MPN). At the end of the 120-day monitoring period, the following % degradation rates were recorded for the different ester based fluids used in the study; BR-EST (94%), CH-EST (91%), PFB-009 (94.8%), PFB-008 (93.8%). This result indicate that the Ester based fluids used in the experiment are readily biodegradable and the Gulf of Guinea sediments harbour considerable populations of indigenous hydrocarbon utilizing microorganisms that are capable of degrading the exogenous ester based synthetic fluids. This study addressed the fate of the synthetic ester base fluid portion of the drilling mud in Gulf of Guinea sediments by determining the potential of indigenous marine sediment microbes to degrade representative SBF under natural conditions. [Okoro Chuma. Conlette. Aerobic Degradation of Synthetic-Based Drilling Mud Base Fluids by Gulf of Guinea Sediments under Natural Environmental Conditions. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):569-576] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Synthetic base fluids, Drilling mud, Cuttings, Biodegradable, Hydrocarbon utilizing microorganisms, Gulf of Guinea sediments.

79 Community Participation for Poverty Reduction in Iran

Fatemeh Allahdadi Dept. of Organizational and Industrial Psychology, Marvdasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Marvdasht, Iran [email protected]

Abstract: This study assesses the level of community participation for poverty reduction in rural areas of Iran. Data were collected using focus group discussions. Results indicate that although there is sense of community towards poverty reduction between the rural people; but rural communities still face challenges and constraints which hinder their participation in poverty reduction. [Fatemeh Allahdadi. Community Participation for Poverty Reduction in Iran. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):577-579] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: community participation, rural community, poverty reduction

80 Production, Purification and Characterization of Alkaline and Thermostable Protease by Shewanella putrefaciens-EGKSA21 Isolated from El- Khorma Governorate KSA

Bahobil, A. S.

Biology Dept., Faculty of Science, Taif Univ., Taif, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) [email protected]

Abstract: Proteases catalyzes the hydrolysis of protein. Among the various proteases, bacterial proteases are the most significant when compared with animal and fungal proteases. The aim of the present study was to production of alkaline thermostable bacterial protease for application in biodetergent technology. Screening studies were carried out for twenty one thermophilic bacterial isolates with respect to their ability to produce both protease and lipase when grown on mineral salts medium supplemented with gelatin as only source and carbon and energy at 50°C and pH 9. The most potent thermophilic bacterial isolate for production of two enzymes was identified as Shewanella putrefaciens-EGKSA21. The optimum incubation temperature and pH for maximum alkaline–thermostable protease production were 50°C and 9 under fermentation conditions. Optimum substrate concentrations for protease production were 3 % gelatine. The best carbon sources that induce protease production

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by Shewanella putrefaciens-EGKSA21 was D (+) arabinose and D-xylose. Potassium nitrate, sodium nitrate and ammonium chloride were the optimal nitrogen sources for alkaline–thermostable protease production by Shewanella putrefaciens-EGKSA21. Maximum protease production was observed at the end of 48hrs. The overall steps protocol resulted in raising the purification fold to 411.9 times. Optimum incubation temperature and thermal-stability were 50 and 50-55 ºC for the purified protease. The activities of the purified enzymes increased gradually with the increase of time up to 48 h incubation of the reaction mixture. The activities of the purified enzyme increased gradually by the increase of enzyme concentrations. The effect of different metalic ions on the purified enzyme activities recorded that Sodium azide (50 ppm), Lead acetate (50 ppm) and EDTA (50ppm) exhibited maximal activities while cadmium chloride and magnesium chloride inhibited the purified enzyme activities. The purified enzymes exhibited good stability towards organic solvents. The crude and purified protease of produced by Shewanella putrefaciens-EGKSA21 bacterial strain with a potential to be a candidate for the application in the detergent industry. [Bahobil, A. S. Production, Purification and Characterization of Alkaline and Thermostable Protease by Shewanella putrefaciens-EGKSA21 Isolated from El-Khorma Governorate KSA. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):580-590] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Key words: Thermostable protease, Biodetergent, Shewanella putrefaciens, Submerged fermentation; EL-Khorma Governorate.

81 Employment of rural women

1 Zahra Geraeli Afra, 2 Khatereh siyar 1, 2 Department of Agricultural Economic, Islamic Azad University, Qaemshahr Branch, Iran *C orresponding author: [email protected] *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Women as an effective member of society, can crystalline their lead roles in various responsibilities formations. These responsibilities include promoting the concept of participation and employment in life and building the suitable areas for freely activity and introduce the right of economic management, ownership and.... This requires that all fees and necessary training for women to be considered. Due to the fact that the concept of women's participation, is not necessarily the female employment, although certainly part of the participation of women will be crystallized in their employment, but in this context, home and family affairs by women and their role in nutrition and child growth and Their education are also many responsibilities that women often are responsible for them. Throughout history we have always been seen that women have always been active but in culture and tradition, this mentality largely exists that if the job exists, it would be for men. Because they are responsible for their families Economic or wherever there is a good opportunity for participation, men have a prior right. [Zahra Geraeli Afra, Khatereh siyar. Employment of rural women. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):591-594] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: employment, rural women

82 Challenges of information and communication technology (ICT) in education

1Mohammad Reza Rezaei, 2 Mehdi Nazarpour, 3 Abbas Emami 1, 2,3 Marvdasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Marvdasht, Iran *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Technologies (ICT) during the past two decades have had many points of contact with education and training. The development of technology is placing new demands on expertise, and it is also leading to the increased use of information technology (IT) in instruction and learning. As early as in the 1970s discussions of the future of school systems started to pay attention to the opportunities provided by ICT. Now with the approach of the new millennium, IT is playing an increasingly central role in almost all future planning of schools and instruction. With the help of state and local funding, information technology has been purchased for schools ever since the 1980s. The state has also found many ways to support teacher training in the use of IT, and it has also allocated funds for the production of IT programs. Instruction in the use of IT has also played an important role in teacher training organized by local school authorities. It is against this background that the need arose to find out how far we have progressed in the application of ICT in education and what impacts these significant economic investments have had. It is also time to start a value-oriented discussion of how strongly the future of the Iran society will be linked to the vision of an information society brimming over with technology. [Mohammad Reza Rezaei, Mehdi Nazarpour and Abbas Emami. Challenges of information and communication technology (ICT) in education. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):595-598] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: ICT, education

83 Field study on Cadmium pollution in water and Crustacean gill parasites in cultured Tilapia zilli at Lower Egypt fish farms

A. I. E. Noor El Deen*1, S. I. A. Shalaby2 and M. S. Zaki1 1Hydrobiology Department, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza, Egypt 2Reproduction Department, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza, Egypt *[email protected]

Abstract: The aim of this study is to explain the relationship between Cadmium pollution in water and Crustacean gill parasites in cultured Tilapia zilli at Lower Egypt fish farms. A total of 375 adults Tilapia zilli cultured at Lower Egypt fish farms were studied the effect of water cadmium pollution on clinical examination and the prevalent seasonal crustacean gill parasitic infestations in the period 2009-2010. This investigation revealed the appearance of the parasites during spring, summer and autumn and their disappearance during winter. Clinical signs were pale skin, blood spots with cognation of gills, as well as post mortem lesions and isolation of infested parasites. Ergasilus sp and Lamproglena sp were increased in gills with high concentration of cadmium. The present study was concluded that, there were inversely proportion relationship between cadmium concentration pollution in aquaculture and the prevalence of gill crustacean infestation during spring, summer and autumn seasons while infestation was disappeared during winter season. Also, there was a relationship between cadmium residues in Tilapia zilli gills and its concentration in the water, the obtained results showed that the cadmium concentration in the gills were higher than that in the water.

[A. I. E. Noor El Deen, S. I. A. Shalaby and M. S. Zaki. Field study on Cadmium pollution in water and Crustacean gill parasites in cultured Tilapia zilli at Lower Egypt fish farms. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):599-605] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Tilapia zilli, gills, cadmium, Ergasilus sp., Lamproglena sp., pollution

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84 Benazepril Inhibits the Formation of Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms in Rabbits

Yang Fu1, Jianhua Huang2, Huihuan Tang2, Xiaocheng Li3, Qi Zhang2 1Department of Vascular Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450000, China 2Department of Vascular Surgery, Xiangya Hospital of Central South university, Changsha 410078, China 3Department of General Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital, Liuzhou 545006, China [email protected]

Abstract Background: The purpose of this study was to observe the effect of benazepril on the formation of abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) in rabbits.Methods: Male New Zealand white rabbits were randomly divided into six groups according to the perfusion solution (saline, elastase, and elastase combined with benazepril intervention) and postoperative observation time (two days and seven days). Morphological changes of the abdominal aorta after perfusion and blood pressure changes were observed. The expression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) were measured. Results: Among the three groups at postoperative day two, there was no significant difference in the mean dilation rate of the abdominal aorta (P=0.055). At postoperative day seven, the mean dilation rates were 7.50% (saline perfusion), 120.62% (elastase perfusion), and 39.20% (benazepril intervention). Blood pressure is not significantly correlated with the mean dilation rates of the abdominal aorta (r=-0.137). Benazepril partially reduce degradation of elastic fibers and inhibit inflammatory cell infiltration (P<0.01). In the benazepril intervention groups, the expression of MMP-9 were decreased in each time group compared with that in the elastase groups (P<0.01), and the intranuclear expression of NF-κB p65 was also decreased compared with that in the elastase groups (P<0.01). Conclusion: Benazepril can significantly inhibit AAA formation in rabbit models; the mechanism may be related to inhibition of inflammatory infiltration, multilevel down regulation of degradation of extracellular matrix, and protection of elastic fibers. [Yang Fu, Jianhua Huang, Huihuan Tang, Xiaocheng Li, Qi Zhang. Benazepril Inhibits the Formation of Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms in Rabbits. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):606-612] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Key words: AAA, Inflammation, MMP-9, NF-κB

85 The Observations of Cytokines and Coagulation for Patients after Operation of Peripherally Inserted Central Catheter

Zhang Zhenxiang 1, Liu Ying 2, Wang Yanli 2, Yang Qiaofang 3, Cheng Ruilian 4, Gao Feng 5, Lin Beilei 1 1 Zhengzhou University Nursing School, Zhengzhou, Henan 450052, China 2 Zhengzhou University Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhengzhou, Henan 450052, China 3 Henan Providence People’s Hospital, Zhengzhou, Henan 450052, China 4 Zhengzhou City People’s Hospital, Zhengzhou, Henan 450052, China 3 Henan Providence Medical Science Institue, Zhengzhou, Henan 450052, China

Abstract: Fifty cancer, blood disease and non-cancer patients after operation of peripherally inserted central catheter were observed to analyze TNF-α, IL-6, IL-10, blood coagulation in blood which may correlated with the formation of venous thrombosis. Basically, for TNF-α and IL-6 by radioimmunoassay, IL-10 by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and the blood coagulation by automatic coagulation instrument were measured in plasma. The experimental results revealed that operation of peripherally inserted central catheter may cause inflammatory cytokines in plasma levels of TNF-α increased and levels of IL-6 decrease. It also anticipate the possibility of the formation of venous thrombosis. [Zhang Zhenxiang, Liu Ying, Wang Yanli, Yang Qiaofang, Cheng Ruilian, Gao Feng, Lin Beilei. The Observations of Cytokines and Coagulation for Patients after Operation of Peripherally Inserted Central Catheter. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):613-615] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: PICC; vein; thrombosis; inflamation; factor

86 Effect of Pastoralist-Farmers Conflict on Access to Resources in Savanna Area of Oyo State, Nigeria

1Oladele O.T and 2Oladele O.I. 1Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development University of Ibadan, Nigeria 2Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, North –West University Mafikeng Campus. South Africa [email protected]

Abstract: This paper examines the effect of pastoralist-farmers conflict on access to resources in savanna area of Oyo state, Nigeria. A snow ball technique was used to obtain a list of agro-pastoralists and their camps in the study area whose conflicts with crop farmers were caused by the nomadic pastoralists’ uncontrolled grazing. Fifty percent of the households in each camp were randomly chosen and simple random technique was used to sample male and female household heads. Data was collected through primary source by administering a well-structured interview schedule to the agro-pastoralists. Majority of the agro-pastoralists are married and they are within their active productive age. All male agro-pastoralists made cattle rearing as their primary occupation and their secondary occupations include crop production, goat rearing and sheep rearing, while milk processing and fowl rearing were primary occupation and secondary occupation of female agro-pastoralists respectively. Majority of the agro-pastoralists had no formal education, and not a native of the study area hence adoption of innovation will be difficult. The agro-pastoralists suffered in numerous forms and ways from the conflict ensuing between them and the crop farmers. The aggressiveness of the nomadic pastoralists was the prominent assumed cause of the nomadic pastoralists uncontrolled grazing. The competitive use of various natural resources such as land, water, shelter and air by various rural dwellers is inevitable. [Oladele O.T and 2Oladele O.I. Effect of Pastoralist-Farmers Conflict on Access to Resources in Savanna Area of Oyo State, Nigeria. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):616-621] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Pastoralists, farmers, conflict, pasture, land, water resources, transhumance

87 Learning Alliances in Sawah Rice Technology Development and Dissemination in Nigeria and Ghana

1Oladele O. I and 2Wakatsuki T 1Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, South Africa, [email protected],2Faculty of Agriculture, Kinki University Nara Japan [email protected]

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Abstract: Millions of dollars are spent each year on research and development initiative on rice in order to improve the livelihood of farmers and other stakeholders in the rice value chain, however little has been the impact. Major reasons for this failure include the limited collective learning that occurs between various stakeholders and the neglect of building a multi-stakeholder innovation systems for rice in West Africa. This has made research results less relevant and the impact making farmers worse off. This paper describes how Sawah rice production technology has evolved through learning alliances that involves social learning and innovation systems and brings Japanese institutions, research institutes, Ministry of Agriculture, extension agencies, farmers groups, Millennium Village, marketers, and universities in Nigeria and Ghana together on a platform with clear objectives, shared responsibilities, cost and benefits, output as inputs, differentiated learning mechanisms, long term and trust-based relationships. The process is increasingly leading to increased learning and effectiveness in rural entrepreneurial development and improved livelihoods. The paper gives a description of the scenarios based on experience in the sawah rice technology development and concludes with its application in other parts of West African region. [Oladele O. I and Wakatsuki T. Learning Alliances in Sawah Rice Technology Development and Dissemination in Nigeria and Ghana. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):622-627] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Learning Alliances, Sawah Rice Technology, farmers, Nigeria, Ghana

88 The Role of Urban Services` Spatial Dispersion on creation of Ghetto Quarters in Yazd City and Its associated Social Impact

Mehri Heidari Noshahr 1 Naiier Heidari Noshahr2 Javad Ebrahimi3 1. Ph.D. student, Department of geography and urban planning, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Research branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran 2. B.Sc., Department of Natural geography, Islamic, Marand branch, Islamic Azad University, Marand, Iran 3. M.Sc., Department of geography and urban planning, Payam-e-Noor University of Rezvanshahr, Iran [email protected]

Abstract: This study investigated the causes shaping ghettos in the city of Yazd in terms of the indices of education, health, culture, business, sport, green space and social reflections from it. With regard to the coefficient of functions and urban services in ghettos and nearby, it is inferred that above mentioned factors affect forming ghettos and there is a relationship between ghetto and underdevelopment. Based on linear regression, there is also a significant relationship between ghettos and unfair distribution of services and underdevelopment. In addition, the results from the cluster model suggest that the settling in a neighborhood, besides lack of services and functions, other factors were also considered. The other finding of this study has been about social impact of ghettos. Based on the finding, the relatively low-income unemployed people commit more crimes and there is no significant relationship between immigration and social offenses. [Mehri Heidari Noshahr- Naiier Heidari Noshahr-Javad Ebrahimi. The Role of Urban Services` Spatial Dispersion on creation of Ghetto Quarters in Yazd City and Its associated Social Impact. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):628-633] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Spatial Dispersion, ghetto, urban service, social crimes, the city of Yazd

89 A Scatter Search Algorithm for RCPSP with Discounted Weighted Earliness-Tardiness Costs

Mohammad Khalilzadeh1 FereydoonKianfar2Mohammad Ranjbar3 1 Department of Industrial Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran [email protected] 2 Department of Industrial Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran [email protected] 3Department of Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran [email protected]

Abstract: In this paper, we study a resource-constrained project scheduling problem in which a set of project activities have due dates. If the finish time of each one of these activities is not equal to its due date, an earliness or a tardiness cost exists for each tardy or early period. The objective is to minimize the sum of discounted weighted earliness-tardiness penalty costs of these activities. Scatter Search algorithm is used to deal with this extended form of resource-constrained project scheduling problem. Our implementation of Scatter Search integrates the advanced methods such as dynamic updating of the reference set and the use of frequency-based memory within the diversification generator. Finally, some small and medium size test problems are examined and the computational results are presented. The computational results show the efficiency of the proposed meta heuristic procedure. [Mohammad Khalilzadeh, FereydoonKianfar, Mohammad Ranjbar. A Scatter Search Algorithm for RCPSP with Discounted Weighted Earliness-Tardiness Costs. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):634-640] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Earliness-tardiness, net present value, project scheduling, RCPSP, scatter search.

90 Effect of Flavonoid Quercetin Supplement on the Progress of Liver Cirrhosis in Rats

Gehane M. Hamed1, Nehal Mohammad Bahgat*1, Fayda I. Abdel Mottaleb2 and Maher M. Emara3 1Physiology Dept., 2Biochemistry Dept., 3Histology Dept., Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Egypt *[email protected]

Abstract: Liver cirrhosis is a serious health problem as it represents an irreversible stage of liver damage in both the developed and developing countries. Up till now no successful therapeutic approach has been developed for this disease. The objective of this study was to evaluate therapeutic efficacy of the flavonoid quercetin on liver cirrhosis induced by the hepatotoxin thioacetamide. Thirty male Albino rats weighing 160-200gm were randomly divided into 3 equal groups, Control group (C), Thioacetamide group (TA) treated with thioacetamide (100 mg/kg .i.p.) twice weekly for 6 weeks, Thioacetamide /Quercetin group (TA/Q) treated with thioacetamide (100 mg/kg .i.p.) twice weekly for 6 weeks as well as quercetin (50 mg/kg i.p.) for the last 3 weeks. After 6 weeks, all rats were sacrificed; blood samples were taken for determination of serum ALT, AST, alkaline phosphatase, total bilitubin, and adiponectin levels. Livers were weighed and were used for measurement of liver GPx, catalase, lipid peroxides and histopathological examination. TA rats showed significant increase of absolute and relative liver weights, liver peroxides, serum ALT, AST, ALP, and total bilirubin, while body weight, BMI, Liver antioxidants (GPx, CAT) and serum adiponectin were significantly decreased compared to control ones. TA/Q

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rats exhibited a decrease of liver peroxides, serum ALT, AST, ALP, and total bilirubin, while body weight, liver antioxidants (GPx, CAT) and serum adiponectin levels were significantly increased compared to TA rats. Histopathological examination showed loss of normal liver architecture in TA rats (very thick septa and leukocytic infiltration). On the other hand, TA/Q rat livers had almost normal hepatic architecture. In conclusion. The natural flavonoid quercetin could ameliorate thioacetamide induced - liver cirrhosis and dysfunction in adult rats. [Gehane M. Hamed, Nehal Mohammad Bahgat, Fayda I. Abdel Mottaleb and Maher M. Emara. Effect of Flavonoid Quercetin Supplement on the Progress of Liver Cirrhosis in Rats. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):641-651] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Key words: thioacetamide, liver cirrhosis, quercetin, lipid peroxides, liver antioxidants, serum liver enzymes, serum bilirubin.

91 Silencing a putative cytosolic NADP-malic enzyme gene compromised tomato resistance to Oidium neolycopersici

Dong-Li Pei1, 2, Hong-Zhen Ma1, Yi Zhang3, Yuan-Song Ma2, Wen-Jing Wang2, Hui-Xia Geng2, Jian-Yu Wu1, Cheng-Wei Li1, 2, 3*

1College of Agronomy, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450002, China; 2Department of Life Science, Shangqiu Normal University, Shangqiu, Henan 476000, China; 3Key Laboratory of Plant Genetics and Molecular Breeding, Zhoukou Normal University, Zhoukou, Henan 466001, China. [email protected]

Abstract: Tomato powdery mildew caused by Oidium neolycopersici is a worldwide plant fungal disease distributed in Europe, African, South and North America and Asian, which is responsible for a remarkable reduction in quality and yield of tomato. The most effective way to control this disease is resistant breeding, which depends on the resistant materials and resistance genes. In our previous study, a putative enzyme gene (named ShME1) was found to be up-regulated in the Ol-1 mediated tomato resistance response to Oidium neolycopersici. In this study, in order to know whether this gene is a key gene of the resistance response, we further analyzed the function of the gene using virus induced gene silencing (VIGS) in resistant tomato plants Solanum habrochiates G1.1560 carrying Ol-1 gene. It was shown that the resistant S. habrochiates G1.1560 became susceptible to O. neolycopersici after ShME1 was silenced in it. Microscopic observation demonstrated that O. neolycopersici was able to complete its life cycle on silenced resistant plants, it indicated that ShME1 was required for Ol-1 mediated tomato resistance against O. neolycopersici. It also suggested that ShME1 could be involved in hypersensitive response (HR) and H2O2 accumulation, which was thought to be tightly linked to the establishment of tomato resistance to O. neolycopersici. [Dong-Li Pei, Hong-Zhen Ma, Yi Zhang, Yuan-Song Ma, Wen-Jing Wang, Hui-Xia Geng, Jian-Yu Wu, Cheng-Wei Li. Silencing a putative cytosolic NADP-malic enzyme gene compromised tomato resistance to Oidium neolycopersici. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):652-657] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Key words: Tomato; Oidium neolycopersici; NADP-malic enzyme; VIGS; HR; H2O2

92 The use of a by-product of paper industry in reclamation of berry-cultivated soils

Mohammadi Torkashvand, A.1*, Bizhannia, A.2, Mavajpour, M.2 and Haghighat, N.1 1Rasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Rasht, Iran 2Iran Silkworm Research Center, Rasht, Iran *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected];[email protected], Tel. 0098-131-4247058; Fax: 0098-131-422362.

Abstract: Using conventional lime in amending acidic soils reform is expensive. Therefore, the importance of using cheaper resources is seems more necessary. A variety of materials including industries by-products are used in reclamation of acidic soil. By-products with the character of lime not only increase the pH and improvement of soils have special priority, but also increase the fertility with create consistency with the aggregate building sustainable soil, air conditioning, increases porosity and cation exchange capacity and soil reactivity. In this study, the possibility of using paper sludge lime had been investigated in berry orchard improvement under cultivation of sericulture in a field experiment. The results indicating the potential of paper lime sludge as acidic soil modifiers in the replacement of conventional calcite sources such as calcite which can reduce the disposal costs and possible environmental contamination of this by-product. [Ali Mohammadi Torkashvand, Bizhannia A., Mavajpour M, Haghighat N. The use of a by-product of paper industry in reclamation of berry-cultivated soils. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):658-661] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Acid soil, Liming, Paper mill sludge.

93 Evaluation of IL18 in acute coronary syndrome patients and its relation to diabetes

Ahmed A. Battah, *Abeer Ibrahim and *Hanan Abdel mawgood

Critical Care Department, Kasr El Ainy Hospital, *Biochemistry department, Faculty of pharmacy (girls), Al-Azhar and Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt. [email protected]

Abstract: To assess interlukein 18 in patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS) with and without diabetes and to detect its relation to lipid profile. Patients and Methods: The study included 40 ACS patients (20 patients had type 2 diabetes mellitus) and 15 age and sex matched as a control group. Results: Total cholesterol is significantly higher and HDL-c is significantly lower in diabetic patients with ACS than the other 2 groups. IL18 is significantly higher is diabetic patients with ACS followed by non diabetic patients with ACS than the control group. No significant correlation was found between IL8 and blood glucose level or lipid profile in the 3 groups. Conclusion: IL18 is an inflammatory marker in patients with ACS and diabetes. No relation between IL18 and lipid profile. In addition, IL-18 levels were associated with traditional risk factors such as diabetes mellitus. [Ahmed A. Battah, Abeer Ibrahim and Hanan Abdel mawgood. Evaluation of IL18 in acute coronary syndrome patients and its relation to diabetes. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):662-666] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: IL18; coronary syndrome; diabetes.

94 Beneficial Effects of some beverage consumption and Orlist drug on Diet Induced Obesity in Experimental Rate

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1*Hala, E.M El- Kewawy, 2 Farida, Abdullah Al-Firdous and 1Rasha M Nagib 1Home Economics Dept., Faculty of Specific Education, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt 2Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Home Economic, Collage, Princess Nora Bent abdul – rahman -University, Riyadh, Saud Arabia *[email protected]

Abstract: Forty two normal male albino rats of Sprague Dawley strain, weighing (170 ± 5 g) strain were fed on high fat diet for six week to induce obesity. The obesity rats were randomly classified into six groups (7 rats each) and treated with orlistat, coffee, green tea, cinnamon and mixture of them for six week. The results revealed that, obese rat groups which treated with orlistate , green tea, coffee ,cinnamon and mixture of them showed lowered values of final weight , weight gain , gain percent , FER , leptin , glucose ,cholesterol, total lipids , phospholipids ,triglyceride, LDL-C ,VDL-C and cholesterol/HDL-c but a significant increase in the value of serum HDL-C in comparing with control (+ve). The rat group which treated with orlistat showed non significant difference in the values of serum AST, ALT &ALP but all rat groups treated with green tea, coffee, cinnamon and mixture of them showed a significant decrease in serum AST, ALT &ALP, serum creatinine and urea compared with control (+ve). The rat groups which treated with green tea, coffee, cinnamon and mixture of them showed a significant decrease in the values of serum creatinine and urea but the rat groups which treated with cinnamon and mixture of green tea, coffee and cinnamon showed a significant decrease in the value of serum uric acid compared with control (+ve). [Hala, E.M El- Kewawy, Farida, Abdullah Al-Firdous and Rasha M Nagib. Beneficial Effects of some beverage consumption and Orlist drug on Diet Induced Obesity in Experimental Rate. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):667-675] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Key wards: Obesity – Orlistat – Coffee- Green tea – Cinnamon- Rats

95 Petroleum Systems in the North Western Desert of Egypt

Ahmed Nabil Shahin 1 and Amira Mohamed Al-Awadly 2 1 Prof. Emeritus, Cairo Univ., Egypt, 2 Scholarship at Faculty of Science, Damitta Branch, Mansura Univ., Egypt [email protected]

Abstract: The northern part of the Western Desert, bound from the east by the River Nile, occupies a vast area of intracratonic sub-basins covered by the prospective Paleozoic to Tertiary sediments. Structural, stratigraphic and maturation studies indicate that migration studies guided by buoyancy drive, was initiated in the depocenters from potential Devonian and Jurassic source beds during Early Senonian and trapped in pre-Laramide structures. Pods of active sources were defined based on maturity modeling and mapping isopachs and pyrolysis results. Hydrocarbon charges, losses from catchment areas and recovery factors were normalized statistically. The least preservation risk is considered for hydrocarbons migrated from Cretaceous sources after the Alpine tectonics. Accordingly, the WD can be subdivided into five petroleum systems: Safa-Bahariya (!) system, Safa-Alamein (!) system, Safa-Khataba (!) system, Zaitun-Safa (.) system, and Khataba-Kharita (.) system. The five systems are under explored, being estimated to host 48 Boeb Eurr, about 15 times the proven ultimate recoverable reserves in the whole WD. [Ahmed Nabil Shahin and Amira Mohamed Al-Awadly Petroleum Systems in the North Western Desert of Egypt. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):676-685] (ISSN:1097- 8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keyword: Petroleum System, North Western Desert.

96 Perinatal Exposure to Sodium Fluoride with Emphasis on Territorial Aggression, Sexual Behaviour and Fertility in Male Rats

Mervat M. Kamel1*, Heba S. El-lethey1, Iman B. Shaheed2 1Department of Animal Hygiene and Management, 2Department of Pathology, Faculty of veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt * [email protected]

Abstract : Territorial aggression, sexual behaviour and fertility parameters were evaluated at adulthood of male rats previously exposed to different concentrations of sodium fluoride (Na-F) at their gestation, lactation and post-weaning period till maturation. Sixty weanling male Wistar rats were received Na-F via their dams from second trimester of their pregnancy onward till weaning at 30 days of age at one of three different concentrations; 0, 50 and 100 ppm, 20 pups for each dose. Na-F was then administered in drinking water, at the same doses, to the three experimental groups throughout the course of the study till completing all investigations. Na-F treatment significantly diminished territorial aggressive behaviour parameters in adult male rats as indicated by reduced lateralization, boxing bouts, fighting as well as ventral presenting postures compared with controls. Likewise, a significant decline in sexual behaviour was also noted for Na-F-exposed rats, where latencies to first mount, intromission and ejaculation were significantly prolonged, and notably for the higher incorporated dose. Moreover, a significant decrease was evident for frequencies of mounts, intromissions and ejaculations when Na-F was given to males compared to their untreated counterparts. Higher post-ejaculatory intervals were observed with Na-F group, particularly at high dose. Compared to control group, high Na-F-treated rats displayed a significant inhibited profile of fertility as reflected in reduced number of impregnated females, implantations as well as viable fetuses, along with increased number of resorptions. Relative weights of reproductive organs were also lessened in Na-F-administered males. Histopathological examination showed degenerative changes in testes, seminal vesicles and prostate gland of Na-F- exposed males with varied degree of severity according to incorporated dose. Our study clearly signifies the adverse effect of fluoride to increase aggression, sexual dysfunction with prohibited fertility in adult male rats. [Mervat M. Kamel, Heba S. El-lethey, Iman B. Shaheed. Perinatal Exposure to Sodium Fluoride with Emphasis on Territorial Aggression, Sexual Behaviour and Fertility in Male Rats. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):686-694] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Key word: Sodium Fluoride; Territorial aggression; fertility; Wistar rats

97 Review: Electrical study of pipe – soil – earth system

Dr. Ashraf Abdel Raouf Mohamed Fouad Ahmed [email protected]

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Abstract: The rate of discharge through the stray electrolytic capacitor between the pipe and the remote earth is to be considered as the corrosion current. The electrochemical properties of the soil, which are the soil resistivity of the soil volume, the relative permittivity of the soil layer around the pipe and the chemical properties which could be considered as the pH of the soil film layer around the pipe, are affected directly by the humidity change. When considering the room temperature and by neglecting the effect of CO2 content in the soil, these values of the electrochemical properties of any soil returns back to its initial conditions after soil dryness to its initial condition. This means that corrosion rate will also be changed during the humidity change around the pipe segment. So, when considering the fact that the pipeline will not be changed or replaced and the surrounding medium around it will not be changed or replaced by another kind of soil, then the behavior of the electrical parameters (stray electrolytic capacitance, stray potential, surface created charge) of the pipe-soil-earth system will act as a print of this combination of this pipe and this soil. The average error reduced to be less than ± 5% for the general equations of the electric parameters while the print curves & constants at natural condition with and without applying cathodic protection system in terms of the electrochemical properties around the pipe were deduced. This will help to study both the corrosion problem and cathodic protection for a complete pipeline by an electric concept with an electric analogue circuit which is the aim of this study. This will help, in the future, in the choice of pipeline route, pipeline cathodic protection design and cathodic protection maintenance process for the pipe line along its route, however long it is. One of the most critical problems in CP systems is the effect of a sudden change of the soil humidity around the protected pipe line. The behavior of the protection current demand of the pipe-soil-earth system during the change of the electrochemical properties of the soil could be plotted as protection current print which will be always valid in all times as the pipe-soil-earth system is maintained and without any external interference. In other words, if the system is subjected to humidity change, there will be another new protection current demand with new print for this pipe-soil-earth system to keep the pipe cathodically protected. Of course, as a result of humidity change, the pipe to soil potential will be changed. This paper tries to calculate segmental pipe to soil potential along the pipe line without the need of both the test point and Cu/CuSO4 half cell by a general equation of the pipe to soil potential which is function of both the segmental protection current and the soil factor around the pipe segment during such humidity change. Another critical problem in CP systems is the presence of the earthing network beside the protected pipe line. The behavior of the stray potential between the external surface of the pipe and earth could be plotted as stray potential print which will be always valid in all times as the pipe-soil-earth system is maintained and without any external interference. This paper tries to calculate pipe to soil potential along the pipe line without the need of Cu/CuSO4 half cell by the deduction of a general equation of the pipe to soil potential which is function of an electric quantity and system’s print. In other words, the aim is to deduce a correlation between pipe to soil potential and both of the measured stray potential of the pipe segment and the measured soil factor around it in the presence of an earthing grid. [Ashraf Abdel Raouf Mohamed Fouad Ahmed.eview: Electrical study of: pipe – soil – earth system. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):695-723] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: discharge; electrolytic capacitor; corrosion current; soil; cathodic; earth

98 Prognostic Value Of Expression Of Survivin And Ki67 In Head And Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma Treated By Chemoradiotherapy

Samy M. Al Gizawy*, Hoda H. Essa*, Abeer M. Refaiy**. Gehan M. Elosaily**, and H.E.Ahmed***

Departments of oncology*, Pathology** , and E.N.T***, Faculty of Medicine, Assuit University

Abstract: Aim of the work: to evaluate prognostic value of expression of survivin and ki67 in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma treated by chemoradiotherapy. Patients and Methods: Between Jan. 2005 and Dec. 2009, all patients who were treated with primary chemoradiotherapy with curative intent for squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN) at our department of clinical oncology. All initial pretreatment specimens were examined for expression of survivin and ki67 using immunohistochemical staining. Results: One hundred and fifty four patients were eligible for this study. Survivin expression was low in 107 (69.5%) and high in 47cases (30.5%). According to immunoreactive score (IRS), the staining was negative in 78 (50.7%), weak in 28 (18.2%), moderate in 22 (14.3%) and strong in 26 (16.9%) cases. Nuclear staining of Ki-67 was positive in 72 tumors (46.8%) and negative in 82 tumors (53.2%). The median follow-up was 19.5 months (range: 3 - 55 months). There were 114 local treatment failures (74%) and 86 deaths (55.8%), of which 72deaths (83.7%) were caused by disease. High survivin expression was correlated significantly with higher disease free survival and overall survival. Patients with high survivin expression in their tumors had a median disease free survival of 32 months compared with 16 months for patients with low expression tumors (P = 0.007). The median overall survival of patients with high survivin expression was 36 months versus 24 months for those with low survivin expression, (P = 0.04). The expression of Ki-67 significantly correlated with tumor grade but it was not significantly correlated with either disease free survival, (P = 0.5) or overall survival, (P = 0.7). Conclusion: the present study demonstrated that high survivin expression predicts better local control and superior overall survival in advanced HNSCC treated with radiochemotherapy. Survivin might be used as a stratification marker to define HNSCC patients, who would potentially benefit from radiochemotherapy. .Further investigation is necessary to clarify and understand the roles of survivin in patients with HNSCC. [Samy M. Al Gizawy, Hoda H. Essa, Abeer M. Refaiy, Gehan M. Elosaily, and H.E.Ahmed. Prognostic Value Of Expression Of Survivin And Ki67 In Head And Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma Treated By Chemoradiotherapy. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):724-733] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Prognostic Value Of Expression Of Survivin And Ki67 In Head And Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma Treated By Chemoradiotherapy

99 Methods of Distance Education in Agricultural education

1 Hamid Mohammadi, 2 Azam Ghaffari

1, 2 Marvdasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Marvdasht, Iran *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: According to the information in the development of any society should take half of the world to progress until the necessary coordination and synchronization global developments so as to accept the design structure of a knowledge-based society have a special place for the University and respect the role of education and technology was In designing a model with global standards of dynamism and flexibility at first be necessary to select a sample that the facilities and communications needed for this purpose provide action and then determine optimal cognitive deficiencies than Hammett and weaknesses push. No doubt the experiences of implementing these standards and to develop troubleshooting information using technological tools would be much more economical. That if we develop a range of information from a city university level and conduct more successful we'll be more acceptable was. Because the utilization and application tools and step up the information they've been successful. Therefore the most important first step needed to coordinate and synchronize technology education and educational technology standards and capability in the

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high user acceptability of the world is also enjoyed. [Hamid Mohammadi, Azam Ghaffari. Methods of Distance Education in Agricultural education. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):734-738] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Distance Education, Agricultural Education

100 The Wise, Hero Man and His Characteristics from Nietzsche’s Viewpoint

Muhammad Hossein Mardani Nokandeh 1

1. Faculty of philosophy, Tajik State Pedagogical University, Doshanbeh, Tajikestan. [email protected]

Abstract: Nietzsche has had an enormous influence on the thoughts of intellectuals and artists. He is a philosopher who is different from others. He wrested the hammer of philosophy and smashed to pieces the idols of one millennial value after another. He regarded himself as another Christ in another era, an era longing for tidings of a different kind, tidings of an abundant and powerful life. Nietzsche’s wise and heroic man loves life, possesses ambition and fertility, is abundant with positive energies, and is opposed to all weakness and self-belittlement. He is courageous and adventurous. This short paper focuses on Nietzsche’s wise and heroic man and his characteristics. [Muhammad Hossein Mardani Nokandeh. The Wise, Hero Man and His Characteristics from Nietzsche’s Viewpoint. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):739-745] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Nietzsche; wise man; hero; superma; vitality; passion

101 Feminism and Power in Islamic Republic of Iran

Mehrdokht Ghooparanloo

PhD student, Department of Law and Political Science, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. [email protected]

Abstract: Feminism and women’s movements has been in to concern during the last years in Iran. But there isn’t any comprehensive and coherent understanding about it among Iranian intellectuals’ minds due to its deconstructive aspect of this theory. Since feminism thesis relies on Foucault’s theory of discourse and power relation analysis, this article is trying to represent the reply to this question that how Iranian elites have perceived feminism in Islamic Republic of Iran by applying the concepts of Foucault’s discourse theory such as discourse, power/knowledge and gender. From the view of Foucault’s, in any negotiation the knowledge power will produce its own correlated thus the current negotiation in Islamic Republic of Iran (Islamic, construction, reforms and fundamentalism) have formulated the feminism knowledge in intellectuals’ mind under the shadow of dominant power relation considering the fact which has been produced pertaining to women( gender) in discussed discourses. Consequently, what as feminism in Islamic Republic of Iran has been generated by Iranian intellectuals is strictly affected by the frame of power in this period, so acquires features and characteristics which will distinguish it from its own western model. [Mehrdokht Ghooparanloo. Feminism and Power in Islamic Republic of Iran. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):746-762] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Feminist; Knowledge/Power; Discourse; Gender; Islamic Republic of Iran

102 A multidisciplinary program using World Health Organization observation forms to measure the improvement in hand hygiene compliance in burn unit

Reham A. Khalifa , Maha S. Hamdy 1 , Eman I. Heweidy2 , Riham Magdy3, Mohamed A. Al Rooby4

1 Medical Microbiology and Immunology Department , Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University , 2 Head of Infection Control Team Ain Shams University Hospital , 3 Infection Control Specialist International Military Medical Center, 4 Cosmetic Surgery Department, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo , Egypt. [email protected]

Abstract: Nosocomial infections occur frequently in patients with burn injuries and are a major cause of morbidity and death. Hand hygiene (HH) was found to be a fundamental part of preventing health care–associated infections. Improving HH compliance is a major target for the World Health Organization (WHO) Patient Safety Challenge. Multimodal approaches including educational programs and the introduction of alcohol based hand-rub in healthcare settings proved to be the most effective strategies for promoting HH compliance. Aim of the work was to assess the improvement of hand hygiene compliance of HCWs (doctors, nurses and workers) in burn unit over a period of 12 months through a multi-faceted training program providing knowledge on compliance with HH by using WHO HH observation forms. Materials and methods; A direct observational before–after study to assess the improvement of HH compliance , through a multi-faceted training program, was implemented at the burn unit in a tertiary referral teaching hospital in Cairo. The unit consists of a ward with the capacity of 12 beds, an ICU with the capacity of 5 beds, emergency room with the capacity of 1 bed, and 1 operation theatre. It was carried out during the period from October 2008 till September 2009.The improvement intervention included lectures , on job training , distributing factsheets and reminders and providing HH supplies as alcohol hand rub dispensers. Results; There was a significant increase in average HH compliance percentage from 39.8% during the baseline phase to 61.9% during the improvement phase. This increment was sustained during the control phase (HH compliance percentage 60.6% ). HH compliance percentage among different professional categories showed highest compliance among nurses throughout the three phases of the study. The nurses' category also demonstrated the highest percentage as regards WHO 5 moment of HH orientation and performing right HH technique. Conclusion; The multi-faceted training program, through different approaches, was successful to improve HH compliance among HCWs at the burn unit. Recommendations; Continuous improvement efforts as regular training and persistent evaluation, monitoring and feedback are crucial to maintain and even enhance adherence to appropriate HH practice. [Reham A. Khalifa, Maha S. Hamdy, Eman I. Heweidy, Riham Magdy, Mohamed A. Al Rooby. A multidisciplinary program using World Health Organization observation forms to measure the improvement in hand hygiene compliance in burn unit. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):763-790] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

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Key words: Nosocomial infections; Hand hygiene; World Health Organization (WHO).

103 Comparison of Corneal Thickness with Online Optical Coherence Pachymetry and Ultrasound Pachymeter

Rany E. Mitwally, MD, M. Tarek El-Naggar, MD, FRCS, Mohamed A. Marzouk*, MD.

Research Institute of Ophthalmology – Giza – Egypt. *[email protected]

Abstract: Purpose: To evaluate the accuracy of the intraoperative online optical coherence pachymetry (OCP) during LASIK surgery and assess its value during laser ablation. Setting: International Eye Hospital, Cairo, Egypt Methods: A prospective comparative study of 78 patients (156 eyes) with mild to moderate myopic/myopic astigmatic refractive error who underwent LASIK with Schwind Amaris Excimer Laser system equipped with optical coherence pachymetry (OCP). Preoperative, pre- and post- ablation stromal beds were measured with ultrasound pachymetry and optical coherence pachymetry. Only the Moria M2 microkeratome was used, and the flap thickness and actual ablation depth were calculated. Results: The preoperative measurements taken with the non-contact OCP were significantly lower than that with the contact ultrasound pachymeter, while there was a good correlation between them in the preablation stromal bed and post- ablation stromal bed thicknesses. The calculated ablation depth by both techniques also matched the assumed maximum ablation depth calculated preoperatively with Schwind-CAM software.Conclusion: Intraoperative online optical coherence pachymetry may be considered a useful tool to assess the flap thickness and the residual stromal bed during LASIK surgery. [Rany E. Mitwally, M. Tarek El-Naggar, FRCS, Mohamed A. Marzouk. Comparison of Corneal Thickness with Online Optical Coherence Pachymetry and Ultrasound Pachymeter. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):791-795] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Pachymetry; Optical coherence; LASIK; Online.

104 The deferral of investigation or prosecution in the ICC by request of the Security Council of UN organization

Amir Hussein Rahgoshay1

1 PhD Student, Department of Criminal Law and Criminology, Science and Research branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. [email protected]

Abstract: Pursuant to Article 16 of the ICC , The Security Council of UN may request a deferral of proceedings for a period of twelve months. It allows the Security Council to block a case from reaching the court. The power of the Security Council Makes some concerns to judicial Independence of the ICC, but this power is based on a number of conditions and limitations, both arising from the UN charter and the Statute of the ICC. This power of Security Council originated from the UN Charter that charge and compel the Security Council to maintain international peace and security.

[Amir Hossein Rahgoshay. The deferral of investigation or prosecution in the ICC by request of the Security Council of UN organization) Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):796-804] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: ICC, Security Council, UN Organization, International Peace

105 Effect of Short Term Caloric Restriction on Ischemic Reperfused Hearts in Adult Rats Subjected to Stress

Gehane M. Hamed1, Nehal M. Bahgat*1, Enas A. Azziz1 and Ghada Z.A. Soliman2

1 Physiology Department, Faculty of medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt 2 Biochemistry Department, National Nutrition Institute, Cairo, Egypt *[email protected]

Abstract: Caloric restriction extends life span and decrease tissue susceptibility to stress –induced injury so it was intriguing to investigate a possible cardioprotective effect of short term caloric restriction during stress on ischemic reperfusion injury of the heart. This investigation was conducted on 32 adult albino rats which were assigned to 3 groups; control(C) one (n=10), Stress(S) rats (n= 11) subjected to immobilization stress, and (CR/S) rats (n= 11) comprising rats subjected to 65% caloric restriction and subjected to immobilization stress. The study was conducted for one month, obtained results revealed that CR/S rats exhibited significant decrease in body weight, BMI and significant bradycardia compared to control rats. ST segment showed significant elevation in both S and CR/S rats compared to C rats, Ischemic reperfusion study of CR/S rat hearts revealed better ischemic tolerance compared to S rats as evidenced by the significant elevation of PT/100mg LV at 10 and 20 minutes of reperfusion, significant shortening of TPT at 20,30 minutes of reperfusion and HRT at 10, 20, 30 minutes of reperfusion as well as significant increase of MFR/100 mg LV at 20, 30 minutes of reperfusion. Biochemical analysis revealed significant elevation of tissue nitrate & plasma adiponectin in CR/S compared to S rats. Histopathological examination of the hearts of S rats showed large areas of leucocytic infiltration, marked vacuolation, undergoing apoptosis with small deeply stained nuclei and widely dilated and engorged blood vessels indicating injury of myocardium. On the other hand hearts of CR/S rats revealed apparently normal cardiac muscle fibers with small area of leucocytic infiltration. In conclusion, short term caloric restriction improved tolerance of the heart to global ischemic reperfusion injury in stress-subjected rats. [Gehane M. Hamed, Nehal M. Bahgat, Enas A. Azziz and Ghada Z.A. Soliman. Effect of Short Term Caloric Restriction on Ischemic Reperfused Hearts in Adult Rats Subjected to Stress.Life Science Journa,. 2011; 8(2):805-816] (ISSN: 1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Key words: caloric restriction, ischemic reperfusion injury, cardioprotection ,immobilization stress, tissue

106 Chronic Intestinal Schistosomiasis Could Be Mistaken for Irritable Bowel Syndrome

Wael Safwat*, Amgan Anas, Emad Abdel Raouf, Ayman Abdel Aziz, Mohamed Abou EL Ezz and Mohamed Fathy

Theodor Bilharz Research Institute, Gastroenterology Dept. Cairo, Egypt

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*[email protected]

Abstract: Introduction: Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a common medical disorder, reported to occur in 10-20% of the adult population. However, IBS might be a presentation of another intestinal disease acute or chronic. In a previous study of an endemic area of schistosomiasis, 17% of patients who reported lower gastrointestinal tract symptoms, similar to symptoms of IBS, were found to have schistosomiasis. Objectives: To assess the incidence of chronic intestinal schistosomiasis in cases coming from endemic areas of schistosomiasis with a clinical diagnosis of IBS. Materials and Methods: This prospective study included 90 patients with initial diagnosis of IBS and is coming from endemic areas for schistosomiasis. All patients were planned for a stool analysis, CBC, serum schistosomal antibody and antigen titres, and a colonoscopy and tissue biopsy for shistosomal ova in those with a positive serology testing. Results: The most common presenting symptom was recurrent abdominal pain/discomfort in all patients, diarrhea dominant. Stool analysis was negative for schistosomal ova for the whole studied population. A positive sero- diagnosis of schistosomiasis was made in 24 (26.7%) patients. All patients with positive sero-testing (24 patients) had a colonoscopy; with the commonest finding of a flat or slightly raised whitish/yellowish nodules and recto-sigmoid biopsies for a histopathological diagnosis. Most common finding was chronic active schistosomal colitis 16 (17.8%). Re-assessment of symptoms in patients with a confirmed histopathologic diagnosis of schistosomal colitis after treatment at 3 & 6 month was done. Conclusion: Our study that it shows that patients with IBS living or coming from endemic areas of schistosomiasis have a 17.8% chance of being misdiagnosed as having IBS. What’s new? IBS as common diagnosis which is sometimes quickly applied on certain patients in whom another disease condition is the real underlying cause, as applies for patients coming from endemic areas for schostosomiasis and are diagnosed as having IBS, these should be revised. [Wael Safwat, Amgan Anas, Emad Abdel Raouf, Ayman Abdel Aziz, Mohamed Abou EL Ezz and Mohamed Fathy Chronic Intestinal Schistosomiasis Could It Be Mistaken for Irritable Bowel Syndrome. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):817-820] (ISSN: 1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Chronic liver disease-Colonic disease-colorectal disease-infectious disease-Irritable bowel syndrome.

107 Knowledge and perception towards human trafficking in agrarian communities of Niger Delta, Nigeria

1Olujide, M.G, 2Oladele O.I, 1Akinbobola A.A

1Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. 2Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, Mmabatho, South Africa, [email protected], +27 183892746

Abstract: This paper examines the knowledge and perception towards human trafficking in agrarian communities of Niger Delta, Nigeria. This is predicated on the fact that there is high incidence of human trafficking in Nigeria. A large sample size technique n > 30 was used to select at least 38 rural dwellers from each of the states. Data were collected through questionnaire which was subjected to face validation and has a reliability coefficient of 0.88. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), was used for data analysis with frequency counts, percentages, means, standard deviation and multiple regression analysis. The results indicated that majority of respondents were males (58.78%), married (51.32%), between 30 and 40 years of age (47.39%), Christians (77.2%) had no formal education (55.7%) domiciled in the communities (52.2%) having between 5 and 8 persons as dependants (49.1%) and had inherited land tenure practice (74.6%). Rural dwellers have negative perception about human trafficking but their knowledge on human trafficking is low. Significant determinants were income (t = 2.64), knowledge (t =4.33) perceived risk (t =-2.88) Education level (t =-3.13) and number of dependants (t =1.93). The policy implications are to introduce measures to counter human trafficking and related awareness campaigns should mainly be targeted to those areas where migration rates are high or on the rise. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):821-827] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Rural dwellers, human trafficking, knowledge perception, agrarian communities, Nigeria

108 Potential Health Impact of Black Tea against Na-F-Induced Alterations in Territorial Aggression, Sexual Behaviour and Fertility of Male Rats

Heba S. El-lethey1, Mervat M. Kamel1*and Iman B. Shaheed2

1Department of Animal Hygiene and Management, 2Department of Pathology, Faculty of veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt. * [email protected]

Abstract: I In an extension of previous work on sodium fluoride (Na-F) toxicity, the ameliorative effect of black tea on Na-F-induced behavioural and reproductive toxicity was evaluated in male rats in terms of territorial aggressive behaviour, sex behaviour, along with fertility indices. Oral administration of 100 ppm Na-F and 2% black tea to eighty weanling 32-days old male Wistar rats, randomly allotted into 4 groups of 20, were performed daily for 14-weeks treatment period in a 2 x 2 factorial manner. A marked suppression in all parameters of territorial aggression was seen in adult male Na-F-treated rats. This suppression was significantly alleviated when black tea was concurrently administered. Ingestion of black tea alone significantly improved territorial aggression responses, namely lateralization and boxing bouts. The ingested Na-F also suppress sexual behaviour in adult male rats expressed by a prolongation of first mount, intromission and ejaculation latencies, decrease in numbers of mounts, intromissions and ejaculations along with increased post-ejaculatory intervals. A profound ameliorative effect was noted for all abolished male sex behaviour when black tea solution was supplemented to Na-exposed rats. Black tea exhibited an aphrodisiac tendency when solitary administered to male rats, as reflected in significant shortening of mount and intromission latencies as well as increase in mount and intromission frequencies. This aphrodisiac activity was not associated with influence on ejaculation-related parameters. Furthermore, an obvious impairment in all fertility indices was detected in Na-F-treated males as displayed by reduced numbers of impregnations, implantations and viable fetuses accompanied by increased resorptions. This observed diminution in fertility was significantly mitigated by black tea. Similarly, the lessening effect of Na-F on relative weights of male sex organs was noticeably improved when black tea was given. Our histopathological investigations revealed severe degenerative changes in testes, seminal vesicles and prostate gland. Combined administration of black tea with Na-F resulted in marked amelioration of the pathological alterations. Our study denotes a powerful mitigative effect of black tea in combating behavioural and reproductive toxicity triggered by Na-F as signified by harmed aggressive and sexual behaviour together with abolished fertility in adult male rats. Our findings also evidently point toward the aphrodisiac property of black tea which might be of help in certain forms of sexual dysfunction in male individuals. [Heba S. El-lethey1, Mervat M. Kamel1*and Iman B. Shaheed2 Potential Health Impact of Black Tea against Na-F-Induced Alterations in Territorial Aggression, Sexual Behaviour and Fertility of Male Rats. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):828-839] (ISSN: 1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Key words: Sodium fluoride, black tea, territorial aggression, sex behaviour, fertility, Wistar rats

109 Sustainability of livelihoods through Urban Agriculture: Gender dimensions in Accra, Ghana

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1Adeoti A.I, 2Oladele O.I, 3Cofie O.

1Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Ibdan Nigeria 2Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, South Africa. 3International Water Management Institute PMB CT 112, Cantonments, Accra, Ghana

Abstract: This paper examines the sustainability of livelihoods through Urban Agriculture: Gender dimensions in Accra, Ghana. The population used for the study was the vegetable producers within and around Accra, Ghana. A mix of sampling techniques was followed in choosing UA producers. While a random sampling technique was employed in choosing male UA producers, all female producers who were willing to be interviewed were chosen. In all, 92 male producers and 8 female producers gave consistent responses that were analyzed. The results show that the mean age for male producers is 39.4 years. Female producers are more elderly with a mean age of 49.8 years. The mean year of schooling is 6.4 years for male producers and 7.1years for female producers. While all the households are involved in irrigated farming, only 13% male and 25 % female managed farms practiced irrigated farming alone. The majority of the male and female farmers indicated that high contribution of urban agriculture to their livelihoods. Farm size and access to credit were significant determinants of income from urban agriculture among the respondents. [Adeoti A.I, Oladele O.I, Cofie O. Sustainability of livelihoods through Urban Agriculture: Gender dimensions in Accra, Ghana. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):840-848] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: Urban agriculture, gender, livelihoods, assets, income, resource use

110 Karyological investigation of Persian Gulf cuttle fish (sepia arabica) in the coasts of Khuzestan province

*Ashraf Jazayeri, Forough Papan, Hossein Motamedi, Soghra Mahmoudi ASL

Shahid chamran university of Ahwaz *Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Abstract: Cephalopods are a group of Molluska. Which have extensive geographical extension and variation, in the world’s oceans the most important cephalopods in Persian Gulf and Oman Sea are squids and cuttle fish? Nowadays we have found that cuttle fish has an extensive application in several contexts. But there is not enough information about their biology and the amount of their storage in Iran’s waters. We must considerate reservoirs more than ever. Because of its economic value and the amount cattle fish's hunting. Therefore in this research for the first time in the world, cattle fish of Persian Gulf was investigated Kariologicaly. Investigation results of metaphase plaques resultant from analyzing blood cells of cuttle fish showed that , this species has the chromosomal number of 2n=68 indeed it is found than in chromosomal extension of this species there were not identifiable sexual chromosomes. [Ashraf Jazayeri, Kariologicaly investigation of Persian Gulf cuttle fish (sepia arabica) in the coasts of Khuzestan province. Life Science Journal. 2011; 8(2):949-952] (ISSN: 1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: kariology, cattle fish, Persian Gulf, sepia Arabica

111Effect of Self awareness Education on the Self efficacy and Sociotropy Autonomy Characteristics of Nurses in a Psychiatry Clinic

Hanem A. A. Ahmed¹ and Yosr M. Elmasri*²

1Psychiatric & Mental Health Nursing Department, Faculty of Nursing, Zagazig University, Egypt 2Psychiatric & Mental Health Nursing Department, Faculty of Nursing, Mansoura University, Egypt *[email protected]

Abstract: To be a part of the therapy in the patients' surroundings, nurses need to know about patient's behaviors, needs, feelings, and ways to define these behaviors. However, to obtain information on patient, nurses particularly need to be aware of themselves and understand the effects they have on their surroundings. This study was aimed to investigate the effect of self awareness education on the self efficacy and sociotropy autonomy characteristics of nurses in a psychiatric inpatient clinic at Zagazig University Hospitals. The sample was composed of 19 nurses who on the job. Three tools were used for data collection: nurses characteristics data form, self efficacy scale, and sociotropy autonomy scale. The study result indicated that the psychiatric nurses self efficacy was improved at post educational program, a significant difference was observed between the pre-test and post-test mean scores for the total nurses autonomy and total nurses sociotropy (P<0.05). However the mean score of total Sociotropy autonomy didn't differ significantly at pre and post educational program (P=0.488), and a highly significant correlation was present between total of self efficacy and total of sociotropy autonomy at pre and post educational program (P<0.05). It was concluded that self awareness education program had a positive effect on the development of self efficacy and sociotropy autonomy characteristics of nurses in a psychiatric clinic. It is recommended that, self awareness education should be applied as continuing education for nurses working in psychiatry clinics and further studies should be carried out with bigger and different sample groups, along with control groups. [Hanem A. A. Ahmed and Yosr M. Elmasri. Effect of Self awareness Education on the Self efficacy and Sociotropy Autonomy Characteristics of Nurses in a Psychiatric Clinic. Life Science Journal, 2011; 8(2):953-963] (ISSN: 1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Key words: Nurses, Psychiatry Clinic, Self awareness, Self efficacy, Sociotropy Autonomy.

112 Effect of Some Production Parameters on Net Wrap Used in Agricultural Products Packaging on the End Use Properties

*Ibrahim, G. E. and Dorgham, M. E.

Spinning, Weaving and Knitting Dept, Faculty of Applied Arts, Helwan University, Cairo, Egypt *[email protected]

Abstract: This research is mainly concerned with designing net wrap used for packaging agricultural products. Twenty seven samples were produced using polyethylene yarns. Warp knitted technique was applied to produce all samples under study using different parameters. Different parameters were studied including, inlay tape

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thickness 20,25 and 30 micron, inlay tape width 1,1.25 and 1.5 mm ,pillar blades number 99, 101 and 213,treatment with ultra violet and anti static. Many tests were carried out in order to evaluate the net according to the final product needs such as tensile strength and elongation of net and inlay tape and linear meter tests. Some more results were reached concerning structures and materials. The results showed that there is a direct relationship between tensile strength and number of pillar, the more inlay tape width, the higher tensile strength of the sample become, the more inlay tape thickness per unit area the more tensile strength of the sample become, the more number of pillar yarns the lower elongation the samples become, and the higher pillar yarns per unit area the more linier meter weight the sample become. [Ibrahim, G. E. and Dorgham, M. E. Effect of Some Production Parameters on Net Wrap Used in Agricultural Products Packaging on the End Use Properties. Life Science Journal,. 2011; 8(2):864-875] (ISSN: 1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Key words: Production Parameters, Net Wrap, Agricultural, Products Packaging End Use Properties

113 Effect of Amino Acid L-leucine On the Musculo-Skeletal Changes during Cast-Immobilization in Adult Male Albino Rats. Physiological and Histological study

Bataa, M.A.EL-Kafoury1, Nagwa Kostandy Kalleny2 and Ghada Galal Hamam2

1Physiology & 2Histology Departments, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt [email protected]

Abstract: The relation between muscle atrophy and bone osteoporotic changes due to immobilization are still not completely understood. This study tried to throw more light on this association and to probe the ability of amino acid L-leucine, to limit these changes in a trial to accelerate rehabilitation. Adult male Albino rats weighing 180-210 g were used and classified into three groups, I-control group, II-cast-immobilized group and III-immobilized-L-leucine treated group. Right hind-limb cast immobilization was performed for 15 days in groups II&III, while L-leucine, was given by oral gavage in a dose 0.7g/kg/day concomitant with immobilization in group III. The initial and final body weights were determined. Blood samples were used for determination of serum levels of total calcium, CPK, ADH, TNFα and Cortisol as well as for plasma MDA and glucose level. In the immobilized right hind-limb after removing the cast, the gastrocnemius muscle was identified, dissected, weighed. Then the right gastrocnemius muscle was prepared for light and transmission electron microscopic studies and the right tibia was prepared for both decalcified and un- decalcified light microscopic studies. Cast-immobilized group II showed significantly increased serum calcium, LDH, CPK, cortisol, TNFα and plasma MDA with non- significant change in blood glucose level. Also immobilization resulted in significantly reduced body weight, reduced gastrocnemius body weight ratio and resulted microscopically in both skeletal muscle atrophy in the gastrocnemius muscle and osteoporosis in the tibia cancellous bone compared with control group. Immobilized - Leucine treated group-III exhibited significantly reduced LDH, CPK, MDA and glucose levels but the levels of calcium was non-significantly altered compared to immobilized non treated group. Although serum cortisol and TNFα levels in leucine treated group were reduced non-significantly compared to immobilized non treated group, microscopically Leucine administration to cast-immobilized rats of group III markedly prevented skeletal muscle atrophy and partially prevented cancellous bone osteoporosis. It is concluded that increased MDA, Cortisol, TNFα with immobilization may explain in part the associated changes in muscle and bone. Leucine prevented these changes which could be attributed to its direct anabolic effect or its ability to reduce oxidative stress and /or its ability to counteract the effect of Cortisol and TNFα rather than reducing their levels. Overall, these data suggesting that leucine intake may represent a nutritional strategy for limiting muscle and bone protein loss as a consequence of immobilization. [Bataa, M.A.EL-Kafoury, Nagwa Kostandy Kalleny and Ghada Galal Hamam. Effect of Amino Acid L-leucine On the Musculo-Skeletal Changes during Cast-Immobilization in Adult Male Albino Rats. Physiological and Histological study. Life Science Journal,. 2011; 8(2):876-892] (ISSN: 1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Key words: leucine, immobilization, osteoporosis, muscle atrophy and TNFα

114 The Role of Educational Systems in International Crises: A Reappraisal of Middle East Countries

Dr. Mohammad Soltanifar Department of Communication Sciences, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. Email: [email protected]

Abstract: The worldwide crises and incidents in the two recent decades have made many researchers in different fields of human knowledge describe, analyze and give out solutions for them. Comparative Education as a "science" has been no exception and its latest developments indicate the point that comparativists have conceived a new mission for themselves. The very political nature of these international crises which mainly have educational foundations has caused daily- increasing interest towards the discipline. Today, politicians in particular and many people in general are so eager to know what kind of belief or educational system can give rise to certain political behavior. This political behaviour reveals itself in a way that is unjustifiable as far as rational criteria are concerned. Suicide bombings, attacks on public centres, firing bullets at children and the youth who have just a piece of stone in their hands and blind aimless bombings have made people totally confused. This bewilderment is a global affair and not limited to the developed countries. So the question which is now raised is to ask, firstly, why the youth incline to join into fundamentalist organizations, and secondly, what roles the educational systems play in creation and development of international crises. The response to these two questions can be a new mission of the researchers in the field of comparative education. Awareness and emphasis on the importance of this mission can be found in papers published in famous journals of the disciplin, but there is an obvious lack of a tangible and theoretical analysis. This paper is an attempt to give a theoretical framework to answer the two raised questions in a particular geographical area, namely, the Middle East. [Dr. Mohammad Soltanifar. The Role of Educational Systems in International Crises: A Reappraisal of Middle East Countries. Life Science Journal,. 2011; 8(2):893-897] (ISSN: 1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: International Crises, Educational Systems, Middle East

115 Status of rural people in Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)

1 Azam Ghaffari, 2 Abbas Emami 1, 2 Marvdasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Marvdasht, Iran *Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract: PRA consists of a series of participatory exercises which help community members better assess their history, resources, and overall situation as concerns agriculture, health, marketing, credit, coping mechanisms, education, and other important areas. During the conduct of the PRAs, rural communities in the selected

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villages will gather information on the resources they already possess; organize their knowledge; share experience among themselves; learn from each other; identify and prioritize local development needs; and develop action plans which respond to these needs. The aim of PRA is to help strengthen the capacity of villagers to plan, make decisions, and to take action towards improving their own situation. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is considered one of the popular and effective approaches to gather information in rural areas. This approach was developed in early 1990s with considerable shift in paradigm from top-down to bottom-up approach, and from blueprint to the learning process. In fact, it is a shift from extractive survey questionnaires to experience sharing by local people. Much of the spread of participatory rural appraisal (PRA) as an emerging family of approaches and methods has been lateral, South-South, through experiential learning and changes in behavior, with different local applications. [ Azam Ghaffari, Abbas Emami. Status of rural people in Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA).Life Science Journal,. 2011; 8(2):898-901] (ISSN: 1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: participation, rural people, Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)

116 The role of micro-credit in improving financial situation of rural women

1 Mohammad Reza Rezaei, 2 Hamid Mohammadi 1, 2 Marvdasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Marvdasht, Iran *Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract: Rural women are considered as a noticeable potential in the community either directly (crops production, livestock, handicrafts, cottage industries) or indirectly by helping the agricultural sector (as labor). About 5.6 million women are involved in agricultural production, and activities related to planting... harvesting, preparation of animal food, and taking care of livestock and poultry and some certain activities related to trading and marketing are all different fields of rural women’s role and participation. Based on current statistics, women in rural area participate about 50% in conversion industries, 22% in producing crops and livestock, 75% in handicrafts and in areas related to planting…harvesting , respectively, 25, 24 and 4.26. And also in activities related to livestock, they handle 23% of livestock grazing, 42% of animal care and 100 percent of total poultry in the village. Therefore their role in achieving food security is undeniable. But, like most developing countries, this crucial role in society and in process of rural development, is not obvious. In Iranian rural community, about 80% of women work, but they are mostly considered as housewives, unpaid employment, domestic workers, family workers, or independent employers. The statistics often do not take into account seasonal, part-time, unpaid employment, and housekeeping activities. In economics and social sciences, those of women’s activities that have emerged out of house and affected national economy, are the ones to be noticed. In most research and statistics men are known as the heads of household and they are also the owners of lands and fields. That only 1% of the rural lands are belonging to women does confirm such matter. [ Mohammad Reza Rezaei, Hamid Mohammadi. The role of micro-credit in improving financial situation of rural women.Life Science Journal,. 2011; 8(2):902- 906] (ISSN: 1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: empowerment, rural women, micro-credi

117 Impact of Social Networks on Functions of Political Parties in Iran Following the 10th Presidential Election

Dr. Mohammad Soltanifar Department of Communication Sciences, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. Email: [email protected]

Abstract: The 10th presidential election in Iran was not the sole election to be influenced by the cyberspace, but it was among prominent political developments in the country whose new frameworks and functions were defined by the public opinion formed in the cyberspace. The presence research studies impact of social networks (as one of the most important components of cyberspace) on functions of political parties in Iran following the tenth presidential polls. This article, which is the result of a namesake study, focuses on the impact of social networks on authorized political parties in Iran following the tenth presidential elections in 2009 and tries to answer this answer: Have social networks been influencing functions of authorized political parties in Iran after the tenth presidential election? It also tries to answer the following questions: Are social networks able to start or guide special social movements? Can such networks take advantage of ongoing movements? Are social networks able to impress the elite and cause big social movements? [Dr. Mohammad Soltanifar. Impact of Social Networks on Functions of Political Parties in Iran Following the 10th Presidential Election .Life Science Journal. 2011; 8(2):907-918] (ISSN: 1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Keywords: social networks, socio-political movements, the tenth presidential election, authorized political parties of Iran

The manuscripts in this issue were presented as online first for peer-review, starting from January 1, 2011. All comments are welcome: [email protected]

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Prognostic Value Of Expression Of Survivin And Ki67 In Head And Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma Treated By Chemoradiotherapy

Samy M. Al Gizawy*, Hoda H. Essa*, Abeer M. Refaiy**. Gehan M. Elosaily**, and H.E.Ahmed***

Departments of oncology*, Pathology** , and E.N.T***, Faculty of Medicine, Assuit University

Keywords: Prognostic Value Of Expression Of Survivin And Ki67 In Head And Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma Treated By Chemoradiotherapy

1. Introduction proliferation markers in head and neck squamous cell Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma cancer with mixed results ,[6-9]. (HNSCC) is the fifth most common cancer in men.[1] Survivin is one of the most cancer-specific Over 70% of head and neck cancer patients present biomarkers identified to date. It belongs to the with advanced stage III and IV disease. Concomitant apoptosis inhibitor gene family. It inhibits apoptosis chemoradiation (CCRT) leads to improved local either by directly or indirectly interfering with control (LC) and overall survival (OS) in advanced caspase-3 and caspase-7 function and caspase-9 head and neck cancer compared with conventional processing [10]. Furthermore, survivin enhances cell radiotherapy,[1-4] making this modality the most proliferation and promotes angiogenesis. Survivin is suitable curative treatment option in these patients expressed during embryonic and fetal development currently. However, CCRT is not effective in all but is undetectable in terminally differentiated patients, and when unsuccessful, patients suffer its normal adult tissue. However, it is re-expressed in potential side effects and toxicities. Therefore, the transformed cell lines and several human cancer cells identification of new prognostic factors is so crucial at a frequency of 34-100% [11]. Although high that the appropriate therapy can be tailored better for expression of survivin in cancer cells is a common individual patients,[5]. phenomenon, which is supposed to be critically Studies in the literature have examined the involved in tumor progression by inhibition of prognostic significance of various biomarkers, apoptosis, the reason for this abundant protein including cell cycle regulators, members of the expression remained unclear and the relevance of proapoptotic family, angiogenesis markers, and survivin for the clinical course of HNSCC still has to be defined.

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Ki-67 is a nuclear antigen expressed mainly nodes were treated with a dose of 66 Gy). in the S and M phases of the cell cycle, and it has Reproducibility of head and neck positioning was been used for estimating the growth fraction in many achieved by using a fixation device (Orfit mask; studies investigating various tumor types [12]. MEDTEC Inc Orange City, Iowa, USA). The The aim of his study is to evaluate treatment volume included the primary tumour site prognostic value of expression of survivin and ki67 plus adequate margins and the neck nodes at risk. in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma treated by Usually, parallel-opposed fields were used to chemoradiotherapy. irradiate the primary tumour and the upper neck. A separate, anterior supraclavicular field was used to 2. Materials and Methods irradiate the lower neck and supraclavicular fossa. This is a retrospective study that enrolled all The spinal cord was protected after 40 Gy. The patients who were treated with primary prescribed dose was 50 Gy to the clinically negative chemoradiotherapy with curative intent for squamous neck and 60–66 Gy to the gross target volume and cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN) at our positive neck nodes. department of clinical oncology, Assiut University, Histopathology between Jan. 2005 and Dec. 2009. Eligible patients All histology slides from initial pretreatment have to have pathologically proven SCCHN without biopsies were reviewed by two authors (Refaiy A M. evidence of distant metastases, 18 years old and and Elosaily GM.) to confirm the diagnoses. Tumors ECOG P.S. of <2. All patients should undergo a full were graded as well differentiated (Grade 1), endoscopic examination and CT scan of the head and moderately differentiated (Grade 2), or poorly neck before initial treatment, 1-2 months after differentiated (Grade 3). completion of chemoradiotherapy & on recurrence. A representative block was selected for each Patients treated with chemotherapy alone, patient. Unstained sections were cut for routine brachytherapy or surgeries for the primary tumor staining with hematoxylin and eosin and for were excluded. immunohistochemistry. Clinical data retrieved from patient charts Immunohistochemistry included gender, age, tobacco use, tumor site, and Four micron Paraffin sections were cut and clinical T and N classifications according to the TNM mounted on coated slides with polylysine and stained system by AJCC (AJCC 2002), [13], reevaluation for survivin and Ki immunohistochemistry according after finishing treatment course, any recurrence or to manufacturer’s protocol. Tissue sections were distant metastases during the period of follow up. deparaffinized, rehydrated in graded alcohol, and Chemotherapy: The chemotherapy regimen transferred to phosphate buffered saline (PBS; PH consisting of cisplatin 20 mg/m2 once weekly during 7.6). The slides were rinsed twice with PBS, and then radiotherapy. All patients received adequate endogenous peroxidase was blocked by the use of 3% hydration and serotonin antagonist against emesis hydrogen peroxide in methanol for 5 minutes. during cisplatin administration. Full blood count After three times wash with PBS, antigen examination was performed weekly. If the white retrieval was done by using microwave at 700W for blood cell count was lower than 3.0 ×109/l, the 15 min in citrate buffer. After cooling the slides were platelet count below 100 ×109 /l, or hemoglobin less washed three times with PBS. The slides were than 10 g/dl, the subsequent chemotherapy dose was incubated for 18 h (overnight) at 4 C with primary delayed for one week, without interruption of antibody for survivin (mouse monoclonal antibody radiotherapy. Ab1) and Ki 67 (rabbit polyclonal antibody Ab4) Radiation Therapy: ,Thermo scientific CA, USA, at dilution of 1:100 Pre-treatment CT of the head and neck was and 1: 200 respectively. The slides were then rinsed done to assess the extent of the primary tumor, as three times with PBS and incubated for 10 min. with well as the neck nodes. The treatment volume the biotinylated goat antipolyvalent (Thermo included the primary tumor site and the neck nodes Scientific, CA,USA) at room temperature. After above the clavicle. The patients were treated with 6 further rinsing with PBS, the slides were incubated MV photons. The fractional daily dose was 2 Gray for 10 min. with Streptavidin peroxidase (Thermo (Gy) with a planned total dose of 60 Gy. This was Scientific, Ca, USA) at room temperature. The slides delivered using a 6-MV linear accelerator or Cobalt- were again washed three times with PBS, and 60 at a dose fraction of 2 Gy per day five times a diaminobenzidine was applied for 5 min at room week, without any intended gaps, up to a dose of 60– temperature. Finally, the slides were rinsed in D.W., 66 Gy (depending on TNM classification; T1 and T2 counterstained with Mayer’s hematoxylin, tumors and negative nodes were treated with a dose dehydrated and mounted. Positive control sections for of 60 Gy, while patients with T3, T4 and/or positive survivin were from human placenta and for Ki 67

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were from lymph node with reactive hyperplasia. Immunostaining Specificity of staining was checked on negative The immunostaining for survivin was control slides by omitting the primary antibody. prevalently cytoplasmic with sporadic prominent Expression of survivin was determined in nuclear staining. So, we recorded the specimens as the nucleus and in the cytoplasm by assessing semi- positive without considering the intracellular quantitatively the percentage of marked tumor cells localization of the signal (cytoplasmic or nuclear). and the staining intensity. The percentage of positive No survivin expression was detected in adjacent cells was rated as follows: 1, 1-10% positive cells; 2, normal tissues. Survivin expression in the cytoplasm 11-50%; 3, 51-80%; and 4, > 80% positive cells. of tumor cells and / or nucleus by Staining intensity was scored as 1, weak; 2, immunohistochemistry was low in 107 (69.5%) and moderate, and 3, intensive. Scores for percentage of high in 47cases (30.5%); (Table.1). According to positive cells and scores for expression intensities immunoreactive score (IRS), the staining was were multiplied to calculate an immunoreactivety negative in 78 (50.7%), weak in 28 (18.2%), score (IRS) [14]; 0-2 = no staining; 3-4 = weak moderate in 22 (14.3%) and strong in 26 (16.9%) staining; 6-8 = moderate staining; 9-12 = strong cases (Fig 1, 2). staining. For statistical analyses, ‘‘none’’ and Based on a 20% threshold value, nuclear ‘‘weak’’ staining were combined and counted as staining of Ki-67 was positive in 72 tumors (46.8%) ‘‘low expression’’ whereas ‘‘moderate’’ and i.e. having high proliferation rate (Fig 3, 4) and ‘‘strong’’ staining were grouped together and scored negative in 82 tumors (53.2%) i.e. with low as ‘‘high expression.’’ proliferation rate. Ki 67 evaluation was done by counting Clinical outcome and survivin expression number of positive nuclei in 1000 tumor cells and the The follow-up ranged from 3 months to 55 percentage was calculated as ki 67 labelling index. months (median, 20.5 months).There were 114 local The endpoints were disease free survival and overall treatment failures (74%) and 86 deaths (55.8%), of survival. Local treatment failure was defined as either which 72 deaths (83.7%) were caused by disease. presence of neoplasm after radiotherapy or the High survivin expression was correlated appearance of local recurrence at the irradiated site significantly with higher disease free survival and confirmed by histology. overall survival (Fig.5). Patients with high survivin Statistical analysis expression in their tumors had a median disease free Data were recorded on specialized forms and all survival of 32± 3.62 (95% CI, 18.927-43.073) statistical tests were performed using SPSS version compared with 16 ±1.1 (95% CI, 13.912-18.088) for 16 for windows (SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL, USA) and patients with low expression tumors (P = 0.007). The Microsoft Excell (Realmond, W.A, USA) software. median overall survival of patients with high survivin Descriptive analysis (e.g., mean , standard deviation, expression was 36± 1.81months (95% CI, frequencies, percentage) were calculated and analysis 32.45-39.55) months, versus 24 ±3.47 months (95% was performed using the student’s t-test and Fisher CI, 18.18-31.82) for those with low survivin ExactT- Test. A multivariate analysis using the Cox expression. This difference of survival rates was regression model14 was then performed on all statistically significant (P = 0.04). The expression of variables with significant prognostic influence in Ki-67 was not significantly correlated with either univariate analysis (P _ 0.05). The survival curves disease free survival 19 ±5.3 months (95% CI, 8.618- were made using the Kaplan-Meier method and 29.382) for patients with negative ki67 vs. 17± 1.7 comparison was with the log rank test. months (95% CI, 14.712 - 19.288) for positive ki67 (P = 0.5) or overall survival 26 ±4.4 months (95% 3. Results: CI, 13.285 - 40.715) for patients with negative ki67 One hundred and fifty four patients were vs. 20 ±5.3 months (95% CI, 11.615 - 42.366) for eligible for this study. They were composed of 93 positive ki67, (P = 0.729), (Fig.6). men (60.4%) and 31 women (39.6%) with a mean Analysis of Subgroups age at the time of diagnosis of 54 years (range, 21–80 Both univariate and multivariate analyses years). The site of the primary tumor was the the showed no significant correlation between survivin larynx in 64 patients (41.6%), oropharynx and oral expression and age, sex, histological grade, tumour cavity in 27 patients (17.5%), the hypopharynx in 52 stage, or the presence of lymph node metastasis patients (33.8%), and the nasopharynx 11 (7.1%) (Table 2 ). Ki67 correlated significantly with age and (Table 1). The majority of patients had advanced T- tumor grade but did not correlate with other factors stage tumors (71% T3–T4) and enlarged L.N. (63.3% (Table 3 ). N1-N3).

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Table 1: Patients characteristics Frequency (N=154) Percent Male 93 60.4 Sex Female 61 39.6 Mean ± SD 53.99 ± 14.07 Age (years) Median 54 Min - Max 21-80 Larynx 64 41.6 Nasopharynx 11 7.1 Site oral cavity 23 14.9 Oropharynx 4 2.6 Hypopharynx 52 33.8 1 6 3.9 2 38 24.7 T 3 69 44.8 4 41 26.2 0 56 36.4 1 47 30.5 L.N 2 45 29.2 3 6 3.9 1 51 33.1 Grade 2 73 47.4 3 30 19.5 CR 83 53.9 PR 38 24.7 Response NR 28 18.2 PD 5 3.2 Low 107 69.5 Survivin High 47 30.5 Negative 82 53.2 Ki67 Positive 72 46.8

Table 2: correlation of survivin with patients characteristics Survivin1 Low High P-value N % N % Male 65 60.7 28 59.6 0.5 sex Female 42 39.3 19 40.4 Age (years) 53.57 ± 14.3 56.35 ± 12.68 0.3 Site Larynx 36 33.6 28 59.6 0.06 Nasopharynx 7 6.5 4 8.5 Oro-pharynx/oral cavity 21 19.6 6 12.8

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Survivin1 Low High P-value N % N % Male 65 60.7 28 59.6 Hypo-pharynx 43 40.2 9 19.1 1 2 1.9 0 0.0 0.34 2 14 13.1 8 17.0 T 3 51 47.7 28 59.6 4 40 37.4 11 23.4 0 50 46.7 31 66.0 0.06 1 20 18.7 2 4.3 L.N 2 35 32.7 10 21.3 3 2 1.9 4 8.5 1 25 23.4 6 12.8 0.06 Grade 2 68 63.6 25 53.2 3 14 13.1 16 34.0

Table 3: correlation of ki67 with patients characteristics Ki67 P-value Negative positive N % N % Male 54 65.9 39 54.2 0.13 sex Female 28 34.1 33 45.8 Age (years) 59.38 ± 13.789 49.49 ± 12.902 0.002 Larynx 36 43.9 28 38.9 0.3 Nasopharynx 3 3.7 8 11.1 Oro-pharynx/oral 13 15.9 14 19.4 cavity Hypo-pharynx 30 36.6 22 30.6 1 2 2.4 0 0.0 0.08 2 14 17.1 8 11.1 T 3 33 40.2 46 63.9 4 33 40.2 18 25.0 0 32 39.0 49 68.1 0.06 1 14 17.1 8 11.1 L.N 2 30 36.6 15 20.8 3 6 7.3 0 0.0 1 28 34.1 3 4.2 0.000 Grade 2 50 61.0 43 59.7 3 4 4.9 26 36.1

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Fig 1: Moderate survivin expression in moderately differentiated SCC (x200)

Fig 2: Strong survivin expression in well differentiated SCC (x200)

Fig 3: Ki67 immunohistochemical expression in moderately differentiated squamous cell carcinoma showing brown nuclear staining (x100)

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Fig 4: Ki67 expression in moderately differentiated SCC higher power view (x200)

Fig.5A. correlation of survivin with disease free survival.

Fig.5B: correlation of survivin with overall survival

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Fig.6 A: correlation of ki67 with disease free survival

Fig.6 B: correlation of ki67 with overall survival.

4. Discussion The clinical implications for subcellular The aim of the present study was to delineate localization of survivin expression remains prognostic value of expression of survivin and ki67 in controversial. Among the 19 publications relevant to head and neck squamous cell carcinoma treated by survivin localization in nuclei or cytoplasm in various chemoradiotherapy. cancer tissues reviewed by Li et al. [ 19], 9 publications Khan et al. [15] reported that Survivin is showed that survivin expression in cancer cell nuclei expressed in a varying proportion of cells, and in was an unfavorable prognostic marker, whereas 5 majority of patients it was localized in cytoplasm in publications proposed the opposing notion that nuclear oral squamous cell carcinoma. Others [16,17] survivin expression represented a favorable prognostic demonstrated nuclear subcellular survivin localization. marker. Similarly, overall survivin expression, its However Engels et al. [18] suggested that the discrete intracellular localization, and its implication as difference between cytoplasmic and nuclear survivin is a prognostic marker were also analyzed in several an indicator for survivin activity in tumor cells. HNSCC studies, albeit with opposing results [16,20,15].

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In the present study, high survivin expression tumor grade but not correlated with other factors. Our in HNSCC was associated with favorable patients’ results are in agreement with several reports of outcome. Consistent with our data are those reported evidence that Ki67 expression increases with the by Freier et al [19] who found that high survivin severity of dysplastic changes in the head and neck expression was an independent predictor of increased squamous cell carcinoma, [35, 36]. 5- and 10-year overall survival of patients with oral In conclusion, the present study demonstrated squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). Within a subgroup that high survivin expression predicts better local of patients, who received radiation therapy, they also control and superior overall survival in HNSCC found that high survivin expression was the only patients treated with radiochemotherapy for an predictor of favorable 3-, 5- and 10-year overall advanced tumor. Survivin might be used as a survival in a multivariate cox regression analysis stratification marker to define HNSCC patients, who including UICC stage and age as covariables[ 21]. would potentially benefit from radiochemotherapy. Also, recent studies in several different tumor entities .Further investigation is necessary to clarify and like breast carcinoma, [ 22] colon carcinoma, [ 23] understand the roles of survivin in patients with osteosarcoma[ 24] and transitional bladder cancer[ 25] HNSCC. showed similar results of high survivin expression predicting increased overall survival of the patients. References However, our data are in contrast to recent 1. Adelstein DJ,Li Y,Adams GL,Wagner HJr,Kish JA,Ensley studies in oral squamous cell carcinoma, [ 26,27], JF,Schuller DE,Forastiere AA. An intergroup phase III laryngeal basaloid squamous cell carcinoma[ 16], and comparison of standard radiation therapy and two schedules of concurrent chemoradiotherapy in patients adenoid cystic carcinoma of the head and neck [ 28] with unresectable squamous cell head and neck cancer. J in which high survivin expression was associated with Clin Oncol 2003; 21: 92–8. adverse patients’ outcome. Similar results of 2. Calais G,Alfonsi M,Bardet E,Sire C,Germain T,Bergerot correlating survivin with an unfavorable clinical P,Rhein B,Tortochaux J,Oudinot P,Bertrand P. outcome were reported by previous studies in a variety Randomized trial of radiation therapy versus concomitant chemotherapy and radiation therapy for advanced-stage of cancers, including colorectal cancer [ 29], breast oropharynx carcinoma. JNatl Cancer Inst 1999;91:2081–6. cancer [ 30], lung cancer [ 31], and esophageal cancer [ 3. Denis F,Garaud P,Bardet E,Alfonsi M,Sire C,Germain 32]. T,Bergerot P,Rhein B,Tortochaux J,Calais G. Final results However, in esophageal carcinoma, a tumor of the 94–01 French Head and Neck Oncology and entity, which derives from the epithelium of the upper Radiotherapy Group randomized trial comparing aerodigestive tract just like HNSCC, an association of radiotherapy alone with concomitant radiochemotherapy in advanced-stage oropharynx carcinoma. J Clin Oncol high mRNA survivin expression and favorable 2004; 22: 69–76. outcome after neoadjuvant radiochemotherapy was 4. Wendt TG,Grabenbauer GG,Rodel CM,Thiel HJ,Aydin recently found [33]. This was corroborated by a H,Rohloff R,Wustrow TP,Iro H,Popella C,Schalhorn A. previous study, which showed that survivin protein Simultaneous radiochemotherapy versus radiotherapy expression correlates with the proliferative index but alone in advanced head and neck cancer: a randomized not the apoptotic index in esophageal carcinoma, which multicenter study. 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This could explain growth factor receptor expression in pretreatment biopsies the observed increased overall survival of patients with from head and neck squamous cell carcinoma as a high survivin expression treated by radiochemotherapy. predictive factor for a benefit from accelerated radiation If the assumption of high survivin expression being a therapy in a randomized controlled trial. J Clin Oncol. predictor of radiation response could be verified in 2005;23(24):5560-5567. 8. Bhavna Kumar, MSc; Kitrina G. Cordell, DDS; Nisha further functional analysis, survivin might be a D’Silva, et al. Expression of p53 and Bcl-xL as Predictive promising stratification, which should be evaluated in Markers for Larynx Preservation in advanced Laryngeal prospective, controlled clinical studies to marker to CancerArch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. preselect patients, who would benefit from 2008;134(4):363-369. 9. Karsai S, Abel U, Roesch-Ely M; et al. 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10. Altieri DC: Targeted therapy by disabling crossroad 24. Trieb K, Lehner R, Stulnig T, Sulzbacher I, Shroyer KR. signaling networks: the survivin paradigm. Molecular Survivin expression in human osteosarcoma is a marker cancer therapeutics 2006 , 5(3):478-482. for survival. Eur J Surg Oncol 2003;29:379–82. 11. Yamamoto T, Tanigawa N: The role of survivin as a new 25. Lehner R, Lucia MS, Jarboe EA, Orlicky D, Shroyer AL, target of diagnosis and treatment in human cancer. Med McGregor JA, Shroyer KR. Immunohistochemical Electron Microsc 2001 , 34(4):207-212. localization of the IAP protein survivin in bladder mucosa 12. Nordgard S, Franzen G, Boysen M, Halvorsen TB: Ki-67 and transitional cell carcinoma. Appl Immunohistochem as a prognostic marker in adenoid cystic carcinoma Molecul Morphol 2002;10:134–8. assessed with the monoclonal antibody MIB1 in paraffin 26. Lin CY, Hung HC, Kuo RC, Chiang CP, Kuo MY. sections. Laryngoscope 1997, 107(4):531-536. 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Khan Z, Tiwari RP, Mulherkar R, Sah NK, Prasad GB, adenoid cystic carcinoma of the head and neck. Head Neck Shrivastava BR, Bisen PS: Detection of survivin and p53 Oncol. 2010 Oct 30;2:30. in human oral cancer: correlation with clinicopathologic 29. Sarela AI, Macadam RC, Farmery SM, Markham AF, findings. Head Neck 2009 , 31(8):1039-1048. Guillou PJ: Expression of the antiapoptosis gene, survivin, 16. Marioni G, Ottaviano G, Marchese-Ragona R, Giacomelli predicts death from recurrent colorectal carcinoma. Gut L, Bertolin A, Zanon D, Marino F, Staffieri A: High 2000 , 46(5):645-650. nuclear expression of the apoptosis inhibitor protein 30. Span PN, Sweep FC, Wiegerinck ET, Tjan-Heijnen VC, survivin is associated with disease recurrence and poor Manders P, Beex LV, de Kok JB: Survivin is an prognosis in laryngeal basaloid squamous cell carcinoma. independent prognostic marker for risk stratification of Acta Otolaryngol 2006, 126(2):197-203. breast cancer patients. 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Methods of Distance Education in Agricultural education

1 Hamid Mohammadi, 2 Azam Ghaffari

1, 2 Marvdasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Marvdasht, Iran *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Keywords: Distance Education , Agricultural Education

Introduction: In other words, the country still in the Guidance and therefore move in the direction feasibility assessment and appropriate to make public of society should be education and technology for the necessary training for operation and application comprehensive pandemic done. Considering the of scientific principles and technological tools is has above definitions and with the knowledge and been done and why certain movements and attitudes towards the third millennium and the sometimes non-normative point will not be able node desirability and some weaknesses in the achievement an unlock. of certain standards and dynamic structures in order The conditions and according to the capacity of to achieve a knowledge based society, there is. In the developing countries and training facilities required a present circumstances to provide our information knowledge-based society feels is felt. If all processes infrastructure development and integration inevitably in technology education and technology optimization link the elements and tools that they are as indicators and standardization of the Hungarian education of technology education and technology education should go, and appropriate channels that the best will be remembered. In the new context of combining option in this area could benefit from state these two indicators comes to training facilities and a universities is capabilities. variety of tools that will provide guidance and The contract between teacher and learner, development in information will be very effective. whether in a traditional classroom or distance While the effect of these two indices of body education, requires that the student be taught, functions and its other fields (favorable to foster new assessed, given guidance and, where appropriate, ideas provides. Technologies training web-based prepared for examinations that may or may not be technology as one of the most effective learning tools conducted by the institution. This must be in educational issues have been identified and a total accomplished by two-way communication. Learning of E-learning as it is referred. . But if the scientific may be undertaken either individually or in groups; and cultural infrastructure with this technology's Day in either case, it is accomplished in the physical is not coordinated development of information will absence of the teacher in distance education. Where be obtained. This weakness caused by lack of growth distance teaching materials are provided to learners, and development of training required for pandemic they are structured in ways that facilitate learning at a knowledge of existing technology is. In many distance. Recent rapid development of technology systems of scientific tools and capabilities needed to has resulted in systems that are powerful, flexible, provide hardware and commissioning are still and increasingly affordable. The base of available technological problems resulting from lack of information technology resources is increasing with knowledge of poverty and poor education in these dramatic speed. Much has been learned about centers to be seen. connecting various forms of technology into systems,

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so that the ability to link systems is growing. Most 4 - e-mail, telegraph, computer conference and the distance learning systems are hybrids, combining World Wide Web simultaneously. several technologies, such as satellite, ITFS, D - Print: microwave, cable, fiber optic, and computer The main element of distance education programs, connections. particularly in the exchange and delivery system information tools are considered. Educational methods in distance learning: Today, under the new system replaced the traditional Conclusion: systems of learning and learning week (ie tutoring As the cost of delivering quality education methods, lectures) are: increases, institutions find that limited resources - Multimedia courses: prevent them from building facilities, hiring faculty, These courses and widely used elements of image, or expanding curricula. They are using distance communication, graphics and simulated components, education to maximize resources and are combining animation and communication elements for guidance their assets with others to produce programming. and tips, and talk back on course and curriculum Distance education is offered internationally, issues are held. nationally, regionally, and locally over all forms of - Enhanced communication mechanisms: conferencing technology. The mechanism of any texts simultaneously, and Distance learning is expanding and examples of asynchronous audio-visual communications to it are increasing dramatically. Fewer than 10 states protect you. This case allows students to practice on were using distance learning in 1987; today, virtually topics learned will give. all states have an interest or effort in distance - Written test: education. Distance learning systems connect the thus, question and test via a distributed teacher with the students when physical face-to-face communication network, are corrected and returned. interaction is not possible. Telecommunications These exams through video conferencing support systems carry instruction, moving information and runs. instead of people. The technology at distant locations -Virtual Seminar: are important and affect how interaction takes place, thereby different groups of students in different what information resources are used, and how geographical environments linked together makes. effective the system is likely to be. - Collaborative virtual laboratories: Technology transports information, not people. the laboratory of the Group's activities are Distances between teachers and students are bridged supported. Workshops such as software engineering. with an array of familiar technology as well as new -Smart academic factors: information age equipment. What sets today's academic factors that inform intelligent, support and distance education efforts apart from previous efforts guidance students pay. is the possibility of an interactive capacity that Remote educational tool: provides learner and teacher with needed feedback, distance learning tools and supplies various uses. including the opportunity to dialogue, clarify, or These tools in four main courses are: assess. Advances in digital compression technology A - Audio Tools: may greatly expand the number of channels that can Audio tools include training such as two-way be sent over any transmission medium, doubling or interactive telephone, video conference, shortwave even tripling channel capacity. Technologies for radio and a strain of tools such as audio tape and learning at a distance are also enlarging our definition radio. of how students learn, where they learn, and who B - Image tools: teaches them. No one technology is best for all including slides, films, video tapes and video situations and applications. Different technologies conferences. have different capabilities and limitations, and C - Data: effective implementation will depend on matching computers as electronic data are sent and received. technological capabilities to education needs. Because the data word description for a wide range Distance education places students and their of educational tools is used. instructors in separate locations using some form of Computer applications for distance education are technology to communicate and interact. The student varied and include the following: may be located in the classroom, home, office or 1- Training to Computer Management. learning center. The instructor may be located in a 2 - Computer Assisted Instruction. media classroom, studio, office or home. 3 - through PCs. The student may receive information via satellite, microwave, or fiber optic cable, television

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(broadcast, cable or Instructional Television Fixed Challenges which faced the early users of Services (ITFS), video cassette or disk, telephone - distance education are still with us today. If distance audio conferencing bridge or direct phone line, audio education is to play a greater role in improving the cassette, printed materials - text, study guide, or quality of education, it will require expanded handout, computer - modem or floppy disk, and technology; more linkages between schools, higher compressed video. Recent rapid development of education, and the private sector; and more teachers technology has resulted in systems that are powerful, who use technology well. Teachers must be involved flexible, and increasingly affordable. The base of in planning the systems, trained to use the tools they available information technology resources is provide, and given the flexibility to revise their increasing with dramatic speed. Much has been teaching. Federal and state regulations will need learned about connecting various forms of revision to ensure a more flexible and effective use of technology into systems, so that the ability to link technology. Connections have been established systems is growing. Most distance learning systems across geographic, instructional, and institutional are hybrids, combining several technologies, such as boundaries which provide opportunities for satellite, ITFS, microwave, cable, fiber optic, and collaboration and resource sharing among many computer connections. groups In the pooling of students and teachers, Interactivity is accomplished via telephone distance learning reconfigures the classroom which (one-way video and two-way audio), two-way video no longer is bounded by the physical space of the or graphics interactivity, two-way computer hookups, school, district, state or nation. two-way audio. Interactivity may be delayed but The key to success in distance learning is the interaction provided by teacher telephone office teacher. If the teacher is good, the technology can hours when students can call or through time with on- become almost transparent. No technology can site facilitators. Classes with large numbers of overcome poor teaching which is actually students have a limited amount of interactivity. Much exacerbated in distance education applications. When of the activity on computer networks is on a delayed skilled teachers are involved, enthusiasm, expertise, basis as well. Possibilities for audio and visual and creative use of the media can enrich students interaction are increasingly wide. beyond the four walls of their classroom. In the earlier days of distance learning, it was Teachers need training in the system's technical most common to see distance learning used for rural aspects and in the educational applications of the students who were at a distance from an educational technology. Areas for assistance include the amount institution. The student might watch a telecourse on a of time needed to prepare and teach courses, how to television stations, read texts, mail in assignments establish and maintain effective communication with and then travel to the local college to take an exam. students, strategies for adding visual components to This model is still in use, but as the technology has audio courses, ways to increase interaction between become more sophisticated and the cost of distance students and faculty, planning and management of learning dropped as equipment prices dropped, the organizational details, and strategies for group use of distance education has increased. cohesion and student motivation. High front-end costs prevented an early The interchange of ideas requires different widespread adoption of electronically mediated communication methods than in conventional learning. Distance learning has been aggressively classrooms: information technologies are adopted in many areas because it can meet specific predominantly visual media, rather than the textual educational needs. As the concept of accountability and auditory environment of the conventional became accepted and laws required certain courses in classroom, the affective content of mediated high school in order for students to be admitted to messages is muted compared to face-to-face state colleges, telecommunications was examined as interaction, and complex cognitive content can be a way to provide student access to the required conveyed more readily in electronic form because courses. Many rural school districts could not afford multiple representations of material (e.g., animations, the special teachers to conduct required courses. text, verbal descriptions, and visual images) can be Distance education met this need by providing presented to give learners many ways of courses in schools where teachers were not available understanding the fundamental concept. or were too costly to provide for a few students. It also fulfilled a need for teacher training and staff *Corresponding Author: development in locations where experts and Hamid Mohammadi resources were difficult to obtain. These systems link Marvdasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, learner communities with each other and bring a wide Marvdasht, Iran array of experts and information to the classroom. E-mail: [email protected]

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References: 14. Faulhaber, C. B. (1996). Distance learning and 1. Almogbel. Ali N (2002). distance education in digital libraries: Two side of a single coin. Saudi Arabia: attitudes and perceived Journal of the American Society for contributations of faculty, students, and Information Science 47(11), 854-856. administrators in technical college, doctorate 15. Gandhi, S. (2003). Academic librarians and thesis, university of Pittsburgh. distance education challenges and 2. Al-saleh, Mary Margaret (2002). a description opportunities. Reference & User Services and comparision of RN_ BSN Nursing student, Quarterly, 43(2), 138-154. perception of student _ teacher relationships in 16. Garrels, M. (1997). Dynamic relationships: traditional and internet distance education Five critical elements for teaching at a distance. nursing courses. DNSC, widener university Faculty Development Papers. Available online school of nursing . at: Indiana Higher Education 3. Ananymous (2001). history of distance Telecommunication System education and training council (75 years). (http://www.ihets.org/distance_ed/fdpapers/199 Distance education and training council 7/garrels.htm l). washington. 17. Garrison, D. R.; H. Kanuka (2004). Blended 4. Armstrong, Amy Jo (2002). an investigation of learning: Uncovering its transformative personal – social contextual factors of the potential in higher education. The Internet and online adult learner: perceived ability to Higher Education 7 (2), 95-105. complete and succed in a program of study. 18. Garrison, R., & Vaughan, N. (2008). Blended Doctorate Thesis, Virginia commonwealth learning in higher education: Framework, university. principles, and guidelines. San Francisco: 5. Barron, D (1996). Distance education in north Jossey-Bass. American library and information science 19. Garrison, J. A., Schardt, C., & Kochi, J. K. education: Application technology and (2000). web – based distance countinuing commitment. journal of the Ameraican society education: a new way of thinking for students for information science. Vol.47 ,No.11. and instructors. Bulletin of the Medical Library 6. Bates,T (1995) .Technology, open learning and Association, 88(3), 211-217. distance education London:Routledge. 20. Grimes, G. (1992). Happy 100th anniversary to 7. Beetham. H., & Sharpe, R. (eds.) (2007). distance education. Retrieved August 25, 2005, Rethinking pedagogy for a digital age: from Designing and delivering e-learning. London: http://www.macul.org/newsletter/1992/nov,dec Routledge. 92/going.html 8. Boltone , sharon Bauer (2002). Developing an 21. Husler, R. P. (1996). Digital library: content instrument to Analze the application of adult preservation in digital world. DESIDOC- learning principles to world wide web distance Bulletin of Information Technology, 16(1), 31- education courses using the Delphi technique. 39. EdD.university of lousville. 22. Jeffres, M. Research in distance education. 9. Bonk, C., & Graham, C. (eds.). (2006). Retrieved August 20, 2005, from Handbook of blended learning: Global http://www.ihets.org/distance- perspectives, local designs (pp. xvii - xxiii). San /ipse/fdhandbook/research.html Francisco: Pfeiffer. 23. Katsirikou, A., & Sefertzi, E. (2000). Inovation 10. Carter , A (2001). Interactive distance in the every day life of library. Technovation, education: implication for adult learner, 20(12), 705-709. Interautional Media, 28(3), PP: 249-261. 24. Lebowitz, G. (1997). Library service equity 11. Chizari, M, Mohammad ,H and linder ,J.R issue. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, (2002). Distance education competencies of 23(4), 303-308. Faculty members in Iran 25. Lipow, A. G. (1999, January 20). Serving the 12. Crossfield, N. L. (2001, May/June). Digital remote user: reference service in the digital reference: the next new frontier. Latitudes, environment. In Proceedings of the ninth 10(3). Retrieved July 16, 2005, from Australasian information online & on disc http://nnlm.gov/psr/lat/v10n3/digitalref.html conference and exhibition. 13. Dodds, T., Perraton, H., & Young, M. (1972). 26. Littlejohn, A., & Pegler, C. (2007). Preparing One year's work: The International Extension for blended e-learning. London: Routledge. College 1971-1971. Cambridge, UK: 27. McLean, D. D. (1996). Use of computer-based International Extension College. technology in health, physical education,

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recreation, and dance. ERIC Digest 94-7. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teaching and Teacher Education. ED 390 874. 28. Moore, M. (ed.). (2007). Handbook of distance education. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 29. Oliver, M., & Trigwell, K. (2005). Can blended learning be redeemed? Elearning, 2 (1), 17-26. 30. Parrott, S. (1995). Future learning: Distance education in community colleges. ERIC Digest 95-2. Los Angeles, CA: ERIC Clearinghouse on Community Colleges. ED 385 311 31. Rintala, J. (1998). Computer technology in higher education: An experiment, not a solution. Quest, 50(4), 366-378. EJ 576 392 Romiszowski, A. (1993). Telecommunications and distance education. ERIC Digest 93-2. Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information Resources. ED 358 841 32. St. Pierre, P. (1998). Distance learning in physical education teacher education. Quest, 50(4), 344-356. EJ 576 391.

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The Wise, Hero Man and His Characteristics from Nietzsche’s Viewpoint

Muhammad Hossein Mardani Nokandeh 1

1. Faculty of philosophy, Tajik State Pedagogical University, Doshanbeh, Tajikestan. [email protected]

Keywords: Nietzsche; wise man; hero; superma; vitality; passion

1. The wise man and his characteristics flourish and flow (Nietsche, 1900). He favors From Nietzsche’s point of view, human ambition, fertility, and an ascending life and, as a beings own various natures and temperaments and result, can transform his potential power into an their energies, gifts, fertility, and will to power are actual power and realize his wants to "become what unique (Dast-gheyb, 1998). Only a few can discover he is" (Razavi, 2002). He is possessed of passion their existent energies and transform their potential (Fooladvand, 2008) and has, essentially, a Dionysian abilities into actual ones, since most people lack vital, nature (Nische, 1886). As a result, he is passionate abundant energy, or sufficient power and ambition to and self-opposite and pays more attention to the achieve their objectives (Razavi, 2002). In fact, whisper of passion than the call of reason (Magee, Nietzsche emphasizes the unlikeness and inequality 1978). However, this lover's abundant passion is of human beings and strongly dissents from different from transient excitement and emanates proponents of equality and those preaching the from an inner fire (Cupitt, 1988). Furthermore, he, equality and similarity of individuals (Nietsche, like Dionysus, is disobedient, fearless, and 1900). To separate, rank, and evaluate individuals adventurous (Winchester, 1995) He is a disciple of (from nations), he refers to the fertility of nature (the knowledge, spirituality, and construction, and one grade of each being’s consistency with vitality and could even consider him a Gnostic or clear-sighted instinct) and the power of spirituality (the power of man, due to his zeal for knowing and his interest in creation, insight, and construction) and, with his discovering (i.e. the faculty of seeing or insight) the metaphorical language, determines their “superiority” truths of the revealed world (Nitsche, 1900). In a and “wisdom” (Jaspers, 2004). In short, one can sense, through superabundance of imagination and describe the temporal and spiritual characteristics of thought and creative substance, this clear-sighted Nietzsche’s powerful, fertile, and wise man in several free-thinker steps into the glorious realm of the land ways. He adores life and, like Dionysus, is abundant of visions with the faculty of insight and imagination with vitality. In other words, a lively man answers, in which the world is concretized and objectivity "Yes!" to his time (Blackham, 1952), and accepts the transforms into mentality. Surely, this discoverer of good and evil of his fate (Cuppit1988), since the the land of visions is a gallant person with self- follower of The Gay Science knows that life is a control and superabundant thought, energy of crucible for setting the hallmark for human beings. imagination, and creativity (Farhadpoor, 2001). As The opposite, tragic process of life (i.e. the biological such, the Nietzschean true man (Nietsche, 2003) is examination), sets the fertility and self-control of the both the result of an abundance of vitality and existence of every individual (Fooladvand, 2004). He ambition and the fruit of superabundance of enjoys the power to will, ambition, or a particular oppositeness, passion, spirituality, and fertility. Like energy (Ashori, 1973), since he, himself, has a strong Don Juan Castaneda, he searches for other horizons connection to the powers of vitality and life and undergoes strange experiences. He fearlessly (Daybreak, 1881). In other words, a strong-hearted welcomes his fate and boisterous time (Mc Daniel, man will not repress his instincts and natural desires, 2000), is continuously in an unbalanced position or but strive to express, guide, and cause his nature to unusual circumstances, and, as a result, constantly

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feels duality, disintegration, and other disasters of explains this situation as “saying yes to oneself”—the personality and dissolution (Razavi, 2002). Nietzsche expression adapted from Nietzsche himself—and writes, "…sometimes the idea runs through my head asserts, “The heroic souls are those who, in the most that I am living an extremely dangerous life, for I am tragic situations, say ‘yes’ to themselves and enjoy one of those machines that can explode" (Pirooz, suffering pain and agony. The soul of the Hero is the 2001). Yes, Nietzsche is one of the tragic, wise men embodiment of paradoxes and uncertainties.” This (Pirooz, 2001) and belongs to a race in which the embodiment of paradoxes and uncertainties means superabundance of their beings accompanied by the spiritual and mental preparations to accept the events puts them on the edge of the cliffs of ecstasy metamorphosis in thoughts and beliefs, which are the and delirium (Ansell- Pearson, 1994). As the requirements for the Hero souls. For Nietzsche, the labyrinthine of cognition looks for adventure, the principle of equality is opposite to the goal of ethics. wise gallant knows well that “craziness is a danger in Equality causes a kind of monotony and the way of men of wisdom” (Ashoori, 2002). psychological inertia. In The Will to Power, Nietzsche regards humankind as the greatest Nietzsche proposes that "… the concept of the ‘equal fruit of evolution, and emphasizes that evolution does value of men before God’ is extraordinarily harmful; not end with humankind. This does not mean that one forbade actions and attitudes that were in another being greater than humankind will be created, themselves among the prerogatives of the strongly but, rather, that the human will evolve within himself constituted--as if they were in themselves unworthy until overcoming himself. Nietzsche intended to of men." return humankind to its original innocence (the The Hero possesses the lion-will: “Hungry, innocence before laying down moral principles) and, fierce, lonesome, God-forsaken: so doth the lion-will to do so, one should overcome morality that is the wish itself. Free from the happiness of slaves, source of good and evil, and overcome his humanity, redeemed from Deities and adorations, fearless and which is different than morality in origin. Where he fear-inspiring, grand and lonesome: so is the will of reaffirms, “human being is a being who should the conscientious.” Humankind must make use of all overcome himself,” or one “should go beyond his its resources and powers to rear the Hero. In this good and evil,” he is pointing out the passing of regard, Nietzsche says, “I love him who laboureth humankind from the era of morality. and inventeth, that he may build the house for the Nietzsche believes that the Superman is a Superman, and prepare for him earth, animal, and new man who has overcome his humanity and has plant: for thus seeketh he his own down-going.” Then, surpassed all good and evil. He is proud, free, light- he adds, “I love those who do not first seek a reason hearted, calm, strong both physically and mentally, beyond the stars for going down and being sacrifices, and the greatest yes-sayer. The Superman is generous but sacrifice themselves to the earth that the earth of not for the sake of helping the poor and needy, but the Superman may hereafter arrive.” This down- because it is required by his nature. His generosity is going and victimization results in the over-going of no weakness. It is a power. His generosity and power man in the form of the Hero. Thus, this down-going are like sunrays that shine on high and low places, is the same as over-going: “I love those that know not land and sea, villages and deserts alike. He does good how to live except as down-goers, for they are the for people not for the sake of doing good as he is not over-goers.” desperate for it, but to fulfill his nature. Moreover, he Nietzsche, in all his writings, speaks of the enjoys gaiety and the spirit of dancing and “will to power,” whereas, in the discussion of rearing healthiness. the Hero or raising the Superman, he moves beyond that and speaks of the “will to danger,” saying, the 2. Rearing the hero and the superman Hero steps beyond the will to power and risks Explicating the concept of the “Superman” moving toward the will to danger. The sign of the and rearing the Hero were some of Nietzsche’s most Hero and Superman and “and the bright sign of brilliant goals. From his perspective, the Superman or standing over life is the will to danger. Of course, life Hero is first one who is self-sufficient, self-reliant, essentially means being in danger. Not only this, but and independent of any other beings. Second, his also life is like the instinctive search for the life that major characteristics must represent power, strength, has elevated to a higher power degree, with the and ambition. danger of living.” Now, Nietzsche, in Germany’s framework of traditional thinking, looks positively to 2.1. Conditions for Rearing the Hero war: To rear the Hero, Nietzsche believes, “self- confidence is the strongest cramp, the most severe In Thus Spake Zarathustra, Nietzsche has whip, and the most powerful wing.” Heidegger designated one whole chapter of the first part

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to war and warriors, in which, to warriors he addresses, “Ye shall love peace as a means to It may be necessary for the education of the new wars--and the short peace more than the real philosopher that he himself should have long… war and courage have done more once stood upon all those steps upon which great things than charity. Not your sympathy, his servants, the scientific workers of but your bravery hath hitherto saved the philosophy, remain standing, and must victims… Man shall be trained for war, and remain standing he himself must perhaps woman for the recreation of the warrior: all have been critic, and dogmatist, and historian, else is folly.” and besides, poet, and collector, and traveler, and riddlereader, and moralist, and seer, and Nietzsche highly recommends war as a ‘free spirit,’ and almost everything, in order remedy for retardation of nations. War is a purifying to traverse the whole range of human values power, a treatment for nations that grow weak and and estimations, and that he may be able with humble. If these nations are to continue to live, war a variety of eyes and consciences to look can be a prescribed remedy. The national from a height to any distance, from a depth responsibility needs treatment as much as the up to any height, from a nook into any individual responsibility does. For Nietzsche, the expanse. But all these are only preliminary concept of heroism has two theoretical and applied conditions for his task; this task itself elements, the theoretical part of which applies to demands something else—it requires him to philosophy, and the philosopher as the Hero. create values.

The philosopher, as we free spirits The heroic life, philosophical thought, and understand him—as the man of the greatest values creation, are all risks. Living outside of responsibility, who has the conscience for common norms requires that one stake one’s body the general development of mankind— will and soul and forget all about peace and quiet. One use religion for his disciplining and who is made of life keeps up with society and one educating work, just as he will use the who wishes to create values must pass this stage. It is contemporary political and economic in a dangerous life and “in the period of great dangers conditions. that philosophers are created—when the wheel of time spins fast, philosophers and artists replace the The values of the Hero’s life cannot be lost myths.” Nietzsche describes this life as assessed and measured by standards of ordinary life. dangerous and one that jeopardizes oneself in the He moves beyond the existing values. His life is, in position of “declaration of war on factions”: essence, beyond movement. In this regard, Nietzsche declares: A declaration of war on factions is necessary from the supermen’s side! Wherever there The motives of the Superman’s acts are are some middle-class who work together to indescribably various and baffling. For accomplish nobility are used for the purposes instance, a word like ‘pity’ illustrates of ‘people’ and ‘females’ and work in the nothing, whatever it may be. The direction of public poll and the dominancy of paramount principle is this feeling: ‘who the debased. But, we should take revenge and am I?’ Who is the other in relation with me? bring the whole issue—which began with The value of judgments is constantly at Christianity in Europe—to light and work. judgment.

To love is one of the indispensable qualities The essence of all qualities and of Heroes. To perform beyond conventional values is characteristics of the philosopher as the Hero is “heroism” and this quality is reinforced by the power power. Of course, this is in the first grade of spiritual of love in the Hero and “What is done out of love power that provides us with the possibility of always takes place beyond good and evil.” The Hero, thinking about great criteria and “What determines in the theoretical scope, is the philosopher himself, rank, sets off rank, is only quanta of power, and and the philosopher, to attain his sublime objectives, nothing else.” Finally, quoting from his favorite hero must take the first steps according to conventional Zarathustra, Nietzsche says, “I teach you the criteria. In other words, one cannot reach Hero status Superman.” overnight, but should begin with what is easily accessible. 2.2. The Ultimate Goal of the Hero’s Existence

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Nietzsche declares the modern age as the and seeketh to know in order that the Superman may historical end of metaphysics. As divinity is the hereafter live.” symbol of that period, the modern age is the end of Man must constantly fight to rear the Hero, divinity; hence he states his famous maxim “God is the genius, and the Superman. To rear the Superman, dead.” The thought of rearing the Hero and Superman short peace and a long war is better than long-lasting is a substitute for divinity. In this regard, Heidegger peace. says, “The Superman is a plan to substitute for a god who has died. Therefore, the death of God Your enemy shall ye seek; your war shall ye necessitates the creation of the Superman. Nietzsche, wage, and for the sake of your thoughts! And in Thus Spake Zarathustra, states, ‘Dead are all the if your thoughts succumb, your uprightness Gods. Now do we desire the Superman to live? Let shall still shout triumph thereby! Ye shall this be our final will at the great noontide!’ love peace as a means to new wars--and the Regarding the replacement of Superman for God, short peace more than the long. You I advise Nietzsche reiterates, “Once did people say God, when not to work, but to fight. You I advise not to they looked out upon distant seas; now however, peace, but to victory. Let your work be a have I taught you to say, Superman.” fight, let your peace be a victory! Substituting the Superman for God is for nothing but legislation and setting values. Henceforth, Despite the shortsightedness and narrow- humankind itself bears the responsibility for its mindedness, this war is not for bloodshed and this affairs and making its own legislations. Preparation Hero is not like Hitler. By contrast, this war is a for becoming the legislators of the future, the masters sacred one for setting high human values and for of the earth, at least our children. Basic concern with releasing man from superstitions like weakness, marriages. “Therefore, O my brethren, a new nobility tyranny, humiliation, and nothingness. It is a war of is needed, which shall be the adversary of all all human instincts against all inhuman ones. populace and potentate rule, and shall inscribe anew the word "noble" on new tables.The Superman is the 2.3. The Hero’s Potential Deviations meaning of the earth. Let your will say: The Rearing the Hero and the Superman may be Superman shall be the meaning of the earth! I conjure vulnerable to various threats, the most mortal of you, my brethren, remain true to the earth and believe which are scientism, motherly affection, slavish not those who speak unto you of super earthly hopes! moralities, and the wickedness and platitude of quasi- According to one of Jaspers’ interpretations, one of heroes. The dangers that beset the evolution of the Nietzsche’s prime motives in defying divinity and philosopher are, in fact, so manifold nowadays, that declaring its termination is a release from the “fear of one might doubt whether this fruit could still come to death.” One of man’s psychological problems is the maturity. The extent and towering structure of the fear of death and Nietzsche associates this with the sciences have increased enormously, and therewith divinity concept: also the probability that the philosopher will grow Nietzsche is one of a series of thinkers who tired even as a learner, or will attach himself wish to overcome every form of death because it is somewhere and ‘specialize’ so that he will no longer existentially ruinous and a sign of an existence which attain to his elevation, that is to say, to his is not self-based. However, it seems that Nietzsche’s superspection, his circumspection. The other danger ultimate goal (i.e. the creation of the Superman) is by is motherly compassion, which is offensively and far more original than man’s independence, his ruling, bitterly expressed about women. Nonetheless, one his self-basedness, and his fear of death. From his should not consider this anti-feminist as these perspective, to create a genius (i.e. the Superman or qualities take the form of compassion for women and Hero) is the goal of culture that, in turn, is the goal of that is why they are labeled “effeminate.” life. Literally, life cannot be lived without goals. In particular, a life without divinity seems meaningless And finally, woman! One-half of mankind and goalless. Therefore, certain goals must be set. is weak, typically sick, changeable, This goal is the plantation and growing the prettiest inconstant—woman needs strength in order flower of humankind - the genius who has a noble to cleave to it; she needs a religion of and genuine mind and is a noble man, which has been weakness that glorifies being weak, loving, described as Superman in Nietzsche’s latest thoughts. and being humble as divine: or better, she From Nietzsche’s point of view, recognizing the makes the strong weak—she rules when probability of the Superman plan is the perfectness of she succeeds in overcoming the strong. life. He says, “I love him who liveth in order to know, Woman has always conspired with the types of decadence, the priests, against the

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"powerful," the "strong," the men. Woman characteristic of the Hero. By doing so, he will be brings the children to the cult of piety, pity, safe from the dangers of degeneration and love—the mother represents altruism routineness. Moreover, by breaking with tradition convincingly. and mythical ages, the Hero paves the way for creation, creativity, and accomplishing heroism. The Superman plan may be exposed to other dangers, The Hero does not look for emotional influences. The as well. J. P. Stern suggests, “In recent Nietzscheism embarrassment for emotional influences is one of the periods, nothing more than Hitler’s life and deeds distinct signs of the Hero. The underlying sign of the have been the embodiment of the will to power. Even Hero is taking risks and heroic living’s primary if we presume (although there are evidences to prove motivation is living dangerously! This is the secret of this) that the truth goes beyond what was imaginable the most fruitful harvest of entity. for Nietzsche.” Another quality of the Hero is his practicality, especially his military-like practicality. 2.4. Characteristics of the Hero From Nietzsche’s viewpoint, martial jobs are the best If the traditional disciplining becomes jobs. However he does not mean to favor Hitler, here. dominated and the ordinary values overwhelm, the His much-adored figure is Napoleon. In his view, Hero, then, will be imperiled by degeneration and “the highest human beings, such as Caesar, everydayness. Manliness will be replaced by Napoleon” should be the flag-holders of life. Also, he weakness and perseverance by pity and then, “So says, “I am thinking, e. g., of Napoleon and Bismarck. much kindness, so much weakness do I see. So much The rivalry with strong and unintelligent wills, which justice and pity, so much weakness. Round, fair, and is the greatest obstacle, is small. Who doesn't topple considerate are they to one another, as grains of sand these ‘objective’ gentlemen with weak wills, like are round, fair, and considerate to grains of sand. Rancle or Renan!” By comparing the Hero to such Modestly to embrace a small happiness--that do they martial leaders as Napoleon and Caesar, Nietzsche call submission, and at the same time they peer does not intend to wage war and cause bloodshed. modestly after a new small happiness. In their hearts The point is a practical power and creativity. they want simply one thing most of all: that no one One who creates persistently is a “Mother- hurt them. Thus do they anticipate every one's wishes Man,” in the broad meaning of the word. One who and do well unto every one. That, however, is know only the pregnancies and the deliveries of his cowardice, though it be called ‘virtue.” own soul, who does not have time to think about Imposed weakness may penetrate the man’s himself or his work, one who compares himself to psyche in different ways and jeopardize the Hero. As others, and applies his taste but easily forgets it, Nietzsche says, “Weakness as a task: weakening the releases or does not use it. Yet, he may finally create desires, the feelings of pleasure and displeasure, the works beyond his own understanding and critical will to power, to a sense of pride, to want to have and mind in such a way that, afterward, his ideas and have more; weakening as meekness; weakening as opinions may seem stupid to himself. Nietzsche faith; weakening as aversion and shame in the face of illuminates his courageous heroic soul through a everything natural, as negation of life, as sickness comparison where relationships between soldiers and and habitual weakness--weakening as the commanders are more nobler than the ones between renunciation of revenge, of resistance, of enmity and workers and masters. wrath.” Every military civilization is, at least until Realizing the Nietzsche’s Hero inevitably today, far better than those called “industrial.” With leads to race purification and superiority. Nietzsche their present forms, these are the most degenerated pointes out this issue in places in his writings and, as types of life ever. Law is a requirement for industrial mentioned before, Nietzsche does not believe in civilization. We wish to live and we should sell equality. Regarding the relationship between equality ourselves, but we humiliate one who abuses this and race superiority, he says, “Requiring equal rights inevitable situation and buys the worker. It is a is against racism.” Elsewhere he says, “There is only strange thing to obey powerful people who create nobility of birth, only nobility of blood.” He fear or even fright. encourages people to move toward superiority. He The Hero is independent, needless of others, says, “Blessed remote period when a people said to self-reliant, responsible for his own work and life, itself: I will be master over peoples! For, my brethren, and free from restraints imposed by others. He is a the best shall rule, the best also willeth to rule and “Superman, proud and free, happy, and calm, strong where the teaching is different, there the best is in both physical and mental terms, and the greatest lacking!” To avoid these imposed weaknesses, the yes-sayer of life. He is the real Dionysus. He even Hero must take risks. Thus, taking risks is the vital says yes to death, as he says yes to life like what he

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is.” Such a being, as the noble type of man, considers Among historic figures people like himself as the establisher of values. He does not need Napoleon and Cyrus came close to the Nietzschean others’ approval. He judges himself: what harms me ideal Hero in character. They were the embodiment is a harm by itself. He knows that it is only himself of autocracy, self-assurance, self-containment, who attaches value to all things. He is the creator of personality independence, and freedom of values. In other words, the good are noble by origin conventions. “Such men as Napoleon must come and from the aristocracy. They create values and their again and again and confirm the belief in the own moralities. To make readers appreciate the autocracy of the individual.” behavior of freedom, Nietzsche says, “Use your own From Nietzsche’s perspective, the feet to ascend! Do not allow others to ascend you! Do relationship between the Superman and man is like not sit upon the heads and shoulders of the that of man and the ape and this is to bring the strangers.” Again he expresses the same theme with position of freedom into focus: “What is the ape to another interpretation: “O! Nobler men! Learn to man? A laughingstock, a thing of shame. And just the place yourself upon your own appropriate feet.” same shall man be to the Superman: a laughingstock, Man’s freedom or slavery are in direct contact with a thing of shame.” In another comparison, he likens his power or weakness and man’s power can be man to a “polluted stream,” and Superman to a “sea.” measured by his freedom. The more powerful, the This is the sea that can tolerate the pollution of the freer and the weaker, the more useful. “Man’s power, river, “Verily, a polluted stream is man. One must be or, in other words, his weakness can be assessed by a sea, to receive a polluted stream without becoming the amount of faith by which he needs to grow or by impure. Lo, I teach you the Superman: he is that sea; the number of recourses he relies on and, due to that, in him can your great contempt be submerged.” he does not want others to resort to them.” The Nonetheless, merely because Nietzsche has chosen freedom and independence of the Heroes—or Napoleon, one should not assume that he only philosophers, theoretically speaking, —are the source admires physical strength. His ambition is not only a of controlling, governing, and legislating. powerful beast, but a man with the highest mental maturity and of course physical excellence. Thus, The real philosophers, however, are with utmost certainty, Nietzsche says, “Humankind commanders and law-givers; they say: ‘Thus must surpass himself, as the Greeks did. He should shall it be!’ They determine first the Whither not recourse to non-materialistic imaginations. …The and the Why of mankind, and thereby set goal is a noble culture with the whole body not only aside the previous labor of all philosophical with mind.” Nietzsche describes the free, heroic workers, and all subjugators of the past— Superman thus: they grasp at the future with a creative hand, and whatever is and was, becomes for them To redeem what is past, and to transform thereby a means, an instrument, and a every "It was" into "Thus would I have it!"-- hammer. Their ‘knowing’ is creating, their that only do I call redemption! Will--so is the creating is a law-giving, their will to truth emancipator and joy-bringer called: thus is—will to power. have I taught you, my friends! But now learn this likewise: the Will itself is still a prisoner. This is why philosophers are neither Willing emancipateth: but what is that called scientists, nor artists, nor the pious, nor divine men. which still putteth the emancipator in chains? They are, however, the powerful free-standing "It was": thus is the Will's teeth-gnashing and beyond all values and criteria and they can be called lonesomest tribulation called. Impotent “the highest” when it comes to categorization. The towards what hath been done--it is a philosophical life of the Hero and the Superman malicious spectator of all that is past. Not requires dispensing with traditional rules and backward can the Will will; that it cannot regulations. This, in turn, necessitates a deeper break time and time's desire--that is the understanding of the world. Ignoring the appearance Will's lonesomest tribulation. Willing of rules, customs, and ordinary mottoes of life can emancipateth: what doth willing itself devise penetrate into the depth of the world. Perhaps, with in order to get free from its tribulation and perseverance in doing so, the moment promised by mock at its prison? Nietzsche arrives and the “conviction” of the philosopher becomes actualized. In this regard, 3. Conclusion Nietzsche says, “There is a point in every philosophy Nietzsche is a super-ambitious philosopher who at which the ‘conviction’ of the philosopher appears ascends mountains and pinnacles and loathes on the scene.” descents to low places. He denounces whatever leads

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to self-belittlement or baseness. Great characteristics, 9. Cupitt, D. 1988. The Sea of Faith, trans. Hassan manners, and thoughts become great men. Likewise, Kamshad. Tehran: Nashr Now, 1997. sordid manners and debased thoughts suit low, mean 10. Daybreak, (1881), trans. Ali Abd Allahi. Tehran: human beings - called “the flies of the market-place” Jami, 2001. by Nietzsche. 11. Durant, W., (1991) The Story of Philosophy, Thus, Nietzsche, despising the “ceremonial trans. Abbas Zaryab. Tehran: The Scientific and clowns,” the mean, and the “flies of the market- Cultural Publications, 1995. place,” searches for a wise, original, superman who 12. Ecce Homo (1888), trans. Behrooz Safdari. stands above all moral and religious values and Tehran: Fekr Rooz, 1999. principles, who has overcome his humanity, and who 13. Fooladvand, H. 2004. On Nietzsche. Tehran: has reached the pinnacle of human evolution. It is a Ketab Nader and Baztab Negar wise man who is unattainable, but should be either 14. Hamed Fooladvand. The Gay Science, (1882), found or made. trans. Tehran: Jaami, 2001. 15. Heidgger, M. (1956), Nietzsche, 4 vols. trans. Acknowledgements: David Farrel Krell. New York: Harper & Row, Author is grateful to Dr. Hossein Omidi for 1979-1987 his contribution in the study and Dr. Mehrdad 16. Jaspers, K. and Nietzsche. 2004. On his Jalalian for his valueable comments in scientific Understanding of Philosophy, trans. Syawosh writing and editing the article for language accuracy Jamadi. Tehran: Qoqnoos. and grammar. 17. Magee, B. (1978), Men of Ideas, trans. Ezzat Allah Fooladvand. Tehran, Tarh Now, 1991. Corresponding Author: 18. Nitsche F. 1900. The Will to Power (after 1900), Muhammad Hossein Mardani Nokandeh trans. Majid Sharif. Tehran: Jami, 1998. Faculty of philosophy 19. Morad Farhadpoor. The philosophy of Truth, Tajik State Pedagogical University trans. Tehran: Hormos, 2001. Doshanbeh, Tajikestan. 20. Mc Daniel, S., The Philosophy of Fredric Tel: +98.9113701235 Nietzsche, trans. Abd al-Ali Dast-gheyb. Abadan: Email: [email protected] Porsesh, 2000. 21. Nietsche F. 1996. The Genealogy of Morality. References Khojasteh. Tehran, Iran. p. 133 1. Abd al-Ali Dast-gheyb. Twilight of the Idols 22. Nitsche F. 1886. Beyond Good and Evil, trans. (1888), trans. Tehran: Parastesh, 1998. Daryoosh Ashoori. Tehran: Kharazmi, 1981. 2. Ansell-Pearson, K. (1994), An Introduction To 23. Pirooz, A., Superman. Tehran: Pirooz, 2001. Nietzsche As Political Thinker: The Perfect 24. Razavi, M. The Dawn of the Superman. Tehran: Nihilist, Friedrich Naghsh Jahan, 2002: 85-86 3. Ashoori D. 1973. Thus Spoke Zarathustra 25. Strathern, P. (1996), Nietzsche In 90 Minutes, (1883–1885), trans. Tehran: Nili. trans. Mehrdad Jame’i Nadooshan. Tehran: 4. Ashoori D. Twilight of the Idols (1888), trans. Markaz, 1991. Tehran: Agah, 2002. 26. Stern, J. P. (1978), Nietzsche, trans. Ezzat Allah 5. Ashoori D. On the Genealogy of Morality, Fooladvand. Tehran: Tarh Now, 1994. (1883–1885), trans. Tehran: Agah, 1998. 27. The Birth of Tragedy out of the Spirit of Music 6. Behbahani and Ali-Asghar Halabi. Tehran: (1872), trans. Ro’ya Monajjem. Tehran: Behbahani, 1992. Parastesh, 1998. 7. Blackham, H. J. (1952), Fredric Nietzsche, trans. 28. Winchester, J. J. (1995), Nietzsche’s Aesthetic Mohsen Hakimi. Tehran: Markaz, 1981. Turn: Reading Nietzsche After Heidegger, 8. Copleston, F. C., Nietzsche, trans. Daryoosh Deleuze, Derrida, trans. Muhammad Zamiran. Ashoori. Tehran: The Scientific and Cultural Tehran: Hormos, 2003.. Publications, 1996.

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Feminism and Power in Islamic Republic of Iran

Mehrdokht Ghooparanloo

PhD student, Department of Law and Political Science, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. [email protected]

Keywords: Feminist; Knowledge/Power; Discourse; Gender; Islamic Republic of Iran.

1. Introduction frame the power relationship in Islamic Republic of Debatable theory of feminism is the fruit of Iran in four arenas: political, economical, social and western notion in modern period. In regard to the cultural, but since the power relationship pertaining diversity of theories, it can be defined in a general to women is considered, from each above mentioned definition as well: “feminism as a social and areas an appropriate one due to women’s problems conceptual movement in its widest definition is has been chosen for investigation, in cultural area: endeavoring to raise women situation as a group of higher education , social area: family, political area: community.”( Moshirzade, 1385:15). Since more elections and finally in economical area: employment, than two centuries of women movements, we face yet in order to understand how the exerted power with difficulty in definition and explanation of relations in these areas have formed the gender and as feminism theories and these deficiencies will arise the alleged words of Foucault that knowledge power more when we intend to survey this theory according will produce its own correlated we also are following to south developing communities with conditional this knowledge formation which is feminism among texture of coherent culture and religion. Iranian elites since they are the conversational means Despite three decades after Islamic revolution in the community. The study of above arenas in Iran and the entry of women in different political, necessitates perceiving social textures which are social, economical… arenas and women’ movement active in those areas. So, regarding the political- activities, feminism has still been regarded as an social structures of Islamic Republic of Iran we have awkward label. made the distinction four discourses which are as the We confront with a variety spectrum of votes in follows: Iran which are somehow contradicting each other and 1- Islamic discourse (1357-1367) would not follow the linear and evolutional process. 2- Construction discourse (1367-1376) What are the effective factors in formation of 3- Reforms discourse ( 1376 - 1384) intellectuals’ mentality? Since Sarah Mills believes 4- Fundamentalist discourse ( 1384 till now) that feminism theory is strictly relied upon Foucault’s In these four discourses we would survey the discourse theory (Mills, 1382:99). The focus on political, social and even legal structures affecting methodology is based on Foucault interpretation of Iranian intellectuals mentality in order to understand discourse. In this article the focal point focuses on that how feminism and gender in particular have been understanding the feminism knowledge in the frame conceived in Islamic Republic of Iran’s period and to of power relations (social-political structures) from achieve this goal in different discourses we would the view point of Iranian intellectuals in Islamic use the works of enlighteners who have written in Republic of Iran. As Foucault considers the power as this field and the activists who have taken the step in partial and trivial in all over the society, we also

http://www.sciencepub.net/life 746 [email protected] Life Science Journal, 2011;8(2) http://www.lifesciencesite.com development and progress of feminism and women’s have become valuable due to obtaining truth: the rights in this country. medal and rate of those who are obligated to say something which is considered to be true.” Mills, 2. Definition of concepts 1382:28). So the truth is what the communities The concept of discourse and its critical should act for its production, not as represented in analysis has been associated with Foucault. His transcendental style. Thus, Foucault is not bounded in scopes in context of knowledge, power, discourse, which discourse is the representative of fact or the culture and society has ranked him alongside of reality. The notion in Foucaultian style provides this European thinkers. He negates the correlation among possibility of understanding how meaning is being rationality, freedom and improvement in his works produced, but not subject to the will of unique man- and tries to prove that the new forms of power and oriented individual, not as a linguistic structure and knowledge will provide the field of progress and not in such a way as socio-economic relations has growth of sovereignty. Many Foucault’s exegetes been triggered, but through a range of power- would refer to works before 1970s (paleontology knowledge systems which organizes the context. The period) and the works after it (decent biology period) conditions can create the possibility of different as two separate course in his notions. Foucault, actions and is rooted in the core of the social entities. however, has reconstructed his previous works in the Foucault believes that power and knowledge are light of his next interests. The concepts which have interlinked in the discourse. Discourses are the been documented from Foucault’s intellectual series practices of knowledge composing, those are are the fruit of these periods. Foucault‘s discourse something more than the ways of notion and theory has been formed in his paleontology studies. meaningfulness, and those are shaping the body He represents a trihedral definition of speech act, and nature, conscious and unconscious mind and sometimes considers it as a common field of all subjects’ sense of life who desire to rule over them words and statements, sometimes a set of specific and (azdanlou, 1374:48). From the viewpoint of Foucault, distinct statements and sometimes as logic deeds the power of knowledge makes its correlated, but his which indicates a set of statements. The first desired power is not possessed by state, dominant definition refers to all real applications of routine class and or ruling person, on the contrary power is a written and speech language. The second defines the strategy: power is neither entity nor a structure but a formulation and or specific areas such as racism, “complex strategic situation” and “plurality of feminism discourse and… and finally the third relations among forces”, and indeed power for its definition returns to politic-social structures which establishment requires a large number of resistance determine the conditions and rules of speech and points. According to Foucault analysis, power is statements. In fact, discourse is that common and exerted only on released individuals and their actions general area in which the language is formulated and and induces them to choose from different options. applied in specific forms. The discourse is a So the constant relationship of power with struggle, determinant of area in which knowledge is resistance and freedom is the condition for its constructed and reconstructed. (Zeymaran, 1382:33). existence. But wherever disobedience and resistance One of the most useful ways of reflection in came to an end, the relation of power would be discourse is to be considered not as a set of terminated. Thus Foucault has allowed an important symptoms or a piece of text, but “procedures” which distinction between power and violence. (Refer to formulate the alleged topics and objects Foucault, 1384). Exerting power necessarily activates systematically. Thus, discourse is something which knowledge devices and provides the areas in which produces something else (part of speech, concept, knowledge is being formulated, from the standpoint effect). (Foucault, 1972:49) In the regard of of Foucault, this is the relation of power and discourse as an effective object, it is important to knowledge which promote subjectivity and monitor truth, power and knowledge factors, so objectivity to human beings as an individual and because of these elements the discourse is influential. make into forms of knowledge threads. But Foucault Foucault believes:” truth belongs to this world and it attitude to the power is a type of which accordingly is rooted in the universe due to the requirements and power would dominate all the community compulsions. Each real regime has general policy of simultaneously as an integrated whole. in this type of its own truth and those are the types of discourse power, there is no intellectual and autonomous which that community nourishes and imposes them to subject which has taken the control of power, but this play the role of truth. The mechanisms and evidences is the power which generates the subject and what which enable a person to distinguish the real returns back to it. This is the power which brings the propositions from fake ones and their proving ways social entities under its umbrella and determines the of each one: the techniques and formalities which practices of their notions and speeches. (Soltani,

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1387:17). We should delve into deeds micro level to conceive power in its activity and routine A- Islamic discourse (1357-1367) performance, namely that level of politic Prior to Islamic revolution’s victory in 1357, technologies in which our deeds are shaped. Power is Pahlavism hegemonic discourse, aimed to not restricted to politic entities. Power plays a direct deconstruction and had lost its unity of discourse productive role which derives from lower section, is field, till on 22 Bahman 1357 which was completely multi directional, and acts from down and up and overthrown and Islamic revolution led by Imam vice versa. (Same: 312). Given to the central issue of Khomeini succeeded, as the name of this popular feminism in this article, it is necessary to take a look movement describes “Islamic Revolution” the main at the concept of feminism from the standpoint of reason of people for this revolution was establishing Foucault. In his opinion, the gender is an incidental a government with the essence of Islam. What we system of speeches, behaviors and themes which nominate as Islamic discourse encircles two presently surrounds people in the core of power and discourses of revolutionary and war. The dominant discourse relations. In other words, the gender is a discourse of years 1357-1359 was the revolutionary strategy for management, production and supervision speech. The years of debate swirl for power, on humans’ body and their social relations. Namely, nationalist movements, Islamic and leftist which the gender acts as a leverage to dominate human during the early years of revolution victory and the existence. Foucault discussed the gender in exact same year of 1357 were living in a metaphorical air historical meaning; it is not a basic tentative according to the theory of LacLau and Mouffe’s biological phenomenon, but a historical product. discourse analysis (See, Gheyranlu: 21-36) demanded (Jahandide, 1383:18). This paper follows to for running the society based on their own ideologies recognize Iranian intellectuals’ concept about the next day of revolution victory. But some of feminism. As we initially pointed out feminism groups’ aims and ideologies were not aligned with definition so our intent about intellectual has to be revolutionary goals and ideals. This was Islamic and determined. Intellectual in terms of Edward Said is an religious groups among the impressive forces in the individual with specific common role in society, who victory of Islamic revolution which could take the is capable and talented in resembling, visualization power through a large social base, rejecting and and clear expression of a message, a view, an idea, excluding other movements. (Bashiriye, 1382:43). philosophy or opinion to or for a group of people. The war speech was the dominant discourse of years This role is so difficult and the enlightener can not 1359-1367, because as Imam Khomeini had stated: play it unless through this percept and sense of which this was not a war between two countries but the war his/her task is to induce disturbing questions and of blasphemy against Islam and the battle of right and encounter with traditionalism and dogmatism and not wrong (Imam Khomeini, 1378:223). The burse out of to provoke them (Said, 1382:30) and this was the imposed war against Iran made a significant role in definition by Edward Said which became a basis for considering the discourse as Islamic. After removal intellectuals in Islamic Republic of Iran. of liberal and leftist otherness, gradually othering among Islamic groups was highlighted. This 3. Power relations in Islamic Republic of Iran eventually led to originate right and left wings in the The desired power of Michel Foucault is a partial and country. Right-wing has the tendency toward scattered power which includes social relations “aristocracy, bazaar-traditional” and left-wing had thoroughly and exists in all decision making, actions the trend of “petty equity, radical-traditional”. The and … difference point of these two Islam-oriented factions Since the aim is to understand this power relations in was over political concepts rather than political ones. Islamic Republic of Iran, so for more in depth survey Traditional right believed in private property and lack according to Foucault thesis about discourse as a set of control over domestic and foreign trade and the of social-political structures which determines the traditional leftists was rather than rival the advocate conditions and rules of texts and speeches we have of state-owned economy, anti-imperialism and U.S distinguished four discourses in 30 years life time of opposition. The definition of Islamic community in Islamic Republic of Iran and we would study the this period is a provincial society and Islamic hard power relation in four areas of elections, core of supreme leader. This sacred entity as an employment, higher education and family and in each internal mechanism is far more than the power state we will discuss about women. relations and can release theocracy government from A- Islamic discourse (1357-1367) deviation and neither any other have the exponent B-Construction discourse (1368-1376) and competence beyond this entity. Any C-Reforms discourse (1376-1384) consideration about Islam in this period is a juridical D-Fundamentalism discourse (1384- present) and theological one, and religious ritual and

http://www.sciencepub.net/life 748 [email protected] Life Science Journal, 2011;8(2) http://www.lifesciencesite.com appearances are paid more attention and disproportion with women’s specific features. Mrs. establishment of religious reign is possible only Gorji the only female representative, the member of through enforcing the religious commandments. Assembly of Experts as the oppose of presidential When the imposed war begun which Iran’s economy male select ability in response would observed: was in the threshold of implementing the plans and “ when the most people should vote, if against sharia, programs in case of self-sufficiency and reduction to would have not participated in voting and should be oil dependency which allocated a part of country approved by the leader too, given that there is not budget to defensive affairs, and a large number of provincial and it is a demonstrative and power of human and other resources were consumed in war attorney and if in case of competency, namely the affairs, war could have an impressive and deterrent trustworthiness, piety, good record and faithful to impact on Iran development process.( for more Islamic principles, they can meet the features, details see Dejpasand and Raoufi:1389). After because a woman can be capable of being faithful, understanding the Islamic discourse now we review trustworthy and piety and her political power is the power relations about women in the areas of assigned by Islam.” (Same, 1770) “The president election, employment, higher education and family. should be selected from among the religious and Elections: despite the legal platforms for political political figures which obtain the following participation of women in elections, there are in conditions: Iranian-born, Iranian nationality, director practice some restrictions and barriers on the path of and resourceful, a good history of trustworthiness, this partnership particularly in the field of women’s piety, faithful and believer to IRI principles and select ability. By the approval of election bill of state country’s official religion.”(Same, 1796) This and provincial associations on October 1341, the principle was reviewed without any discussion by women’s political laws and their right to participate Assembly of Experts members and the constitution in elections for the first time was granted. But due to was share voted and approved by the session the pressure of some religious people for the reason chairman. Assembly of Experts for Constitution of being pretext it was cancelled on 8th Aban of the representatives by setting the term of “religious and same year, then another single article about women political men” represented in brief the issue of participation in elections approved on 1343 was women presence, and they kept open the discussion adopted and this right was granted. What is about this case till the future by more in depth considered here about political participation in theoretical arguments and providing the social bases particular is the right of women select ability in which this task should be settled down. Due to the presidential elections. When the franchise will be lack of women’s expressing dissatisfaction about effective in which the characteristics of generality, mentioned principle in that cross section of time, equality and freedom of choice have been into holding four presidential elections during Islamic consideration. Although some limitations such as discourse and the review of this elections candidates nationality, age, abuse history are the logic reasons reveal that the issue of taking the responsibility of for the lack of right for elector and to be selected, but presidential post in that period basically has not been the discrimination in public participation merely for in to consideration for the women. the reason of gender does not seem to be justifiable. Employment: with regard to economic employment Regarding the select ability of women in presidential necessity and women’s participation in economic elections, Article 115 of IRI constitution has been activities in our county, yet the desirable and controversial since its very beginning of approval, admissible balance in this area between men and and always at the threshold of presidential elections women in different activities have not been yet the discussions, comments and interpretations arise to achieved. The unavoidable circumstances of Iran-Iraq the peak but eventually never take place. At the war like a huge tide led many of country’s activities beginning, Article 115 of constitution in its first and investments toward the advance of defensive initial draft has been as the follows: goals. A surge which would not left any areas for “The president should be Iranian-born, Iranian women’s economic participation. Change in product nationality, has the country’s official religion and sectors, economic problems, the widespread being its promoter, faithful to the principles of IRI , influence of dominant view of society over the man, a good record, trustworthiness and piety.” (The appropriate role of women drove them out from detailed discussion of parliament about the final economic activities areas. Although, there hasn’t review of IRI constitutions, 1364:1766). In relation to been any changes in labor laws pertained to women the principles of Ayatollah Montazreri’s reasoning as but the prevailing notion in war period was the role the head of Assembly of Experts, the draft of of motherhood and partnership is more deserving and constitution in terms of women’s incumbency for the house is a proper space for them and the public presidency are, the huge responsibility and its area should be assigned for men, consequently, in

http://www.sciencepub.net/life 749 [email protected] Life Science Journal, 2011;8(2) http://www.lifesciencesite.com this period the share of housewives from total women that women are not responsible for providing family of age 10 years and above remained unchanged. subsistence and any upgrade in administrative system (69%) while the share of employed women had a belongs to man. As a result women were not allowed decline process. In this era the share of active women to grow more than the restricted level of expert in the from total women of age 10 years and above declined administrative structure and basically they became a from 12/9 percentage to 8/2, also the share of mere executors rather than decision employed women from country’s total employed maker.( Kar,1384:152) therefore, women people declined from 13/8 percentage to 8/9. In employment is marginal in this discourse and more explanation of such a decline it can not be confined focus on supportive, educational roles which can be just to the factors of downturn or increasing the interpreted within the frame of motherhood and number of female students while the effects of partnership. discriminatory policies of statesmen in this roll back Higher education: after the revolution victory, due is appropriately visible. (Shaditalab: 1386, 36) It has to the dominant atmosphere on universities, all the been proved that after revolution the positions and country’s universities for awhile were closed.(1359- socio-political opportunities which have been granted 1362) and in order to organize the cultural affairs of to women, due to its lack of a strong belief context schools and universities, purpose of islamization and was challengeable and women were excluded from the unity between seminary and university the many decision making and management levels. Revolution Culture Staff was established by Imam During this epoch, judge women were forefronts. Khomeini’s decree. The measures taken during Because it was announced that women have no right Cultural Revolution as one of its goals were to judge on bahman 22nd 1357. under the influence considered as a part of fighting program against and domination of this type of radical vision and western culture in Iran. During this period according concept which had been visualized in a group of to the current perspective the content of many current policymakers, women’s most favorable textbooks and scientific books were reviewed. The extensive training programs in many fields were views of so-called liberal and left were eliminated halted and eventually the man and women’s natural from the university through the different practices; division of labor which is a completely different idea these programs yielded a great impact on cultural and against women’s social participation was reinforced scientific structures, so many of intellectuals and and female anti-employment beliefs and ideas could enlighteners left Iran. Though new universities were find to raise and progress in more suitable established in towns aiming at increasing the access environment. The absence of measure over to higher education facilities for town’s inhabitant, population control and shutting down of family but university research in many fields were limited welfare centers affiliated to women’s organization and after the cultural revolution, the number of training them contraception practices added more researcher’s papers in prestigious scientific journal problems, closing of public kindergarten became a significantly decreased. Based on drafted constitution burden and in total, some events occurred which in the years of after revolution, the task of shifted the flow of women employment to anti- government is to prepare primary education facilities employment and the programs of creating appropriate for all which this led to increase the number of opportunities for employment were closed. (Kar, schools and teachers in the first decade of revolution,, 1384:103). In this era the experts have classified providing the educational facilities even in remote social barriers which had banned the women path in villages along with family especially fathers’ new the case of economic participation as the follows:” interpretation of educational system and Islamic encouragement of women to earlier redemption and consideration, caused dramatically the fading of retirement- inspiring and drawing the women who cultural barriers on the way of female education. were interested in doing successful and basic social Consequently, girls almost throughout Iran could activities to marginal and auxiliary affairs- using the accede to elementary schools and even in rural areas mass media to show women as the creatures within more than 50% of girls enrolled in schools. In the the house which had a direct impact in providing the first decade after revolution despite the war conditions which reinforced women to adopt it. conditions, the attempt of the entire system for Part-time job for women-separation of men and expanding the educational facilities and progression women in workplace, and sometime transferring of urban and rural girls at least to primary school women from technical and specialized jobs which level caused significant changes along side with they were responsible besides men to simple and qualitative changes. non-professional occupations, moreover, another In this period, the expansion of girls education in strategy was adopted which avoid the assignment of primary and secondary levels, the policy of higher any management positions to women. It was argued education by the development of public universities

http://www.sciencepub.net/life 750 [email protected] Life Science Journal, 2011;8(2) http://www.lifesciencesite.com capacity and establishment of private university increased number of martyrs, injured and missing provided the area for girls’ more progressive people, and economic sanction and … this speech awareness, but there have been attempts for intended to end the war and reconstruct the country. separating the universities simultaneously or girls Iran entered a new stage by the end of war and classes done and determination of courses which approval of resolution, the stage which was far more according to job definition was suitable for women. different than the war period. The first diversity of In such a way, that in 1363 the choice of 91 out of current period to the previous one was the specific 169 available courses which mostly were in technical attention to economic problems and the attempt to and engineer field was not possible for girls, resolving the country’s economy. Low product moreover, according to the law adopted in 1364, the activity had no result except the expansion of poverty possibility of further education in abroad for and corruption in society and because of unmarried girls was restricted ( Karname expropriations and nationalizations, private Haghighi,1384:88) investment in product sector moved back and even Family: the revision of family laws systematically state-owned economy did not yet grow. Rationed and was implemented on 1364 and ultimately family coupon terminated in sharing the poverty and protection law was ratified and in 1353 made some followed by brokerage and corruption spread. Just changes for more conformity with women’s profit in one economic and social peace could heal the tired family. Significant changes then in family laws and painful mind of Iranian nation. The relatively implemented after Islamic revolution which the most intellectual slogans, such as privatization, economic important was the Family Protection Act in 1353 structure reform, preparation for foreign investment which took place after dramatic changes in family and free trade zones, press expanding and other laws. Family after revolution is considered as issues like “ less child, better life and … Imam fundamental unit of Islamic society and women are Khomeini passed by following the disease on 14th nominated by Imam Khomeini as the pillars of nation Khordad 1368 and based on revised constitution , Mr. which have to be a stronghold of spirituality and Khamenei was introduced as the new leader. Mr. virtue. The law attempted to create a homogenous Hashemi Rafsanjani as the president of Iran assigned relation between Islamic family and nation through the economic development in his own top priority. the defensive manner of special series relations on He in second period presidency due to the frustration one hand to strengthen the control of men over and critiques done about economic adjustment women in the family, on the other hand promoted the program released the economic stabilization program position of women as the active citizens. Imam to the parliament. In the middle of 70s Mr. hashemi’s Khomeini believed that Pahlavi’s Family Protection state economic programs had widespread Act was based on foreign resources and tendencies consequences which in total led to the growth of and ascribed it non-religious which hurt the family reform movement. Between the years of 1368-1376 and caused family life to collapse. Thus, Family there have been major structural changes like Protection Act was abolished and referred back to the demographic revolution, generation gap, cultural set of civil law in 1315. This meant those women’s similarities of rural and urban populations, increasing all short-run prudential supports about divorce, literacy rate in the community, consumerism marriage, child custody and abortion which ever promotion and classification gap in the country which existed were cancelled since then; the religious had been rooted in previous discourse ( Islamic). traditional laws superseded the current family laws. These evolutions played a major role in During these years, the number of married female at meaningfulness and making valuable and in this era the age of less than 14 reached to 112,000 people the values of Islamic discourse lacked its own which consisted 2/4 percent of total married female. required performance and the necessity for new Although this contribution is negligible but, besides values was in air. (Rabiei, 1378, 40) the negative impact on female education, provided Elections: we have witnessed in holding two the field of fertility and number of children increase presidential elections by the end of war and the rate, the issue which its inducing effect on society as beginning of reconstruction era. But in this period a whole caused that Iran faced with a population there is no evidence based on women’s presence and explosion which its consequences are revealed in or their demand in select ability stage for this position. later periods. Employment: state implemented new policies in the B- Construction discourse (1368-1376) frame of first development plan aimed at reducing the In late 1360s the occurred massive changes around public sector dimensions and encouraging investment the country led to formation of speech within Islamic in private sector during the second decade of discourse. Due to the long term war of attrition, revolution, a reconstruction era which are the bombardment attack on economic centers by Iraq, the reflection of some adjustments which has been taken

http://www.sciencepub.net/life 751 [email protected] Life Science Journal, 2011;8(2) http://www.lifesciencesite.com place in ideological interpretations of system and has entering the university, because the student in the had widespread impact on women’s lives such as early years of revolution now were ready to enter shift of population policy from a national country’s higher education system and in this retrospective to a family-based policy which was contestation the girls surpassed boys. So the ratio of followed by stabilizing the population’s growth rate. female to male candidates in the entrance exam has The government interest in removal of structural been increased more than 10% since 1368-1376. obstacles in deployment of women’s workforce in Unfortunately, in this era despite of dramatic growth different fields of community caused to establish of women presence in country’s scientific arenas, women’s office in presidential entity and the similar they are not allowed yet to study in some courses. So offices in all ministries and governmental that according to studies done in academic year of organizations for consulting about women affairs. 1369-70 women are unable to study in 55/55% of President also issued a circular for women technical and mathematical sciences, 28/1357 of appointment in managerial positions. Thus the human sciences, in 23/35% of experimental sciences negative growth of previous era shifted to a positive and 5/26% of art , it means they have legal growth. The ration of employed women to total prohibition. (Jarollahi, 1372:6) country’s employed increased from 9% in 1365 to Family: the changes of rules and regulations in the 12/1 in 1375 and the number of employed women field of family have been initiated from the last years increased to a figure of more than 2million people. of 50s which still is continuing. A major part of these The ratio of housewives to total women at the age of changes are due to family laws revision in a more 10 and above decreased from 69% to 10% which had relaxed atmosphere and the study of the outcome of been stagnant for a decade. During the reconstruction Islamic discourse changes in the family which its era, the employment of women in industry sector stability significance as the most important social which had the most decrement occurred during the unity has been consistently and repeatedly in to war, showed a rapid increase process and the number consideration of the statesmen. In addition to reform of employed women in this section is nearly being of marriage laws, the reform in the case of divorce tripled. Again the share of employed women in laws has been necessitated to prevent its increasing industry sector which had decreased from 52/7 % to process. Moreover the above mentioned, the 21/6% reached to23% in 1357. (Bagherian, 1389:87) researches show the elapsing patriarchal era in Iran. the reforms entered the banking system in order to (Alagha, 1376:327). It can be concluded that the provide the possibility of women presence in power-sharing structure in the family is transforming, economic activities. Central bank has prioritized most importantly the youths and educated people are grant facility for household employee women. more adherent to participatory decision making in the Agricultural and Tejarat banks have promoted special family. Thus this education improvement has caused programs in product and service sectors for rural and the decrement in exclusive power of men. employer women respectively (Shaditalab, 1375:80). Although women employment has had a positive C-Reform discourse (1376-1384) trend, but women’s share in management of state- 2nd of khordad 1376 is the formal entry of this owned organization, though to all attempted efforts, discourse to the country’s political, cultural, social has not improved according to their expectations and and economical areas. The election held on 2nd in recent years has been remained about 3%. As the khordad 1376 is the stage of confrontation between result the educated and more work experience women two conflicting discourse models. A victorious model have mentioned top discriminative variables in filled with new concepts, boundaries and the modern creating women employment problems and their cultural, social and political horizons. (Gholamreza dissatisfaction as follows: 1- Inequality of Kashi, 1379:7) Here is an example model which for a opportunities for getting job 2- Inequality of long time has been in the sideline of the dominant opportunities in making suggestions and critics 3- and formal discourse, and by the domination of right Disregarding women’s ideas in decision making wing discourse on power sources could not afford, as process. 4- Providing higher job opportunities for it was expected to attend in political arena and for men. (Shaditalab, 1377:283) this reason has been drawn back to the margin and Higher education: the positive change taken place in intellectual circles. The major part of reform Islamic discourse in the case of girl education and discourse, which we are recalling, has been particularly primary education has been resumed in formulated during the elections, namely the interval construction discourse. So we observed girls’ between 7th Bahman 1375( Khatami’s candidacy) till enrollment rate enhancing in all educational levels. 2nd Khordad 1376, indeed the main basis of this This issue in the recent years of construction period discourse have been rooted in this period and the became a matter of competition of girls and boys for superstructure of this discourse was laid the

http://www.sciencepub.net/life 752 [email protected] Life Science Journal, 2011;8(2) http://www.lifesciencesite.com foundation in Khatami’s presidency era. Population while the dramatic changes in distribution, content, growth, increment of young troops of society, news, articles and reports was associated to more promotion of awareness in this class, communication attention to the picture, caricature and layout. The expansion, disregarding the political development newspapers across the country had become mostly and lack of inflation inhibition caused the formation four fold more till early 1379, and newspaper of new demands in the society. The demands up until circulation figures increased to unprecedented now have not been explicitly considered. Of course, numbers of 3,000,000 copies per day in Iranian the other factors such as freedom of speech, civil history which was about four fold of newspaper society and in one word the democracy have been circulation figure in 1375. (Fozi, 1384:1089). The impressive in exposure on new demands. The left growth of civil entities and non-state organizations wing had been marginalized after the war end and the was another change in this period, during the reform beginning of construction period and this was a big era, the outline of organizing the public participation opportunity for reconsidering this wing’s votes and has been provided in the field of specialized activities thoughts. The usual presidency election model and public works in the frame of non-governmental changed by the arrival of leftwing particularly organizations (NGO) and forums by demission of Khatami to the political conflicts area who was one authority to establishment of these entities and of the well known political figures in elections and supporting in different fields (Same, 1109). However, was considered as coming president. He along with we have observed the occurrence of some events in several other rivals participated in the arena and all the reform era, such as the arrest and trial of Tehran’s political forces did their best in encouraging people mayor, the murders event known as serial murders, in attending more in polling places on Election Day. university dormitory attack, Berlin Conference and The art of Khatami was applying a new indication sit of some representative in sixth parliament which which has been proposed in constitution law but has were followed may political and oral conflicts. been neglected. Since the beginning of Islamic Elections: there is no women presence in select revolution till 1376 in political discourses arena the ability during these two rounds of presidential privilege was granted to Islamic and its peripheral elections (seventh and eighth). Only Mrs. Azam indications while Khatami’s applied indication was Taleghani attended in seventh round of presidential republican instead. He applied law, people, freedom, elections in 1376 and stated her aim of this symbolic civil society in his speeches and slogans, discussing act as the clarification the task of “men” in Article the issues which constructed the concept of 115 of Constitution. (See, Taleghani, 1376). republicanism and people as the core and Abdollah Ramezanzade, the government spokesman fundamental of this concept. The indication kept at the end of Khatami’s presidency in 1384 the silent and constantly has been defined and second round stated: “we believe that among the surrounded by the shade of Islamic indication. female managers of society there are capable people Khatami revived this indication but never isolated it who are the true example of political men for from the Islamic sense, but tried to provide an candidacy in presidential elections, Ramezanzade opportunity to display itself and since the concept of added: this was a critique to Khatami that why he religious democracy has been formed. The main didn’t apply women in his cabinet while prior to his reason of people’s interest to this discourse was due presidency , no woman was assigned as the general to its legislator’s democratic notions content which director or deputy secretary and governor who was in connection with religion and reflected the Khatami tended to choose from them as a minister. desires and ideas of different social groups. This (RamezanZade, 1384:90) election could drive governmental legitimacy from Employment: According to Human Development charismatic and traditional authority to the legal Report 2004, the economic activities of Iranian context in the political arena and led the authoritarian women consists 30% of total economic activity system of government from imperative condition to a which in comparison with other countries, Iranian democratic one. From political - sociological women are ranked at 82nd position. Shojaee (the head perspective, the election of 2nd Khordad 1376 and of presidential center for women’s participation) with the process of new political discourse formation in above announced news stated: “at present women’s Iran, people demands aligned with a part of capabilities for impressing the policies of country has intellectual elites aimed to rationalize government’s confronted with tremendous limitations due to the authority practices and creating a democratic society. inadequacy of women’s presence in decision making During the reform period, a partial openness was structures and macro policy, a few number of emerged in Iran in the field of media, journalism, women’s presence in representation and information and book publishing. The numerical and managements and impossibility to access the required quantitative growth of publications in a short-run, skills for operating in different levels have imposed

http://www.sciencepub.net/life 753 [email protected] Life Science Journal, 2011;8(2) http://www.lifesciencesite.com them a double oppression.” She added: “up to next 10 women. It seems that the major increment in the years we will face with the excessive phenomenon of number of candidates should be considered totally single family headed by graduated girls regarding due to these factors: 1- higher marriage age 2- current traditional and gender structure in addition to women’s desire and tendency to further education 3- the graduates’ unemployment crisis, uncertainty of social changing attitudes toward women 4- increase women’s economic situation in the family and choice. (Karname Haghighi, 1384:92) community. She accounted for the dependency of Family: Women’s Participation Center was community total situation improvement to the established during the eight-year reforms period. The progress of women’s conditions and observed:” the foundation and programs of such center which have rights of social support and development, the been implemented and followed in Khatami’s two- empowerment of women would not be achievable term presidency indicates the women’s place within without the upheaval in the levels and entities of the the reforms discourse. In reforms discourse the society.”(Shojaee, 1384:95). The men and women’s boundary between the public and private areas has participation rate have been respectively 62% and paled and women’s definition was not aligned with 12% in 1380, while women’s unemployment rate has mere wife or motherhood tasks, but it has been more been 20% and men’s unemployment rate 13%. The emphasized on the significance of social, political, women’s participation rate in labor market according economical… presence of country’s women and to the predictions of Iran’s fourth economic, social ladies. Although some fundamentalism discourse and cultural development plan would be increased critics claimed that this discourse was followed by from 9/1 in 1375 to 15/2 in 1388. This would impose shaking the foundation of family. In this era the most a huge pressure on labor market. In such case, there important procedure done by the center of women’s should be 232,000 job opportunities created for the participation about the female situation in family was, reason of women’s sufficient job opportunity which the implementation of national plan in surveying the seems to be a hard task. Whereas the new job domestic violence against women in 29 provinces of opportunities occupied by women have been 100,000 the country which has been done by the cooperation in the first plan and 71,000 in second plans. Although of social affairs of interior ministry. This national the achievement of fourth development plan’s goals plan statistics show that 66% of Iranian women since pertaining to women’s employment appears to be their common life are being at least once abused. difficult, but in assumption of achieving the plan’s However, the amount and types of domestic violence goals more than 700,000 women who are seeking the has a significant, diversity and verity in different job would be employment-deprived.( Falihi, 1381:56) provinces of Iran. (Ezazi, 1385:65) it seems that women’s life in Iranian community is mostly affected by men’s manner, idea and the D-Fundamentalism discourse (1384 till now) attitudes, whether as the role of father who makes the The fundamentalism discourse is a kind of discourse control over his daughter’s amount and type of which we are currently living in its speech and deed education and marriage, or as her husband whose atmosphere and many of our functions are affected idea is determinative in further education, range of by the indications ruling this discourse. Those who social activities and her employment or once have been the executive arm of conservatives, in unemployment. The statistics pertaining to women’s ninth presidential elections succeeded in wining their cultural and artistic participation in reform discourse candidate without the support of any party and only like their economic participation statistics are not in the last few days. Some called this flow as radical only disappointing but also shows a fantastic growth. right though with a high desires in state economy. The women publishers’ growth rate between the Some also called it authoritarian or fundamentalist, years of 1376-1379 has been more than 56% and but they themselves preferred to be addressed as women writers’ growth rate was more than 300 conservative and social construction, he was the only %.( women’s status report, 1384:192) candidate who never applied democratic slogans in Higher Education: the gender distribution of campaign and relied on a revolution in economical volunteers during reformation years has displayed and managerial structure. (Mehdizade, 1386) substantial changes, 42% of women in 1362 has been Mahmud Ahmadinejad, in tenth presidential election increased to 62% in 1380. This represents the flow caused a great resentment among some dignified mentioned change in favor of women, because the individual and elites. In presidential debates, the alleged ratio of men in 1362 was almost 58% which moderate and fundamentalist figures like Ayatollah has been decreased to 38% in 1380. This prevailing Hashemi Rafsanjani and Ali Akbar Nategh Nouri ratio despite of the tangible reduction in men’s ratio wouldn’t be deprived from AhmadiNejad penetrating to the total higher education volunteers has been criticism blade. And in the campaign they have been resisted till 1376 and this is used in the favor of condemned of deviation from the fundamentalist

http://www.sciencepub.net/life 754 [email protected] Life Science Journal, 2011;8(2) http://www.lifesciencesite.com through different literature of all critics of caused the fundamentalism discourse being changed Ahmadinejad’s fundamentalist. In this current section to people’s accessible discourse by its own founder. it seems that Iran’s political geography can not be Elections: Islamic revolution has embraced ten analyzed regarding the traditional classification of presidential elections, as prior to our discussion past two decades. Due to the recent developments, women have been deprived in participating though a part of traditional right flow would confirm presidential campaign during past 30 years, and Ahmadinejad all actions to survive in political arena, Guardian Council with its own unilateral and somehow has become as the follower of new left- interpretation of Constitution Article 115 has denied wing faction, but much of the traditional right-wing women from their most self-evident right for along with precedent flows of system namely modern presidential candidature. Since 1376, that Mrs. Azam left and right have found a common unwritten point Taleghani who announced her participation in 7th around a few issues, the understandings with the presidential elections until 8th elections who nearly 50 themes as adopting a non-invasive and participatory women have announced their candidature to this approach toward the globe, reducing government arena and till the 9th presidential election more than policies in the current affairs particularly in economy 100 women have volunteered for presidential post, section, avoiding economical shock therapy, attaining despite of numerous efforts by women activists, the a kind of understanding and unity between the task of “ men” has not yet been clarified. Mehr News faithful flows of revolution and ... Agency in 1383, quoted the alleged news by Gholam We must wait and see that new left-wing can span its Hussain Elham, the spokesman for Guardian Council: domination on executive affairs in this new figure or “so far there has not been any formal interpretation in the confrontation with this great alliance would about this issue by Guardian Council, but it may have have to reformulate its own performance. This is a had a gender concept (political men) and in question which the future will reply it. (Mehdizade, Guardian’s negotiations the main concern has been 1386) focused on the gender, namely male gender (Mehr There are several diversities between this period and News Agency 08/08/1388). He in his last comments the former elections which will highlight ninth and in case of enrolling the women and Council’s view tenth presidential elections here. The diversities added: The Council comment about women’s which reveal the difference of new-born discourse candidature in presidential elections has several times with the former discourses, such as: 1- wide been announced and about these volunteers it would speculations in order to identify the individuals who be notified at the appropriate time. (IRNA 2/24/1384). participate as the candidates.2- lack of general Due to these available interpretations which are aligned consensus on a single candidate among somehow contradicted, women activists are lest political groups. 3- The numbers of registered and concerned about the withdrawal of any practical disqualified volunteers. 4- Initial disqualification of opportunity from them by completely tightened candidates and their approval by leader’s decree. 5- interpretation and the dominant idea ruling over Organizing candidates’ supporters according to social Guardian Council. Thus two of women in 7th stratifications and fractures.6- the association of parliament tried their best in 9th presidential considerable directors in making propaganda candidature that were defeated. Mehrangiz Morovati movies.7- vast use of national and new reportage and Rafat Bayat enrolled in presidential elections media. 8- Transparency in candidates’ programs and who their approval were rejected by Guardian providing economical, political and cultural codified Council. Anyway the presence of women in 9th plans. 9- Lack of predictability in elections even in presidential elections did not terminated to these the second round and emerging of lesser known comments but a group of socio-political women figures. 10- Negative positioning and personality activists aggregated in front of Presidential office in destruction of candidates. 11- The serious alloy of Tehran to protest their disqualification of presidency electoral fraud.12- political classification around candidature. social gaps in second stage. (See, Mirvahabi, 1388) Employment: the relative distribution of employed According to the survey entitled , the analysis of women at the age of 11 and above to the total electoral behaviors case study of ninth presidential employees’ population in 1385 has been estimated elections about the reasons of selecting Mahmud 13/1359% which this has been increased 1/49% Ahmadinejad by the people in Political Studies considering year of 1375. While, the women’s Association’s site could be represented based on distribution rate, namely the relative distribution of these features: popularity, serving, simple living, employees’ women at the age of 10 and above to the challenger contradiction, variety-seeking, fighting total active women in 1385 has been reported 76/65%. corruption, religion-oriented, justice, advertising, (Naghash, 1386:8). The percentage of high educated non-theocracy and effectiveness. The features which women to the total population has been increased

http://www.sciencepub.net/life 755 [email protected] Life Science Journal, 2011;8(2) http://www.lifesciencesite.com from 33% in 1375 to 41/78 in 1385 while the share of Representing the plans by parliamentary women like, admitted girls in the universities have been enhanced reduction of working hours, reducing the retirement considering recent years, therefore it is expected that age, sick permissions may cause women to be the share of high educated women to the total satisfied, but seems these proposed plans would have population would still be increasing in coming years, a direct impact on reduction of women’s employment and at the end of 4th development plan would be chance. The employers would prefer to hire men who reached to 45/6%. Followed by the active population are not entitled to receive those benefits, even if any it would also have faced with a fundamental change employers are satisfied to hire women, these so called in 4th development plan and the share of active high legal benefits would probably be compensated by the educated population to the total active population reduction of other job benefits, bonus and … may have reached from 8/9% in 1375 to 13/82in Moreover, 9th government has considered women’s 1383. The share of active high educated women to benefits in returning to family, and performing the the total active women has been increased from sacred and credited job of housekeeping. Mojtaba 17/3% in 1375 to 64/40 in 1383. The share of highly samare Hashemi, presidential adviser, in the educated women employees to the total women in introduction ceremony of Zohre Teyyebzade Nouri, 1383 has been estimated 30/7% (Haghverdi, 1384:17). the new head of women’s affairs has stated: “ the The comparison of women’s employment pattern in most sacred and prestigious jobs is housekeeping, three categories of agriculture, industry and services while its social status is affected and if a woman in 1385 all over the country suggests that, during this spend all her time in nursery and housekeeping, some decade the relative frequency of female employment may criticize.”(Same: 36) in agriculture sector is low, in industry sector is high Higher education: the most important and and in services sector has remained fixed. It can be controversial action which has been occurred in 9th concluded based on statistical data that the women’s government was the state’s gender categorizing bill employment tendency in different sections of to the parliament. Since the most important indicators economic activity in urban areas has shifted from of academic growth in our country is to being service to industry sector and in rural areas from admitted to the entrance examination in recent years agriculture to industry sector. Population distribution we have observed the dramatic increase in girls and of country’s female employees during 1385 in women’s presence in the universities. So that in 1388 economical section, services section (especially, from the total 524,769 admitted people in the health and education services) industries and mines entrance exam, there are 328,729 women and (especially handicrafts and homemade) and 195,977 men, it means that from the admitted people agricultural has been respectively as 44/1, 33/5, 25/4 there were 62/7% female and 37/3% male. The percent. (Same, 18) The current statistics indicate this increased number of girls in the universities has fact that women’s employment situation due to the become the statesmen’s concerns which resulted in past periods particularly during 9th government’s gender-based rationing bill which restricted the girls’ policies has been developed, but the statements and entrance to the universities, this bill aroused many performances of some scholars, statesmen and theoretical discussions between parliamentarians and women active in community’s decision making scholars, but women’s issues would not confined to positions regarding the available data and figures this level in higher education of fundamentalist show a different approach. As Fereshte Sassani the discourse and the other following plan which has consultant secretary and the general manager of been promulgated was gender-based indigenous women affairs of ministry of interior observed: “if categorization in the entrance examination, these there are any job opportunities it should be submitted plans would certainly impact on the reduction of to men, because if they enter the market they can education quality. Women’s right activists in Iran make a family. Anyway an employed woman will have considered gender-based indigenous never marry with an unemployed man. The categorization as the resumption of women’s community should have a moderate look at women. oppression and stay-at- home project. (See, Rahmani, In administrative field we are not allowed to respect 1387) the equality, because the physical ability of men and Family: The Women’s Participation Center was women are different.” Sassani stating that propose of renamed to Presidential Women & Family’s Affair issues pertaining to women’s rights has not resolved during the presidency of Mahmud Ahmadinejad. The the problems declared: “proposing women’s legal main motto of this center was the consolidation of problems is regarded as the ground of more issues, family foundation. Such slogan and title reveal the when people become familiar with their own rights fundamentalist discourse’s change of speech would make more problems in the society by atmosphere. It means that the position, dignity and requesting individual demands. (Sassani, 1385:89). character of an ideal woman within family and its

http://www.sciencepub.net/life 756 [email protected] Life Science Journal, 2011;8(2) http://www.lifesciencesite.com existence have been redefined. Many of plans, bills same metaphorical space of discourse analysis. As and circulars of this period resemble such a process. the result they lacked organization, plans and The Presidential Women & Family’s Affairs Center operational prospect for achieving their goals, though may follow specific goals for this set of series the leader regarded them as the nation’s pillar and the regarding the constitutions, visions and supreme backing of revolution. The reality of woman in leader’s guidance which these goals are as the Islamic discourse was a subdominant one which has follows: increasing women’s participation rate in been created by its indications as, power relations, family and society fields, improvement of attitudes, events like Islamic revolution’s victory and the representing a Muslim woman model as a symbol of imposed war. The significance of woman’s role in the nobility, chastity, and eventually understanding society was based on the need in crisis situations like women’s problems and issues in society, family, war and… aligned with public interests and national workplace and following the modification of related profits. In this period it is more emphasized than laws. Another major pivots which Women & before on women’s supportive roles. As the result the Family’s Affair Center has placed on its agenda in required knowledge for women’s personality growth, 1384, is the revision of current rules in the family and creating of mental request in drawing their requests women areas. But besides of various and somehow and pursuit of revolution and state would not be useful laws aligned with family’s foundation formulated and their participation can be investigated consolidation which has been ratified in the Nation’s in the frame of mass participations. At the end of war Home, since the summer of 1386 by offering the and delicately balance of revolutionary ideological family support bill, there occurred many discussions traits, we enter a new discourse in which country’s and debates regarding women and family laws in the economic well-being has relied on the global free society and publications were filled with criticism of economic relations. In this period, suddenly woman this bill and led to women’s change of attitude toward changes the position from revolutionary stronghold to the fundamentalist state, also a group of women’s a manpower that must develop. If the public sphere rights activists met the members of parliament in belonged to men and woman preferably worked at protest of drafting the anti-family bill. Prior to this home and essentially outside in the first discourse, meeting there have been frequent sessions by Shirin but within the new discourse, the current women’s Ebadi and the review of different proposals from obstacles in entering the public sphere have been women’s spectrum. The variety of different spectra in removed. If in the former discourse, the Islamic veil this meeting was the homogenous voice of protest to was unique model and incompatible in mixing with women’s discriminatory laws (feminist school site- men, in the recent discourse it came to the point and another kind of women’s presence in parliament this was derived from the public sphere which had courtyard). It is obvious that restricting women’s been opened wide for women rather than the second rights within the family has no result except decrease decade of revolution. The truth which had been the sense of security; shake the family foundation and drawn from Iranian woman in construction discourse justice mitigation, while protection and observance of was different than Islamic discourse, because Iranian women’s rights would strengthen family basis, more community, in this era, had left behind the confidence and affection between the couples and transformative developments such as revolution and ultimately led to a healthy family and healthier war looking for alteration and stabilization of the society. issues. In this period it was a institutional and organizational approach toward women’s problem, 4. The reality of gender actually, we know the mid of 1370s and Hashemi Imam Khomeini as the supreme leader of movement Rafsnjani’s first presidential term as the period of with a specific subtle sense took into consideration women’s identification, the period of making the massive force of women in the revolution process hardware and infrastructures for requesting women and necessitated their participation in the motion and demands and the first step in this case was taken from anti-regime movements. Islamic discourse started the political power and the state arenas, but the from Islamic revolution’s victory and terminated by establishment of these identification and the end of war, the period of stabilizing the religious administrative, judicial and legal organizations in values and indeed revival of religious identity in the Hashemi Rafsanjani’s second presidential term could society especially about the women, therefore the afford the cause of self-consciousness in women and Islamic revolution aligned the women of middle and moved them from the margin toward the core of lower- class who had fewer fields for emerging and society. In fact the essence of women in this period opened for them the realm of socio-political activities. according to the previous mentioned stages was a But women’s presence and role in the revolution semi-peripheral and that dependent creature now process was interpretable within the frame of the overflowed to the stage of self-consciousness who

http://www.sciencepub.net/life 757 [email protected] Life Science Journal, 2011;8(2) http://www.lifesciencesite.com endeavored in achieving divergent way and her and what they have represented as the feminism is demands from those social structure planners, and diverse and somehow paradoxical in each knowledge here the fading conventional and traditional and discourse formulation. So in order to distinguish boundaries between public and private space the notions, theoretical feminism is branched into flourished. The essence of woman in construction reformist and conservatism divisions that the discourse is a drawn of participative woman who has theoretical feminism reformist-scope consist two entered the society equipped with self-realization for construction and reform discourses and theoretical stating and obtaining her demands and without any feminism conservative-scope would oversee the concern and apprehension has taken the steps toward Islamic and fundamentalist discourses. the path of public arena. In fundamentalist discourse, women appears to be upper paradoxical and bilinear, 6. Theoretical feminism conservative-scope because in one hand there is a struggle in returning Islamic revolution led by Imam Khomeini provided her to the private stage and family consolidation area the ground for women presence particularly those and on the other hand the statesmen run with speech traditional women in the public and society arena on women’s passionate social, economic and cultural who had not the opportunity to emergence due to the presence, and would promote them to the vice values and ruling western dramatic culture of president operations and ministry positions. In this Pahlavi’s regime and this opportunity became more discourse the fact which we have identically touched spacious by war outburst. Their inevitable entry to was the social presence of woman in the shadow of this arena was unpredicted and for the reason of private arena and again the motherhood and emergency. We can conclude according to the particularly the role as a spouse could dominate her analysis of what has been done in Islamic discourse other various and effective roles. In fact, the scale of about the women in elections, employment, higher private arena weighed more and what is seen in the education and family that in this period and discourse public scale brings to the mind a just dramatic it has not been a conscious and demand-oriented presence. presence, so in revolution process none of the women’s groups with different intellectual tendencies 5. Intellectuals and Feminism did not attempt to determine their requests and even Feminism has been a major issue in intellectual yet after the victory of revolution there hasn’t been circles during past few years. Many people either no request for power by any women movements and woman or man have done the surveys in this scope what reinforced them was the preservation and and following these explorations there have been administration of Islamic values in the society, war various classifications based on feminism’s different outburst and its calamities over the families and the intellectual principles. The most major of damages remained psychologically, physically, classifications in feminism discourse has been economically and … deprived the opportunity of diverged into religious and secular divisions. The thinking about the promotion in the society and current article is looking into other aspect of what is advancing their group goals. called feminism in Iran and has done the survey Conservative feminism monitors two meaning and based on theoretical and practical dimensions. concepts of Islamic and fundamentalist discourse, 5. Theoretic feminism two discourse of having time interval, the first In IRI many individuals (means the enlightened) have hegemonic discourse formed with premier indication argued and debated about feminism and women’s in IRI and fundamentalist discourse, the current movements from the first beginning of revolution’s situation which after reforms breaking rules by the victory. By the investigations done most of these dominant indication of justice and kindness entered people have attempted from the academic or to the state’s speech and deed sphere. The collection governmental scope in commenting, decision making of meanings and concepts which fundamentalist and somehow legislation affairs and their major discourse would convey in its own caravan having discussions have been mostly focused on theories and the most similarities with Islamic discourse and in theorization and practically have not entered the one word it is the readout of revolution ideals. In the society general / objective arena and putting the shadow of Islamic discourse indications and signs, effort into reclaiming rights. These theoretical scope there have been qualified characteristics and features enlighteners have participated in four IRI discourses. for revolutionary women that due to some Islamic republic carries a vast system of speeches, moderation have been uncovered till now. The concepts and symbols in its hasty caravan. The features which will arrange them in conservative intellectuals, consciously or unconsciously, due to the fraction, in fundamentalist discourse we would find dispersed and partial power have produced the them mostly in public offices and interpreter of knowledge in the shadow of this conceptual system women affairs and even this group constitutes the

http://www.sciencepub.net/life 758 [email protected] Life Science Journal, 2011;8(2) http://www.lifesciencesite.com intellectuals of fundamentalist feminist, by division between legal and natural personality of examination of these thoughts and opinions we would women and has more emphasis on women’s conceive that feminism knowledge has a specific motherhood and the role of wife. They prioritize figure in their perspective: Imam Khomeini these roles over any other social, economical, ( Supreme leader), martyr Motahhari ( Islamic political and …roles and they assume that woman thinker), Mohammad Fuladi( Thinker), Hojjat presence within the household is the sense of family IslamZibaee nejad( Thinker and professor), Dr. Bijan members comfort and link many of cultural and value Abdulkarimi( professor), Zohre Elahian anomalies rooted in women presence in public arena, ( representative of 8th Iranian Parliament) , Ibrahim and at the best of situation they consent to women’s Shafiee Sarvestani (Professor), { for more detail preserve chastity and observance of Islamic affairs in information about these intellectuals opinions see, case of their attendance in public and community Khomeini 1370,1375,1378, Motahhari spheres. These intellectuals and their produced 1383,1378,1388, Fuladi,1385, Zibaee nejad1381, knowledge lack the tendency to plan the discussion Abdulkarimi 1385,Tabatabaee 1385}. Nonetheless, of exclusively theoretic and academic and basically they criticize the traditions and regulations but have no debates over women movements and its resume the emotional action and privilege the task history. In fundamentalist discourse the majority over the right, for example, in subject matters like regulations ratified by women standing in public divorce, child custody, wergild, obedience to husband office and some of statesmen for the women’s and … a task-oriented criticism necessitates the welfare have led to the private sector and fading juridical order should be extracted in accordance with women presence in public sphere. Finally, in this time and space and then what the Muslim jurisconsult discourse the generated feminism is in apparent renders, it would be considered as the task. They contrast with western feminism and its origin, believe religion in the context of ideology and this believes that feminism has resulted in hostility led to ideological needs and requests which its result between man and woman and Iranian woman in this would be the sacred ideals and requests and doctrinal transition from tradition to modernity has become opposition to critics and opponents and the tendency bewildered, its slogan is individualistic and profit- toward the conspiracy theory. On the other end the oriented and Iranian feminists are pursuant of western characteristic of ideological view is that women have origin and suffer from the lack of their own plan and always preferred other requests to their own real program. needs, and have privileged the needs of metropolitan government over basic and fundamental own desires 7. Practice Feminism: (Practical) and eventually by idealistic and ideological This type of feminism is monitoring the speech and interpretation of so long as “the society wouldn’t deed of those practically and objectively attempting change to a religious one women’s heaven wouldn’t to acquire women’s rights and requests. Their be achieved on the earth”, put their efforts on identity and speech are excessively interrelated to the transcendence of government’s political authority to structure of political power. So that it can be their own needs. The intellectuals of fundamentalist predicted that once the political power and acquire a denial and at the best critical approach to hegemonic discourse has been concluded, what class the feminism theory and women movements. They of enlightener would be emerged. This type of consider feminism development and its pertaining feminists who are pragmatic and or from the view issues as the colonialism purposes and cultural point of belief are known as secular would apply invasion which deteriorate the woman’s dignity and concept or symbols in expressing their notion and have triggered subversion of family. This group of requests which from the diversity of discourses, the intellectuals consider these cultural and social discourses like reforms and overflowed problems due to the penetration of feminism notion fundamentalist and due to the lack of articulation to Iranian women thoughts by documentation to with privilege indication would be marginalized. higher divorce rate, higher marriage age, the increase Whatsoever, the more vast diversity of discourses, in woman jobseekers rate, increment of female speech, concepts, and the applied symbols by each volunteers in entrance exam and … discourse the less debates in using such intellectuals Thus their produced feminism, though the applicable there would be. Nevertheless, they would make the use of feminism word for some of them flourishes as position in criticizing the current relations. They alien and unappealing use, is somehow suffixed with demonstrate, protest against the lack of adjudication, Islamic, Iranian and indigenous. This knowledge put hold the seminars, do the research and recently have the emphasis on preserving women dignity and organized different campaigns and sign gathering. In expressed that there is no difference between men case of a spectrum look at feminism in Iran, in one and women in human rights perspective and set for end there is reformist feminism and on the other end

http://www.sciencepub.net/life 759 [email protected] Life Science Journal, 2011;8(2) http://www.lifesciencesite.com there would be conservative feminism and pragmatic women’s issue in this discourse is about family feminism would be outside of this division, though in protection bill their major stress would be put on the hegemonic period of reforms discourse was in a changing law and taking legal action, target-setting close position to reform feminism. In fact we have in challenge with patriarchal and this induce the witnessed a type of convergence between reform fundamentalist feminism to label them as anti-family feminism and pragmatic feminism due to that stigma. Their generated feminism knowledge lacks in discourse’s socio-political structures and the frame of certain, defined purposes and plans and they believe its ruling power and the most othering pertaining to that their goals are determined in the process of women affairs would be occurred in fundamentalist movement and when the opportunities are made the discourse. By the study of the theories of intellectuals different factions would become united and the best such as Nushin Ahmadi Khorasani (Journalist and occasion is prior to election atmosphere and the women’s rights activist), Mahbube Abbasgholizade theories are rooted in this social action. They have no (journalist and women’s rights activist), Fateme positive attitude toward statesmen for they believe Sadeghi (professor), Parvin Paydar (researcher of the politicians have misused women in achieving the women’s issues), Marziye Mortazi Langrudi power and political goals. This has caused the women (journalist and women’s rights activist), Manjje Najm movements gain a political function, while this Iraqi (writer and translator), Nasrin Jazi (Professor), movement is endeavoring in making social changes Mehrangiz Kar (researcher and women’s rights in the favor of women and not getting fair share of activist), Faride Mashini (journalist and women’s political power. The fundamentalist government’s rights activist), Fariba Davudi Mohajer (women’s performance pertaining to women movement and rights activist) {for more detail information about marginalizing them have led to some restrictions in these intellectuals theories see, Ahmadi Khroasani public sphere for them (such as the detention of 1385,1387, Abbasgholizade 1379,1383,1385,1379, women activists, disruption of women communities, Sadeghi1384, Paydar 1387,Mortazi Langrudi 1385, banning women’s periodicals, sealing women’s Najm Iraqi1382, Jazani 1382,Kar1377, DAvudi grassroots organizations) this has driven them to Mohajer 1384} we found that practice feminism cyberspace, though there have not been left safe due would consist both theoretical and practical aspects to the filtering. Nowadays, what we witness from the of feminism, though its pragmatism aspect has been viewpoint of this intellectual faction as women always weighed more. As it was mentioned, this type movement is the shift from mass to individual of feminism in reforms discourse have the common motions in women opposition. While we are moving points with reformist feminism, from the standpoint far beyond the revolution, people pay more attention of feminism knowledge , this group of women who to their own daily life policies, tired population of participated in the state during the reforms discourse policy and politics would keep the distance from played the converter and interface role between the collective action. At the end, what we conceive about state and the civil society. This knowledge in feminism in Iran has the resultant of theoretic and assigning the solutions to women movement practice feminism’s views and performances in the considers the western theories as well and believes system of Islamic Republic of Iran. Considering the that they have induced the knowledge and has initial definition which we have represented in this provided the better motion; the significant point in article, it is a social and intellectuals movement this knowledge of women movement would be which in its broadest meaning is trying to promote certainly granted which has a long record dating back women’s status as a faction of the society. Feminism to constitutional history. Considering the structures of knowledge has been derived from the power frame of reforms discourse, its framework of power and the IRI, this knowledge has attained specific features and stress which is imposed on vast and grassroots characteristics which would distinct it from western participation in any arenas this knowledge expressed feminism model, but the obvious features of Iranian that the creation of women movement is a popular, feminism due to ruling socio-political structures are democratic and lack of leadership because its as the follows: leadership is diverse and the characteristics of being 1- stress on women’s formal employment as democratic is the growth of women’s N.G.O which the sole way of liberation play an effective role in achieving their goals. They 2- emphasis of confrontation and opposition completely define the goal in challenging with between men and women patriarchy and or patriarchal and the difference 3- irrespective to diversity and plurality of between men and women are resulted from distinct women’s factions in Iran sociability and formation of gender issue. This will 4- promotion and confirmation a full similarity propose the other issues in reaction to fundamentalist between men and women discourse. Since the most challenging pertained to

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5- disagreement on feminism among some resistance against has produced a kind of knowledge factions in Iran which has turned women’s issues to a political Regarding the overall features which were counted problem. So feminism in its Iranian form, in my for Iranian feminism knowledge we would opinion, is the feminist struggles based upon the understand that in junctures of Islamic Republic of gender awareness, the realization which couldn’t Iran’s history the dominant power has been more yield the identity among women, and hadn’t active in case of cultural structures like publishing established the correlated power of its feminism books, translation of foreign literature, licensing knowledge and articulating the indications in the women’s professional periodicals and due to its form of hegemonic discourse which has any sing of generative power this cultural force has been very Iranian and or Islamic feminism. impressive on women’s intellectual encounter to a massive amount of literature. So that Iranian women Corresponding Author: became acquainted with three great flows of Mehrdokht Ghooparanloo feminism and hadn’t any opportunity or chance for a PhD student, Department of Law and Political successive and distinct learning, understanding and Science, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad reviewing of western feminism and its effects were University, Tehran, Iran an amalgam of these flow’s attitudes in emerging Email: [email protected] Iranian feminism knowledge. So we can not specify Iranian feminism exactly in one motion and different References aspect would be observed in review of intellectuals’ [1] Abraham Z. (1387) Family Support Act, violates the civil rights of women, Journal of social, political and cultural Call Population: notion and the performance of activists, but by the Number 55 and 56 study of power frame in Iran and the intellectuals’ [2] Abraham Z. 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A multidisciplinary program using World Health Organization observation forms to measure the improvement in hand hygiene compliance in burn unit

Reham A. Khalifa , Maha S. Hamdy 1 , Eman I. Heweidy2 , Riham Magdy3, Mohamed A. Al Rooby4

Abstract: Nosocomial infections occur frequently in patients with burn injuries and are a major cause of morbidity and death. Hand hygiene (HH) was found to be a fundamental part of preventing health care–associated infections. Improving HH compliance is a major target for the World Health Organization (WHO) Patient Safety Challenge. Multimodal approaches including educational programs and the introduction of alcohol based hand-rub in healthcare settings proved to be the most effective strategies for promoting HH compliance. Aim of the work was to assess the improvement of hand hygiene compliance of HCWs (doctors, nurses and workers) in burn unit over a period of 12 months through a multi-faceted training program providing knowledge on compliance with HH by using WHO HH observation forms. Materials and methods; A direct observational before–after study to assess the improvement of HH compliance , through a multi-faceted training program, was implemented at the burn unit in a tertiary referral teaching hospital in Cairo. The unit consists of a ward with the capacity of 12 beds, an ICU with the capacity of 5 beds, emergency room with the capacity of 1 bed, and 1 operation theatre. It was carried out during the period from October 2008 till September 2009.The improvement intervention included lectures , on job training , distributing factsheets and reminders and providing HH supplies as alcohol hand rub dispensers. Results; There was a significant increase in average HH compliance percentage from 39.8% during the baseline phase to 61.9% during the improvement phase. This increment was sustained during the control phase (HH compliance percentage 60.6%). HH compliance percentage among different professional categories showed highest compliance among nurses throughout the three phases of the study. The nurses' category also demonstrated the highest percentage as regards WHO 5 moment of HH orientation and performing right HH technique. Conclusion; The multi-faceted training program, through different approaches, was successful to improve HH compliance among HCWs at the burn unit. Recommendations ; Continuous improvement efforts as regular training and persistent evaluation , monitoring and feedback are crucial to maintain and even enhance adherence to appropriate HH practice. [Reham A. Khalifa, Maha S. Hamdy, Eman I. Heweidy, Riham Magdy, Mohamed A. Al Rooby. A multidisciplinary program using World Health Organization observation forms to measure the improvement in hand hygiene compliance in burn unit. Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):763-790] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com. Key words: Nosocomial infections; Hand hygiene; Compliance; Improvement; World Health Organization (WHO).

1. Introduction the protective integument and the presence of Hand hygiene (HH) is a fundamental part of devitalized tissue (Andrew et al., 2002). preventing health care–associated infections (HAI), Reduction of the risk of infection is of utmost which cause mortality and morbidity, prolong priority in caring for the burn patients. Prevention of hospital stays, and contribute to increases in health cross contamination between patients and personnel care costs. Improving HH compliance is a major is an important objective of the infection control target for the World Health Organization (WHO) program in the burn unit. Strict hand hygiene shall be Patient Safety Challenge (WHO, 2006). practiced before and after each patient contact with Improvements in HH compliance have been an appropriate antiseptic hand washing agent or an associated with lower rates of acquisition of alcohol hand rub. HH shall be performed multidrug-resistant organisms, including methicillin- immediately prior to donning or after doffing gloves resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and and after contact with any contaminated surface vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) within the (UTMB, 2008). hospital (McBryde et al., 2006). HH was found to be the single most important Nosocomial infections occur frequently in factor in the prevention of HAI. The 3 most patients with burn injuries and are a major cause of frequently reported methods of measuring HH morbidity and death. The burn wound is especially compliance were: (1) direct observation, (2) self- susceptible to microbial invasion because of loss of reporting by health care workers (HCWs), and (3)

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indirect calculation based on HH product usage success of HH–related initiatives through (McGuckin et al., 2009). participating in educational and training Attention to various behavioral factors and sessions. formulation of waterless handrubs that allow ease of • The hospital infection control nurses: use with improved compliance have contributed to Coordination between study members and unit some improvements in HH compliance, with staff. They arranged the schedual of training successful national-, local-, and hospital-level HH sessions according to convenient timing of campaigns being reported from several countries different staff categories. They were trained by (Sladek et al.,2008). Prior research has identified the study members to carry out HH observation and importance of feedback on HH compliance and of to use WHO observation forms to record HH making HH campaigns multidisciplinary and actions and opportunities. multimodal (Stout et al., 2007). • Head of nurses in the ICU: Supervised Although healthcare worker compliance with attendance of nursing staff to different HH guidelines is considered the corner stone of the educational and training sessions during the prevention of pathogen cross-transmission project. (Rozenthal et al., 2005) , the overall proportion of • Maintenance engineer: Offered advice and adherence remains low, usually much less than 50% consultation as regards infrastructure changes in most hospitals (Cohen et al., 2003). The most required. effective approach suggested for promoting HH * Mission statement: compliance was by using multidimensional strategies “Assessment and improvement of hand including educational programs and the introduction hygiene compliance of HCWs (routine-hygienic - of alcohol based hand-rub in healthcare settings surgical scrub-alcohol rub) in burn unit over a period (Randle et al., 2006). Recent reports have of 12 months to raise the total hand hygiene emphasized the effectiveness of using compliance (number of actions/number of multidisciplinary approaches and the relevance of opportunities) among doctors, nurses and house providing contextualised knowledge for activating keepers to 65% through a multi-faceted training practices in different fields of healthcare sciences program.” (Freeman et al., 2008). * Team charter: Aim: The objective of the study was to assess the - The team met every two weeks for one hour. improvement of hand hygiene compliance of HCWs - Objective: To increase hand hygiene (doctors, nurses and workers) in burn unit over a compliance rate to 65% by staff members at period of 12 months, through a multi-faceted training burn unit. program providing knowledge on compliance with - Benefits: The program is committed to measure HH , by using WHO HH observation forms . and increase hand hygiene compliance rate of different staff members. * Study steps: 2. Materials and Methods The study was accomplished in four consecutive * Study design: steps (Table 1): - A direct observational before–after study to assess - Step 1: Measure: Defining the study population and the improvement of HH compliance , through a assessment of the current status of the unit as regards multi-faceted training program , was implemented at HH compliance rate, presence of appropriate HH the burn unit in a tertiary referral teaching hospital in facilities (sinks - soap dispensers - paper towel Cairo. The unit consists of a ward with the capacity dispensers) and availability of HH supplies. of 12 beds, an ICU with the capacity of 5 beds, - Step 2: Analyze: Analyzing data collected in step 1 to emergency room with the capacity of 1 bed, and 1 determine weaknesses and strengths and finding operation theatre. It was carried out during the period causes of in-adherence to HH guidelines through root from October 2008 till September 2009. cause analysis. - Selected program members and their role: - Step 3: Improve: Taking corrective actions to • Study members: Implementation of different overcome weaknesses and emphasize strengths to steps of the program (Direct observation, achieve the study’s objective through an intensified collection of data, training sessions and analysis educational and training program. of results). - Step 4: Control: Maintaining direct observation of • Head of Department and ICU director: Offered HH compliance and sustaining the achievements of consent and leadership commitment during the improvement phase through regular meetings, different steps of the program. They made HH educational sessions and routine feedback. an educational priority and supported the

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Table 1 : Time schedule - 1 Dressing room with one sink October & December February After - 3 Patients room 4beds each with no sinks November 2008 to May - 2 Toilets with 2 sinks each 2008 & January May 2009 2009 2009 B- ICU consisted of: Measure - 1 Corridor with one sink Analyze - 5 Separate cubicles with no sinks Improve - 1 Toilet with 2 sinks Control C. Emergency room consisted of: - 1 Dressing room with one sink *Step I: Measure : - 1 Operation theater for minor interventions 5A. Study setting and population : 2. Population 1. Detailed layout of the unit For the audit of practices and survey of A- Ward consisted of : knowledge as regard hand hygiene, the population - 1 Operation theater with a separate scrub area involved was represented in table 2. - 1 Nurses room with one sink - 1 Hydrotherapy room with one sink

Table 2: A list of the health care workers present in the unit and targeted by the study: Distribution Doctors Nurses Housekeepers Ward - Unit manager 4 1 - 3 residents - 3 assistant lecturers - 1 lecturer - 2 anesthesiologists Emergency room The same members of the ward 3 1 ICU The same members of the ward 10 1 operation theatre The same members of the ward 3 1

B. Developing Operational Definitions: hand hygiene adherence for opportunities related to 1. Calculation of Hand hygiene compliance% certain indication. When calculating this kind of ratio (adherence percentage): , the denominator is the total number of opportunities It is defined as the ratio of the number of for a given indication. The numerator is the total actions (numerator) that were done correctly to the number of hand hygiene actions observed when the number of opportunities (denominator) as expressed opportunity is present as expressed by the following by the following formula: formulas (WHO, 2006). Compliance (%) = Hand Hygiene Actions × 100 N.B. Some opportunities may have more than one Opportunities indication. Where opportunities represent the points in time # of observed hand hygiene actions before patient within the care process when hand hygiene should be contact × 100 performed as specified by the indications. WHO # of hand hygiene opportunities observed before guidelines recommend that five indications be patient contact measured which are; before patient contact, before & # of observed hand hygiene actions before aseptic aseptic task, after body fluid exposure risk, after task ×100 patient contact & after contact with patient # of hand hygiene opportunities observed before surroundings. aseptic task & # of observed hand hygiene actions While, actions comprise the performance of hand after body fluid exposure risk × 100 hygiene. Each opportunity should correspond to an # of hand hygiene opportunities observed after action of performing hand hygiene (WHO, 2006). body fluid exposure risk & # of observed hand Adherence ratio was calculated using 2 types of hygiene actions after patient contact × 100 calculations # of hand hygiene opportunities observed after • Composite measures patient contact A composite measure is a compilation of & # of observed hand hygiene actions after contact multiple indications into a single adherence ratio. with patient surroundings × 100 This type of measure is calculated by dividing the # of hand hygiene opportunities observed after sum of observed actions (numerator) by the sum of contact with patient surroundings observed opportunities (denominator) (WHO, 2006). • The ratio of routine hand washing versus • Item-by-item measures alcohol-based hand rub was also calculated Item-by-item measures allow looking at

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2. Evaluation of the staff performance of hand time at risk while remaining free of disease (Nigel hygiene technique: Bruce,2008) , and was expressed as number per The components of hand hygiene technique 1000-patient-days. audit tool were scored from zero to two, depending C. Data Collection: on whether the technique was neglected, partially The two methods used for measuring hand performed, or performed. Finally the % of different hygiene compliance were auditing and survey. professional categories performing the right According to the WHO guidelines, auditing technique were compared. (Individuals scoring < (observation) is the “gold standard” for measuring 30/40 were not considered performing right hand hygiene adherence. It is the only way to directly technique.) measure health care workers’ adherence to hand N.B: for the evaluation of hand hygiene technique, hygiene guidelines. Observation involves directly each person will be observed once during his activity. watching hand hygiene behavior and record the 3. Evaluation of the hand hygiene knowledge number of hand hygiene indications, opportunities, assessment of the health care workers: and actions. Observation was used also to asses For simplicity, we categorized the WHO structural considerations in the environment, for hand hygiene knowledge test for health care workers example, it was used to assess number of functioning into 3 main items to be evaluated, which were: staff sinks and their distribution, dispensers for liquid received previous training on hand hygiene, they soap or alcohol-based hand rub (either wall mounted knew the importance of hand hygiene (hand washing or freestanding), and whether they were functioning. versus alcohol hand rub), and they were oriented with A Survey in the form of a questionnaire was used to the WHO 5 moments of hand hygiene. Then the gather information on health care worker attitudes answers for the questions related to each of the and practices related to hand hygiene (Gould, 2007). previous items were evaluated and a final % of staff 1. Duration of data collection : members oriented with each item was calculated. - The data was collected in 3 phases as follow: 4. Evaluation of the ward structure as regard • Phase 1: baseline data collection that lasted for hand hygiene facilities and supplies: 4 months (during measure and analyze steps) The components of hand hygiene facilities • Phase 2: data collection during the improvement audit tool were scored according to the Egyptian period that lasted for 4 months ( during ministry of health scoring system from zero to two, improve step ) depending on whether this component was not • Phase 3: post intervention data collection that present, present not complete, or present and lasted for another 4 months (during control complete. The final evaluation of the whole ward step) structure as regard the available hand hygiene - Each observation session lasted about 1 hour for a facilities was calculated ( fair if the total score is < total of 20 sessions (20 hours)/ month with one 60%, good if the total score is 61-75%, very good if observer assigned to each session who observed the the total score is 76-85%, or excellent if the total burn ICU during the first half of the session and then score is >85% ). moved to the burn ward , emergency room or 5. Calculation of Healthcare Associated (HA) operation theater in the second half. MRSA incidence density ratio: - Observation sessions were scheduled at varied times - Samples were collected for microbiological throughout the day and night, both weekdays and identification of MRSA from patients with clinically weekends. suspected infection from different sites (burn wound , - All the observation session , throughout the three blood , urine and sputum). All isolates were data collection phases , were carried out by the study identified as Staphylococcus aureus and were tested members and the infection control nurses and the link for methicillin resistance by the Kirby Bauer disk nurse in charge who were sufficiently trained to use diffusion method as per Clinical and Laboratory WHO HH observation forms. Observers were Standards Institute (CLSI) guidelines (CLSI , 2006) instructed to record only observations of clear in the hospital’s microbiology laboratory. HA MRSA opportunities or indications for HH that were either infection referred to the MRSA infection diagnosed met or not met. 48 hours after hospital admission. - Patient demographic data (number of admissions ,age ,gender and patient days) was calculated. - The incidence density ratio for HA MRSA was defined as the total number of new MRSA cases that arose from the defined population in the specified time period, divided by the sum of each individual’s

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2. Data collection tools (Table 3):

Table 3: The monitoring tools used for data collection: Type of Tool Appendix Name of Tool Developer Reference Observation check 1 WHO observation tools and WHO, world alliance for patient http://www.who.int/gpsc/en/ list for indication, calculation forms safety technique & ward 2 Hand hygiene technique Study members http://www.who.int/gpsc/en/ facility of hand audit tool hygiene 3 ward structures for hand Study members - Egyptian ministry of health hygiene audit tool scoring tool -http://www.who.int/gpsc/en/ Knowledge `survey 4 WHO hand hygiene - WHO, world alliance for patient http://www.who.int/gpsc/en/ knowledge test for health safety (English questionnaire) care workers – The study members translated the questionnaire into Arabic for nurses & housekeepers.

*Step II: Analyze : of H.H. supplies and lake of feedback monitoring A. Brainstorming system. During brainstorming sessions that lasted for B. Definition of the problem boundaries about 20-30 minutes, study members discussed Through auditing of the process of hand potential causes of low compliance percentage hygiene in the burn unit, the following flow chart was among burn unit staff. These causes were mainly done to summarizes the process and the most related to inadequate knowledge and training of staff, important results of measuring step defective hand washing facilities structure, shortage

HCWs deliver a patient Nocare 60% of the HCWs did not wash their hands & satisfied only by wearing gloves No before dealing with patients or sometimes, Did they wash they neither wear gloves nor wash their their hands? hands

Yes

The average compliance rate was 40% (it was 33% among doctors, 42% among nurses & 31.4% among housekeepers)

Among them, the average % of compliance according to the Who indications for hand hygiene was; 31.10% before pt, 50% before aseptic tech., 72.20% after body fluid exposure, 26.60% after pt contact, 24.90% after contact with pt surrounding)

They either missing steps in the Did they perform No technique (95%), or do not dry their HH technique hands probably (70%) probably?

Yes

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Only 20% of doctors, 30% of nurses, & 10% of housekeepers performed the right technique

75% of the HCWs did alcohol Only 25% of them did routine based hand rub hand washing

HH washing sinks & other Alcohol dispensers were supplies were available available

Yes No Yes No

One or two bottles were No alcohol dispenser present in Sinks were present in limited No Sinks present in present in the wound every patient care, besides, places, however soap was every patient care, sinks dressing room or on the most of the dispensers were not partially available were not dedicated for medication car for all the working hand washing only with patients no single use towels available

Posters were available but of limited number, the % of trained doctor on hand hygiene (40%) & housekeepers (25%) were limited compared to the % of trained nurses (60%)

Most of the HCWs in the unit either did not wash their hands nor did it correctly

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C. Fish Bone Cause and Effect Diagram for hand washing non-compliance in the burn unit:

Staff Supplies Structures

Inadequate number/location Understaffing especially of sinks

during the night shifts Inadequate Inadequate number/ Leaflet/liquid soap location/functionality of available at hand towel dispensers wash sinks Beliefs that hand washing is not effective protective measures Inadequate Inadequate number/ location/functionality of alcohol- disposable paper based agent dispensers Beliefs that the use of gloves can towels at all hand substitute hand washing washing sinks or sterile towels at OR Difficult access to supplies/facility sinks Lack of role model water Inappropriate receptacles are available for disposal Unavailable warm water Beliefs that hand washing is not of used towels important if the hands have no visible soil Non compliance of HCWs for hand hygiene

Inadequate performance feedback system Inadequate promotional items/posters on hand hygiene distributed to HCWs

Irregular monitoring the Inadequate training of HCWs volume of alcohol-based especially doctors & housekeepers hand rub used on proper HH technique

Monitoring & Lack of knowledge about indication evaluation & choice of hand hygiene products (alcohol/soap)

Lack of knowledge on risks associated Education & training to infections caused by hands

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D. Root causes Identification - Hand washing was the most breached infection After brainstorming and through direct auditing and control measure in burn unit. using checklists, the following factors for poor - Staff culture and miss beliefs as regards the compliance were reported: importance of hand hygiene were high lightened. For - Beliefs that wearing gloves obviates the need for instance, most staff members didn’t perceive in hand hygiene. adherence to HH guidelines as a potential infectious - Lack of scientific information of definite impact of risk. Also they were unaware of the implication of improved hand hygiene compliance on health care contacts with the environment in micro-organism associated infection rates. transmission. - Not thinking of HH or forgetfulness. - Inadequacy of HH facilities and supplies, and their - Understaffing and overcrowding. need for improvement. It was observed that hand - No role model from colleagues. washing required approximately 45 to 90 seconds to - Inadequate supplies including liquid soap, paper access and use a sink with running water, soap, and towels and receptacles. hand-drying facilities which was considered a burden -Sinks are inconveniently located/shortage of sinks. to nursing staff in relation to their workload. - Inadequate training of HCWs on proper hand - Strength points as dedicated, interested staff and hygiene technique. leadership commitment of senior staff and hospital - Inadequate promotional items/posters on hand administration were also emphasized as important hygiene distributed to HCWs. driving forces for the improvement program. -Inadequate performance feedback system. B. Remedy Selection: *Step III: Improve: After reviewing the data collected and analyzing A. Establishment of a feedback based approach: the results from audit tools and questionnaires used The first stage of the improvement was the and with reference to the identified causes, the team feedback of the performance recorded during the decided that compliance to proper hand hygiene baseline evaluation phase of the study. Feedback practices can be improved through different discussion forums were held with different staff approaches, which would include some of the categories. Emphasis was made on certain identified following remedies(Table 4): weaknesses as:

Table 4 : Remedy Selection Matrix : List of possible remedies Total Impact on the Cultural Implementation Cost Total cost problem resistance time /Benefit (50) 1-Arranging an educational program 10 8 5 7 10 40 targeting proper HH practices. 2- On job training courses. 10 9 7 7 10 33 3- Posters and reminders. 8 8 8 10 8 42 4- Constructing new sinks. 2 5 4 4 6 21 5- Providing liquid soap dispensers. 8 10 10 10 10 48 6- Providing disposable towels 5 5 4 7 5 26 dispensers. 7- Providing single use non-disposable 8 9 8 8 10 43 towels. 8- Installing alcohol rub wall 7 9 8 9 10 43 dispensers. 9- Providing pocket size alcohol rub 7 9 9 10 10 45 bottles. 10- Providing a HH compliance 9 9 6 8 10 42 feedback monitoring system.

C. Chosen Remedies: liquid soap dispensers, providing single use non- Through the previous remedy selection matrix, disposable towels, installing alcohol rub wall each remedy was given a score from 1 to 10 as dispensers, providing pocket size alcohol rub bottles, regards cost , impact on the problem , cultural and providing a HH compliance feedback monitoring resistance , time needed and cost benefit system. These were planned to be the remedies that effectiveness . From this matrix , it was found that would achieve the study’s objective. the appropriate approaches to improve hand hygiene On the other hand it was found that compliance included arranging an educational constructing new sinks and providing disposable program targeting proper HH practices, on job towels dispensers were unavailable remedies due to training courses, posters and reminders, providing high cost. The construction of new sinks was not

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feasible at the unit for the time being. compliance ratio, it was found that H.H. compliance percentage was improved from 40% during the first D. Remedy Customers: phase of the project to 59.9% after the first month of Customers of the remedy included: the improvement phase. This verified that the a- Those performing different parts of the planned implemented measures were effective and can be remedies including study members, infection used to fulfill the study’s objective. control staff at the unit, unit manager and head H. Implementation Plan: of nurses. The study’s objective was achieved through the b- Those targeted by the study that will be served following interventions: by different remedies including doctors, - Eight multidisciplinary two-hour educational nursing, and housekeeping staff of the burn unit. sessions were scheduled. Study members used data E. Remedy Design: show presentations, films, practical demonstrations a- Our educational program was the cornerstone for and question cards. All staff were re-educated on improving HH compliance. Lectures were arranged WHO guidelines for hand-washing and hand addressing the following topics: antisepsis (THE 5 MOMENTS FOR HH). Fact - Correction of misconceptions about the definitive sheets with implications of poor HH and instructions impact of strict adherence to hand hygiene on for proper hygiene were distributed to all reduction of the healthcare associated infection and participating staff. the organism transmission rates. - Open discussion forums were held by study - Improving awareness of HCWs about WHO members to encourage sharing individual guidelines for H.H. and raising knowledge experiences which provided contextualized concerning indications for HH during daily patient knowledge to all the participants. care (5 moments of HH). - On job training was performed by team members - Knowledge concerning different types of hand while medical staffs were performing daily patient hygiene products and their action. care activities. - Stressing on the importance of hand hygiene despite - Posters and reminders showing indications and the use of gloves techniques of hand hygiene were distributed in b- On the job training of physicians, nursing staff patients’ rooms, dressing room, nurse's room, ICU including registered nurses, assistants and and emergency room. housekeeping personnel. The training covered proper - Verbal reminders were regularly provided by indications and techniques of hand washing and the infection control nurses, link nurse and the head proper use of alcohol hand rub. nurse. c- Posters and reminders showing indications and - Instructions regarding proper use and maintenance steps of hand washing and alcohol hand rub were of the available sinks were given. distributed including WHO 5 moments of hand - Providing products that meet acceptance of HCWs hygiene poster (appendix 5 ). regarding its smell, consistency, ease of lathering (for d- Supplies were provided including: liquid soap). - Liquid soap dispensers. - Proper receptacles to collect used towels were - Non-disposable single use towels. provided. - Receptacles for collecting used towels. - Bedside alcohol based wall dispensers were - Bedside alcohols rub wall dispensers. installed in every patient room. Proper use and - Pocket size alcohol rub bottles. maintenance of dispensers was observed as they may e- Performance monitoring tools were developed discourage use by HCWs when they become highlighting the significance of feedback monitoring contaminated, blocked or don’t deliver the product system. efficiently. F. Culture Design: - Providing pocket size alcohol based hand sanitizer - Physicians, nurses and housekeeping personnel to staff and physicians. were continuously educated about the importance of - Head nurse was provided with checklists for careful adherence to proper hand hygiene practices and the monitoring of hand hygiene compliance and impact of selecting the appropriate method for H.H. technique to exclude the negative effect of newly in different indications. introduced hand washing devices. Head nurse and - Hands-on instructions were provided regarding infection control link nurse were empowered to proper H.H. technique and proper use of alcohol hand conduct feedback monitoring to sustain HCW’s rub during daily patient care activities. adherence to proper HH practice. G. Test Plan to Prove Effectiveness: - Monthly HH compliance data (run charts and Using the audit tools used to measure baseline graphs) were disseminated to all staff members and

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head of department to provide continuous feedback and nurses with prominent HH compliance about the progress of the training program. improvement. - An awarding system was implied among nurses in • Ethical considerations : the form of announcing the nurse most adherent to This study was conducted with the approval of proper HH practice. This made hospital leadership the authorized unit manager of the burn unit in Ain dedication visible to all participating staff which was Shams University Hospital. important to sustain positive attitudes. Explanation to the subjects was made by the I. Measurable success: responsible person to describe full details about the After completion of the interventional educational study, its benefits and how to complete the program, a change in culture was noticed, this was questionnaire. The collected data were kept in subsequently impacted on improving compliance of confidentiality to insure protection of privacy. HH from 40% to 61.9%. • Statistical methods : IBMSPSS statistics (V.19.o, IBM Corp., USA, 2010) *Step IV: Control: was used for data analysis. Data were expressed as To sustain the improvement, the following both number and percentage for categorized data. measures were instituted: The following tests were done: - Selecting a dedicated HH improvement program 1- Comparison between 2 proportions as regards follow up team including infection control nurses and univariant categorized data. the unit’s link nurse. 2- Chi-square test to study the association between - Maintaining administrative support and leadership each 2 variables as regards the categorized data. commitment. The probability of error at 0.05 was considered - Providing continuous regular educational and significant, while at 0.01 and 0.001 are highly training sessions. significant and >0.05 was considered non - Supplying new reminders with clear, to the point significant. messages to maintain HH awareness. - Establishing a continuous feedback system based on 3. Results: direct observation and data dissemination. 1. Assessment of hand hygiene compliance: - Encouraging staff to adopt role model physicians

Table 5: Total number of opportunities and actions observed and compliance percentage throughout the three phases of the study: Months No. of opportunities /month No .of actions /month Compliance% October/2008 260 100 38.5% November/2008 256 110 43% December/2008 210 85 40.5% January/2009 240 90 37.5% Total over the baseline phase 966 385 39.8% February/2009 242 145 59.9% March/2009 215 142 66% April/2009 258 156 60.4% May/2009 260 161 61.9% Total over the improvement 975 604 61.9% phase June/2009 243 155 63.7% July/2009 235 143 60.8% August/2009 218 129 59.1% September/2009 212 124 58.4% Total over the control phase 908 551 60.6% The table shows the total number of p<0.001) and the control phase (Z=9.0119, p<0.001). opportunities and actions observed monthly On the other hand, there was no significant difference throughout the three phases of the study. Average between improvement and control phases (Z=0.5636, compliance during the baseline phase was 39.8%, p>0.05). during the improvement phase was 61.9% while Figure 1 shows the rise in monthly HH compliance during the control phase it was 60.6%. Using percentage, the trendline shows the increased comparison between 2 proportions showed that there compliance percentage during the improvement was a highly significant difference between baseline phase and the sustained increment during the control phase and both, the improvement phase (Z=9.7354, phase.

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Fig.1: Run chart for average HH compliance percentage throughout the three phases of the study.

Table 6: HH compliance percentage among different professional categories during the baseline , improvement and control phases : Phase Baseline Improvement Control Category Opp. actions Compl. Opp. actions Compl. Opp. actions Compl. Nurses 753 316 42.8% 731 461 63% 671 441 65.8% Doctors 164 54 33% 163 92 56.4% 145 78 54% Workers 49 15 31.4% 81 51 62.9% 92 32 35.4% Total 966 385 39.8% 975 604 61.9% 908 551 60.6%

The table shows the compliance percentage p<0.001) and between baseline and control phase among different professional categories throughout (Z=3.7004, p<0.001) , while there was no significant the study. As regards nurses, there was a highly difference between improvement and control phases significant difference between baseline phase and the (Z=0.4665, p>0.05). On the other hand, among improvement phase (Z=8.136, p<0.001) and between workers, there was a highly significant difference baseline phase and the control phase (Z=8.968, between baseline and improvement phase (Z=3.5754, p<0.001). There was no significant difference p<0.001) and between the improvement and the between improvement and control phases (Z=1.038, control phases (Z=3.702, p<0.001). There was no p>0.05). The same results were observed as regards significant difference between baseline and control doctors, a highly significant difference was found phases (Z=0.5002, p>0.05). between baseline and improvement phase (Z=4.2767,

Fig.2: Comparison of HH compliance percentage among different professional categories during the baseline, improvement and control phase. Figure 2 shows the increased HH compliance workers , the increased HH compliance percentage percentage during the improvement and the control during the improvement phase was followed by a phases among nurses and doctors , while among drop during the control phase.

Table 7: HH compliance percentage according to the WHO indications for HH during the baseline , improvement and control phase : Phase Baseline Improvement Control WHO indication Opp. actions Compl. Opp. actions Compl. Opp. actions Compl. Before patient contact 346 108 31.1% 372 186 50% 297 143 48.3% Before aseptic task 254 127 50% 189 144 76.4% 214 168 78.7% After body fluid exposure 98 71 72.2% 103 76 74.2% 76 59 77.4% After patient contact 468 124 26.6% 495 338 68.3% 422 279 66% After contact with patient 54 13 24.9% 47 21 45% 38 16 42.5% surroundings

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The table shows the number of opportunities and three phases. A non significant difference was actions observed for each of the WHO 5 moments for found between baseline phase and both HH indications, and their calculated compliance improvement phase (Z=0.32, p>0.05) and control percentage: phase (Z=0.78, p>0.05) . Also a non significant - Before patient contact indication showed a highly difference was found between improvement and significant difference between baseline phase and control phases (Z=0.49,p>0.05). both improvement phase (Z=5.1471,p<0.001) and - After patient contact indication showed a highly control phase (Z=4.4571,p<0.001), while a non significant difference between baseline phase and significant difference was found between both improvement phase (Z=12.94,p<0.001) and improvement and control phases (Z=0.4369, control phase (Z=11.79 ,p<0.001), while a non p>0.05). significant difference was found between - Before aseptic task indication showed a highly improvement and control phases (Z=0.7396, significant difference between baseline phase and p>0.05). both improvement phase (Z=5.6414,p<0.001) and - After contact with patient surroundings indication control phase (Z=6.4108,p<0.001), while a non showed a significant difference between baseline significant difference was found between phase and both improvement phase improvement and control phases (Z=2.123,p<0.05) and control phase (Z=1.779 (Z=0.5528,p>0.05). ,p<0.05), while a non significant difference was - After body fluid exposure indication didn’t show found between improvement and control phases a significant difference between neither of the (Z=0.23 ,p>0.05).

Fig.3: Comparison of HH compliance percentage according to WHO 5 moments of HH indications during the baseline , improvement and control phase.

Figure 3 shows the comparison of HH before patient contact, before aseptic task, after compliance percentage according to WHO 5 patient contact and after contact with patient moments of HH indications during the baseline, surroundings indications, however no change in HH improvement and control phase. There was an compliance was noticed as regards after body fluid increase in HH compliance percentage as regards exposure indication.

Table 8 :Comparison of the number of actions in which HCW used alcohol hand rubbing versus the number of actions in which HCW used hand washing: Using CROSSTAB /CHI- SQUARE TEST (Cell format: count , percent: total ,percent: row, percent :column). Phase Baseline improvement Total aseline control Total Improvement Control Total Item Alcohol hand rubbing 288 350 638 288 369 657 350 369 719 29.12 35.39 64.51 30.77 39.42 70.19 30.30 31.95 62.25 45.14 54.86 43.84 56.16 48.68 51.32 74.81 57.95 74.81 66.97 57.95 66.97 Hand washing 97 254 351 97 182 279 254 182 436 9.8 25.6 35.49 10.36 19.44 29.81 21.99 15.76 37.75 27.6 72.36 34.77 65.23 58.26 41.74 25.19 42.05 25.19 33.03 42.05 33.03 Total 385 604 989 385 551 936 604 551 1155 38.93 61.07 100 41.13 58.87 100 52.29 47.71 100 X2 X2 X2 X2 P P<0.001 P<0.001 P<0.001 Significance Highly significant Highly significant Highly significant

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The table shows that there was a highly table illustrates that during control phase alcohol significant difference as regards the use of alcohol represented 66.97%(no.=369) with corresponding hand rub versus hand washing during the three increase in hand washing which represented phases. The use of alcohol hand rub during baseline 33.03%(no.=182). On comparing improvement and phase represented 74.81% (no.=288) in comparison control phases , alcohol hand rub use increased from to hand washing which represented 25.19% (no.=97) 57.95% (no.=350) during improvement phase to , however during improvement phase there was a 66.97%(no.=369) during control phase , while hand drop in alcohol hand rub which represented 57.95% washing dropped from 42.05%(no.=254) during (no.=350) with corresponding increase in hand improvement phase to 33.03%(no.=182) during washing which represented 42.05% (no.=254). Also, control phase. when comparing baseline and control phases, the

Fig.4: The use of alcohol hand rubbing versus hand washing during the baseline , improvement and control phase.

2. Evaluation of performing right HH technique:

Table 9 : Comparison of the number of personnel performing right HH technique among different professional categories during the baseline , improvement and control phase : Phase Baseline improvement Z & p Baseline control Z & p Improvement Control Z & p Category value value value Nurses (no.20) 6 16 Z=3.17 6 17 Z=3.51 16 17 Z=0.41 P<0.01 P<0.001 P>0.05 Doctors (no.10) 2 5 Z=1.40 2 5 Z=1.40 5 5 Z=0 P>0.05 P>0.05 P>0.05 Workers (no.4) 1 2 Z=0.73 1 3 Z=1.41 2 3 Z=0.73 P>0.05 P>0.05 P>0.05

The table shows that there was a highly difference was found between improvement and significant difference between baseline and both control phases (p>0.05). On the other hand, no improvement and control phases as regards the statistically significant difference was found between number of personnel performing right HH technique the three phases among doctors and workers among nurses (p<0.01) , while no significant (p>0.05).

Fig.5: Comparison of the number of personnel performing right HH technique among different professional categories during the baseline, improvement and control phase.

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3. Evaluation of personnel orientation with the WHO 5 moments for hand hygiene:

Table 10: Comparison of the number of personnel oriented with the WHO 5 moments for HH among different professional categories during the baseline , improvement and control phase : Phase Baseline improvement Z & p Baseline control Z & p Improvement Control Z & p Category value value value Nurses (no.20) 8 18 Z=3.31 8 19 Z=3.71 18 19 Z=0.6 P<0.01 P<0.001 P>0.05 Doctors (no.10) 3 7 Z=1.78 3 8 Z=2.24 7 8 Z=0.51 P<0.05 P<0.05 P>0.05 Workers (no.4) 1 3 Z=1.41 1 2 Z=0.73 3 2 Z=0.73 P>0.05 P>0.05 P>0.05

The table shows that there was a highly doctors , there was a significant difference between significant difference between baseline and both baseline and both improvement and control phases improvement and control phases as regards the (p<0.05), and no statistically significant difference number of personnel oriented with the WHO 5 was found between improvement and control moments for HH among nurses (p<0.01) , while no phases(p>0.05). No statistically significant difference significant difference was found between was found between the three phases among workers improvement and control phases(p>0.05). As regards (p>0.05) .

Fig.6: Comparison of the number of personnel oriented with the WHO 5 moments of HH among different professional categories during the baseline, improvement and control phase.

Evaluation of hand hygiene facility structure, supplies, availability of educational & training materials, & presence of monitoring& evaluation:

Table 11 : Comparison of hand hygiene facility structure, supplies, availability of educational & training materials, & presence of monitoring& evaluation during the three phases: Phase Baseline improvement Z & p Baseline Control Z & p Improvement Control Z & p Item value value value Structure (Total 12 17 Z=1.47 12 18 Z=1.78 17 18 Z=0.32 24) P>0.05 P<0.05 P>0.05 Supplies 7 10 Z=1.16 7 12 Z=2.02 10 12 Z=0.92 (Total 14) P>0.05 P<0.05 P>0.05 Educational & 5 9 Z=1.95 5 8 Z=1.4 9 8 Z=0.62 training materials P<0.05 P>0.05 P>0.05 (Total 10) Monitoring& 2 5 Z=1.75 2 6 Z=2.44 5 6 Z=1.04 evaluation P<0.05 P<0.01 P>0.05 (Total 6)

The table illustrates the comparison between the control phases (P>0.05). A statistically significant three phases as regards hand hygiene facility difference was found between baseline and control structure, supplies, availability of educational & phases (P<0.05). training materials, & presence of monitoring& - Supplies didn’t show a statistically significant evaluation: difference between baseline and improvement phases - HH facility structure didn’t show a statistically or between improvement and control phases significant difference between baseline and (P>0.05). A statistically significant difference was improvement phases or between improvement and found between baseline and control phases (P<0.05).

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- Educational & training materials didn’t show a - Monitoring& evaluation show a statistically statistically significant difference between baseline significant difference between baseline and and control phases or between improvement and improvement phase (P<0.05) and a highly significant control phases (P>0.05). A statistically significant difference between baseline and control phases difference was found between baseline and (P<0.01). improvement phases (P<0.05).

Fig.7: Comparison of hand hygiene facility structure, supplies, availability of educational & training materials, & presence of monitoring& evaluation during the baseline, improvement and control phase.

5. Calculation of Healthcare Associated (HA) MRSA incidence density ratio: - Table 12: Number of admissions, patient days, infected cases and HA MRSA and comparison of HA MRSA incidence among the three phases: Phase Baseline Improvement Baseline control improvement Control 1st October 1st February 2009 1st October 1st June 2009 - 1st February 2009 1st June 2009 - Item 2008 - 31st - 31st May 2009 2008 -31st 30th September - 31st May 2009 30th September January 2009 January 2009 2009 2009 Number of admissions 92 86 92 79 86 79 Total=257 Patient days 1156 1089 1156 1195 1089 1195 Total=3440 Number of HA infections 45 32 45 29 32 29 Total=106 Number of HA MRSA 12 9 12 10 9 10 cases Total=31 HA MRSA incidence 10.3 8.2 10.3 8.3 8.2 8.3 density ratio per 1000 patient days Z Z=0.520562 Z=0.506655 Z=0.027263 P p>0.05 p>0.05 p>0.05 Significance non significant non significant non significant

The table shows that the total number of 4. Discussion: admissions during the study period was 257 (189 The present study was a direct observational were males and 68 were females) with ages ranging before–after study to assess the improvement of HH between 12 and 62 (mean was 43±6.4). The total compliance , through a multi-faceted training number of HAI (onset 48 hours after admission) was program , was implemented at the burn unit in a 106 , from which 31 cases were HA MRSA ( 17 burn tertiary referral teaching hospital in Cairo. The unit wound infections , 7 bloodstream infections, 5 consists of a ward with the capacity of 12 beds, an catheter associated urinary tract infections and 2 ICU with the capacity of 5 beds, emergency room lower respiratory tract infections ) . There was a drop with the capacity of 1 bed, and 1 operation theatre. It in HA MRSA incidence density ratio per 1000 was carried out during the period from October 2008 patient days from 10.3 during baseline phase to 8.2 till September 2009. The improvement intervention during the improvement phase and 8.3 during the included lectures, on job training, distributing control phase , however the difference was factsheets and reminders and providing HH supplies statistically non significant . as alcohol hand rub dispensers. Adherence to proper hand hygiene practice (compliance and technique) was assessed throughout

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the three phases of the study through direct during a 12-month study (Thomas et al., 2005). observation by observers well trained on using WHO Similarly, a mild improvement in compliance from HH observation forms to register and calculate 44.2% before the first intervention, 42.3% between observed HH opportunities, actions and indications interventions, and 48% after the second intervention among different professional categories. Observation was reported by Brown et al. (2003). sessions were scheduled at varied times throughout Furthermore, in the study of Harbarth et al. weekdays and weekends to assure accurate (2002) baseline compliance decreased after the first 2 estimation of the hand hygiene compliance. This was weeks of observation from 42.5% to 28.2% further also postulated by Kakeya and Senda (2004) who decreased to 23.3% in the limited intervention phase examined nurses’ compliance with hand washing in 6 and increased to 35.1% after the introduction of a clinical scenes using both a questionnaire and hand gel . The rise in compliance persisted in the last observation, and reported compliance rates of 83.5% phase (compliance, 37.2%); however, a gradual based on the questionnaire conducted among 39 decline was observed during the final weeks. nurses, and 68.9% based on the observation of 20 On comparing the HH compliance percentage nurses. Thus, since questionnaires resulted in a higher among different professional categories throughout compliance rate than observation, an accurate the study, nurses showed a highly significant increase estimation of the hand hygiene compliance rate from baseline (42.8%) to improvement phase (63%) should be made based on observation. (Z=8.136, p<0.001) which continued throughout the As regards average HH compliance, an overall control phase (65.8%) (Z=8.968, p<0.001). The same increase was noticed from 39.8% during the baseline results were observed as regards doctors. On the phase to 61.9% during the improvement phase (P < other hand, among workers, the increased compliance .001) after the start of the multidisciplinary training noticed from baseline (31.4%) to improvement phase program. Furthermore, the improvement was (62.9%) (Z=3.5754, p<0.001) was followed by a drop sustained during the control phase (HH compliance during the control phases (35.4%) (Z=3.702, was 60.6% ). p<0.001). This was in agreement with the study of This was in accordance with the findings of Allegranzi et al . (2010), which revealed that, as a Saint et al.(2009) .They reported overall HCW hand result of intervention including education, hygiene increase from 31.5% to 47.4% (p<0.001). compliance increased from 8.0% at baseline to 21.8% HH adherence among nurses increased from 33.7% at follow-up (P<.001). McLaws et al.(2009) reported to 47.9% (p<0.001); and among doctors from 27.5% an overall hand hygiene compliance rate to 46.6% (p<0.001). In another study the rate of improvement from 47% before the intervention to an compliance with hand washing and glove use was average of 61%(P < 0.001). Also hand hygiene 34.0% with no significant differences between job compliance rate improvement from49% to 98% was types (Takahashi et al., 2009). observed by Lederer et al.(2009) , from 23.1% In a study conducted in three long-term-care (268/1160) to 64.5% (2056/3187) (P < .0001) by facilities in Taiwan, Huang and Wu (2008) Rosenthal et al.(2005) and from a pre-intervention demonstrated that the nursing assistants had mean of 21% to 42% 12 months post-intervention (P significantly more knowledge and better compliance < 0.001) by Johnson et al. (2005). three months after HH training than before It was also reported that implementation of a intervention. multifaceted interventional behavioral hand hygiene On the other hand McLaws et al.(2009) program resulted in an overall improvement in observed that all professional groups sustained compliance with hand hygiene guidelines from 51 to improved compliance rates except medical staff, 83% (P < 0.001) (Creedon ,2005) and that whose practices reverted to pre-intervention rates. compliance improved progressively from 48% in Nursing staff maintained significantly improved 1994, to 66% in 1997 (p<0.001) (Pittet et al., 2000). compliance, with an average rate of 67% after the However , Raskind et al.(2007) observed only intervention. The same was demonstrated by the an initial improvement in the rate of compliance at 1 study of Duggan et al.(2008) in which nurses showed month after the intervention from 89% [168 of 189 statistically significant improvement in their rate of opportunities] to 100% [212 of 212 opportunities] hand hygiene compliance (91.3%) but no (P<.001) followed by a decrease to the baseline rate improvement was seen for attending physicians of 89% [85 of 96 opportunities] after 3 months (72.4%; P<.001). Medical attending physicians had duration. Also after estimation of baseline the lowest observed rate of compliance . Thus, an compliance (20%), an intervention based on visual inverse correlation existed between the level of cues , in the form of 11'' x 17'' posters , resulted in a professional education and the rate of compliance. modest improvement of HH compliance to 37% However , in another study, doctors were more likely

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to adhere to HH protocols than nurses (83.3% vs. during improvement phase to 66.97%(no.=369) 66%) (Samraj et al.,2008). during control phase , while hand washing dropped The present study also demonstrated that from 42.05%(no.=254) during improvement phase to according to WHO 5 moments for HH indications , 33.03%(no.=182) during control phase. This was compliance related to before patient contact , before related to the accessibility and less time consumption aseptic task and after patient contact indications related to alcohol use. showed a marked increase from baseline to This observation was supported by the improvement and control phases (p<0.001) . After previous study of Pessoa-Silva et al.(2007) who contact with patient surroundings indication showed reported that hand-rubbing was used in 91% (2315 of a less marked improvement (p<0.05) .On the 2550) of all hand hygiene actions. Overall contrary, compliance related to the after body fluid compliance improved significantly across the 3 study exposure indication was high from the start and phases and paralleled the increase in hand-rub didn’t show significant increase throughout the study consumption . Hand-rub use increased in phase 2 . This may reflect HCW’s perception of the hazards (intervention period) versus phase 1 (P = 0.025) and of body fluid exposure. continued to increase in phase 3 (follow-up) versus Similar results were obtained by McLaws et phase 2 (P = 0.037). In another study, use of alcohol al.(2009) where overall HH compliance before rose from 15.2% of HH indications to 25.2% between patient contact improved from 39% (pre-campaign) interventions and 41.5% after the second intervention to 52% (P < 0.001) and after patient contact (Brown et al.,2003). The same was observed by improved from 57% to 64% (P < 0.001) over the Harbarth et al.(2002) and Pittet et al.(2000) who same period. It was also reported that compliance declared that the frequency of hand disinfection improvement with direct patient contact was substantially increased during his study period sustained over time (49% at baseline versus 64% at (p<0.001). last follow-up survey; P < .001) , however In the present study, nurses showed the greatest compliance with hand hygiene after contact with improvement as regards the number of personnel surroundings remained stable across the study performing right HH technique and the number of (Pessoa-Silva et al.,2007). personnel oriented with the WHO 5 moments for HH In another study an increase in difference (p<0.01) . Doctors demonstrated a less marked between the compliance after contacts and the improvement as regards orientation with WHO 5 compliance before contacts from the baseline phase moments for HH (p<0.05). No significant of the study to the post-intervention phase was improvement was recorded among workers as interpreted by Whitby et al. (2006) by a hypothesis regards the two parameters (p>0.05) , this is due to that the motivation for performing HH was the small sample size (4 workers). Knowledge was influenced more by an inherent desire to clean also found to be enhanced significantly after oneself when feeling dirty(after contact) than by an intervention(P < .05) by Allegranzi et al.(2010). interest in protecting the patient (before contacts). Huang and Wu (2008) stated that three months after Similarly, the study of Lam et al.(2004) hand-hygiene training the nurse assistants had demonstrated an overall hand hygiene compliance significantly more knowledge (from 13.82 to 15.41, increase from 40% to 53% before patient contact and P<0.001) and better compliance (from 9.34% to from 39% to 59% after patient contact. 30.36%, P<0.001) than before the intervention. The use of alcohol hand rub versus hand In the study done by Patarakul et al.(2005) washing was compared during the three phases of the almost all subjects (99.7%) claimed to know correct study. The use of alcohol hand rub during baseline hand-hygiene techniques. Handwashing with phase represented 74.81% (no.=288) in comparison medicated soap was perceived to be the best mean of to hand washing which represented 25.19% (no.=97) hand decontamination (37.8%). Furthermore, , however during improvement phase there was a healthcare workers believed that their skin condition drop in alcohol hand rub which represented 57.95% improved (P < 0.001). An increase in knowledge (no.=350) with corresponding increase in hand about handwashing guidelines was also found washing which represented 42.05%(no.=254). This (Creedon , 2005). was attributed to the increased perception of HCWs There was improvement in most aspects of to the importance of hand washing in some situations hand-washing technique in the postintervention stage in which it can’t be substituted by alcohol hand rub, (Lam et al., 2004). It was also observed that HH as in case of visibly soiled hand or after pilling up of improved significantly among nurses and nursing powder due to repeated glove changes . However ,on assistants, but remained poor among doctors (Pittet comparing improvement and control phases , alcohol et al., 2000). hand rub use increased from 57.95% (no.=350) As regards hand hygiene facility structure,

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supplies, availability of educational & training MRSA rates decreased from 0.52 HAIs per 1,000 materials, & presence of monitoring& evaluation, patient days in 2005 to 0.24 HAIs per 1,000 patient educational & training materials showed significant days by year-end 2008. Similarly , Johnson et improvement during the improvement phase with the al.(2005) reported significant reductions in hospital- start of the training program (P<0.05). However , the wide rates of total clinical MRSA isolates (40% improvement in HH facility structure and supplies reduction; P < 0.001) and patient-episodes of MRSA wasn’t apparent till the control phase after installation bacteraemia (57% reduction; P = 0.01). These of bedside wall mounted alcohol dispensers , findings were in agreement with the study of Pessoa- providing single use hand towels and receptacles to Silva et al.(2007) , in which the overall rates of health collect used ones and establishing principles for care–associated infection per 1000 patient-days proper use and maintenance of hand washing sinks across the HH improvement study phases were 11.1 that were defective during the baseline phase (48 of 4322), 7.9 (70 of 8846), and 8.2 (32 of 3898) (P<0.05). Monitoring& evaluation showed a highly in phases 1, 2, and 3, respectively. significant improvement during the control phase after training link nurses to use WHO observation References forms and implementation of feedback approach 1. Allegranzi B, Sax H, Bengaly L, Richet H, Minta DK, between link nurses and HCWs. Chraiti MN, Sokona FM, Gayet-Ageron A, Bonnabry P, Pittet D; World Health Organization "Point G" Project Severe deficiencies in the infrastructure for Management Committee, (2010): “Successful hand hygiene were identified before the intervention implementation of the World Health Organization hand by Allegranzi et al.(2010). Local handrub production hygiene improvement strategy in a referral hospital in Mali, and quality control proved to be feasible, affordable, Africa.” Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. Feb;31(2):133-41. 2. Andrew E. Simor, MD; Mark Lee, MSc; Mary Vearncombe, and satisfactory. At follow-up, handrubbing was the MD; Linda Jones-Paul, CIC; Clare Barry, CIC; Manuel quasi-exclusive hand hygiene technique (93.3%). Gomez, MD; Joel S. Fish, MD; Robert C. Cartotto, MD; Unexpectedly, availability of a wearable Robert Palmer; Marie Louie, MD (2002): “An outbreak due dispenser was not associated with a significant to multiresistant acinetobacter baumannii in a burn unit: risk factors for acquisition and management.” Iinfection Control improvement in use of alcohol products for HH. and Hospital Epidemiology l23 , 5: 161-167, May. Greater success in sustaining increased HH 3. Brown SM, Lubimova AV, Khrustalyeva NM, Shulaeva compliance has been reported with use of multimodal SV, Tekhova I, Zueva LP, Goldmann D, O'Rourke EJ. approaches in which increased availability of HH (2003): “ Use of an alcohol-based hand rub and quality improvement interventions to improve hand hygiene in a alcohol products may be a part of the intervention Russian neonatal intensive care unit .” Infect Control Hosp (Haas and Larson, 2008). Introduction of AHR Epidemiol. Mar;24(3):172-9. without an associated behavioral modification 4. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Wayne: PA program proved ineffective (Whitby et al.,2008). (2006): “ Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute; Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility The importance of monitoring the compliance testing; 16th informational supplement . ” CLSI M100-S16. of care staff with hand hygiene was emphasized as a 5. Cohen B, Saiman L, Cimiotti J & Larson E(2003) : “Factors means to maintain and improve the compliance rate . associated with hand hygiene practices in two neonatal Evaluation of hand-washing activities was found to intensive care units. ” Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 22, 494–499. be a factor increasing hand hygiene rate as well. 6. Creedon SA. (2005): “Healthcare workers' hand Hand washing can be evaluated by such methods as decontamination practices: compliance with recommended self-evaluation by a check sheet and direct guidelines. ”J Adv Nurs. Aug;51(3):208-16. observation (Pittet et al .,2000). 7. Duggan JM, Hensley S, Khuder S, Papadimos TJ, Jacobs L. (2008): “Inverse correlation between level of professional MRSA infections are the most common HAI education and rate of handwashing compliance in a teaching in the acute care setting. The major mode of hospital.” Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. Jun;29(6):534-8. transmission from patient to patient is through 8. Freeman JV, Collier S, Staniforth D& Smith KJ (2008): bedside care providers via contaminated hands “Innovations in curriculum design: a multi-disciplinary approach to teaching statistics to undergraduate medical (Lederer et al.,2009). Therefore, in the present study students.” BMC Medical Education8, 28. HA MRSA incidence density ratio per 1000 patient 9. Gould D, Chudleigh J, Drey N, Moralejo D (2007): days was calculated to demonstrate the effect of the “Measuring handwashing performance in health service HH improvement program on HA MRSA acquisition audits and research studies. ”J Hosp Infect 66:109–115, Jun. 10. Haas JP and Larson EL. (2008): “Impact of wearable . On comparing the three phases of the study as alcohol gel dispensers on hand hygiene in an emergency regards HA MRSA incidence density ratio per 1000 department. ” Acad Emerg Med. Apr;15(4):393-6. patient days , a drop was observed from 10.3 during 11. Harbarth S, Pittet D, Grady L, Zawacki A, Potter-Bynoe G, baseline phase to 8.2 during the improvement phase Samore MH, Goldmann DA. (2002): “Interventional study to evaluate the impact of an alcohol-based hand gel in and 8.3 during the control phase , however the improving hand hygiene compliance. ” Pediatr Infect Dis J. difference was statistically non significant . The Jun;21(6):489-95. study by Lederer et al.(2009) demonstrated that 12. Huang TT & Wu SC (2008) : “Evaluation of a training

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programme on knowledge and compliance of nurse performance, beliefs, and perceptions. ” Ann Intern assistants’ hand hygiene in nursing homes. ” Journal of Med.;141:1–8. Hospital Infection 68, 164–170. 26. Randle J, Clarke M & Storr J (2006) : “Hand hygiene 13. Johnson PD, Martin R, Burrell LJ, Grabsch EA, Kirsa SW, compliance in healthcare workers.” Journal of Hospital O'Keeffe J, Mayall BC, Edmonds D, Barr W, Bolger C, Infection64, 205–209. Naidoo H, Grayson ML. (2005): “Efficacy of an 27. Raskind CH, Worley S, Vinski J, Goldfarb J. (2007): “Hand alcohol/chlorhexidine hand hygiene program in a hospital hygiene compliance rates after an educational intervention with high rates of nosocomial methicillin-resistant in a neonatal intensive care unit.” Infect Control Hosp Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection.” Med J Aust. Epidemiol. Sep;28(9):1096-8. Epub 2007 Jul 17. Nov 21;183(10):509-14. 28. Rosenthal V.D., Guzman S., Safdar N. (2005): “Reduction 14. Kakeya M and Senda Y. (2004): “Evaluation of infection in nosocomial infection with improved hand hygiene in control education to advanced beginner nurses in a hospital. intensive care units of a tertiary care hospital in Argentina. ” ” Environ Infect.;19:409–14. Am J Infect Control33:392–397. 15. Lam BC, Lee J, Lau YL. (2004): “ Hand hygiene practices 29. Saint S, Conti A, Bartoloni A, Virgili G, Mannelli F, in a neonatal intensive care unit: a multimodal intervention Fumagalli S, di Martino P, Conti AA, Kaufman SR, Rogers and impact on nosocomial infection. ” Pediatrics. MA, Gensini GF. (2009): “Improving healthcare worker Nov;114(5):e565-71. Epub 2004 Oct 18. hand hygiene adherence before patient contact: a before- 16. Larson E.L., et al. (2000): “An organizational climate and-after five-unit multimodal intervention in Tuscany. ” intervention associated with increased handwashing and Qual Saf Health Care. Dec;18(6):429-33. decreased nosocomial infections. ” Behav Med26:14–22, 30. Samraj S, Westbury J, Pallett A, Rowen D. (2008): “ Spring. Compliance with hand hygiene in a genitourinary medicine 17. Lederer JW Jr, Best D, Hendrix V. (2009): “A department. ” Int J STD AIDS. Nov;19(11):782-3. comprehensive hand hygiene approach to reducing MRSA 31. Sladek R.M., Bond M.J., Phillips P.A. (2008): “Why don’t health care-associated infections.” Jt Comm J Qual Patient doctors wash their hands? A co-relational study of thinking Saf. Apr;35(4):180-5. styles and hand hygiene. ” Am J Infect Control 36:399–406, 18. McBryde E.S., Pettitt A.N., McElwain, D.L. (2007): “A Aug. stochastic mathematical model of methicillin resistant 32. Stout A., Ritchie K., Macpherson K. (2007): “Clinical Staphylococcus aureus transmission in an intensive care effectiveness of alcohol based products in increasing hand unit: predicting the impact of interventions.” J Theor hygiene compliance and reducing infection rates: A Biol245:470–481, Apr. 7,. Epub Nov. 17, 2006. systematic review. ” J Hosp Infect 66:308–312, Aug.. Epub 19. McGuckin M, Taylor A, Martin V, Porten L& Salcido R Jul. 25, 2007. (2004): “Evaluation of a patient education model for 33. Takahashi I, Osaki Y, Okamoto M, Tahara A, Kishimoto T. increasing hand hygiene compliance in an inpatient (2009): “The current status of hand washing and glove use rehabilitation unit. ” American Journal of Infection Control among care staff in Japan: its association with the education, 32, 235–238 knowledge, and attitudes of staff, and infection control by 20. McLaws ML, Pantle AC, Fitzpatrick KR, Hughes CF. facilities. ” Environ Health Prev Med. Nov;14(6):336-44. (2009): “Improvements in hand hygiene across New South Epub 2009 Aug 25. Wales public hospitals: clean hands save lives, part III. 34. The University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB) On-line ”Med J Aust. Oct 19;191(8 Suppl):S18-24. Documentation (2008): Burn Intensive Care Unit . 21. Nigel Bruce (2008): “Quantitative methods for health Healthcare Epidemiology Policies and Procedures research a practical interactive guide to epidemiology and 35. Thomas M, Gillespie W, Krauss J, Harrison S, Medeiros R, statistics.” DPaDS. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons Ltd;.; Hawkins M, Maclean R, Woeltje KF. (2005): “ Focus group p. 16. data as a tool in assessing effectiveness of a hand hygiene 22. Patarakul K, Tan-Khum A, Kanha S, Padungpean D, campaign. ” Am J Infect Control. Aug;33(6):368-73. Jaichaiyapum OO. (2005): “Cross-sectional survey of hand- 36. Whitby M, McLaws ML & Ross MW (2006) : “Why hygiene compliance and attitudes of health care workers and healthcare workers don’t wash their hands: a behavioural visitors in the intensive care units at King Chulalongkorn explanation. ” Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology Memorial Hospital. ” J Med Assoc Thai. Sep;88 Suppl 27, 484–492. 4:S287-93. 37. Whitby M, McLaws ML, Slater K, Tong E, Johnson B. 23. Pessoa-Silva CL, Hugonnet S, Pfister R, Touveneau S, (2008): “Three successful interventions in health care Dharan S, Posfay-Barbe K, Pittet D. (2007): “Reduction of workers that improve compliance with hand hygiene: is health care associated infection risk in neonates by sustained replication possible? ” Am J Infect Control. successful hand hygiene promotion.” Pediatrics. Aug;120 Jun;36(5):349-55. (2):e382-90. Epub 2007 Jul 30. 38. World Health Organization (2006): WHO Guidelines for 24. Pittet D, Hugonnet S, Harbarth S, Mourouga P, Sauvan V, Hand Hygiene in Health Care [advanced draft]. Geneva, Touveneau S, Perneger TV. (2000): “Effectiveness of a Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2006:7– 702. hospital-wide programme to improve compliance with hand 39. World Health Organization (WHO) World Alliance for hygiene. Infection Control Programme.” Lancet. Oct Patient Safety (2006): WHO Guidelines on Hand Hygiene in 14;356(9238):1307-12. Health Care (Advance Draft). Global Patient Safety 25. Pittet D, Simon A, Hugonnet S, Pessoa-Silva CL, Sauvan V, Challenge 2005-2006: Clean Care Is Safer Care. Perneger TV. (2004): “Hand hygiene among physicians:

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Appendices Appendix1 WHO observation tools and calculation forms (Form1, 2, 3) Form1

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Form 1 cont.

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Form 2: calculation form for compliance % in each professional category

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Form 3: calculation form for compliance % among professional categories for each indication

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Appendix 2 Hand hygiene technique audit tool Date…/…/… Time…… Staff category Score I- Hand Preparation 0 1 2 No wrist watches, wrings or jewelry are worn by staff carrying out patient care Staff nails are short, clean and free from nail varnish Artificial nails are not worn Total / 6 II- Hand washing technique Regulates water temperature until it feels warm. Allow warm water to flow over each hand Dispenses appropriate amount of liquid soap into palm of one hand. Rub palms together using friction and circular movement. with interlacing fingers Rubs back of each hand 3-5 times with interlacing fingers Rub back of fingers to opposite palm with fingers interlocked Washes tips of fingers by rotational movement into the centers of the two palms Washes both thumbs with rotational movements Washes wrists Rinses hands, wrists and nails under running water with fingertips pointed up. Total / 20 III- Drying of Hands Chooses single use towel. Starts at fingers and move up to wrists to dry. Uses the towel to turn off faucet Places used towels into appropriate receptacle. Total / 8 Hand Hygiene using Alcohol based hand rub is dispensed onto the hands Alcohol based hand rubs Alcohol hand rub is rubbed onto the hands ensuring all surfaces are covered by the alcohol for 30 sec Hands are rubbed until the alcohol has evaporated Total / 6 Appendix 3 Ward structures for hand hygiene audit tool Ward…… Date…/…/… Time…… Fulfilled by… Score I-Structure of hand wash 0 1 2 facilities 1 sink is available for each 4-6 beds 0 Access to hand wash sinks is clear 0 Water is regularly available 2 Running water is available 2 Foot or elbow control is available for OR sinks 2 Hand wash sinks are dedicated for that purpose only 1 The hand wash sinks are free from any inappropriate items or equipments 1 There is appropriate temperature control to provide suitable hand wash water at all sinks 0 There are no brushes on hand wash sinks in clinical areas 2 Dispensers for soap or alcohol are available 1 If wall dispensers are available, they are placed within an arm reach from point of care 0 Dispensers are fully functioning 1 Total 12/24 II-Supplies for hand hygiene Leaflet/liquid soap is available at hand wash sinks 1 Dispensers are appropriately cleaned & refilled when empty 1 Alcohol-based hand rub is available 2 Single use towels are available at all hand washing sinks 0 Sterile towels are available at OR sinks 1 Appropriate receptacles are available for disposal of used towels 1 Patients are offered hand hygiene facilities 1 Total 7/14 III- Education & training Regular educational sessions are organized on periodic basis 1 On job training is regularly performed 1 Promotional items on hand hygiene are distributed to health care providers 0 Reminders (Posters) promoting hand hygiene are available and displayed in areas visible 1 to all Written polices & procedures on hand hygiene are accessible to all staff 2 Total 5/10 IV-Monitoring & Evaluation Usage of Alcohol-based hand rub is measured 1 Direct observation audits of hand hygiene compliance are carried out on regular bases 1 There is a regular feedback of the audit results 0 Total 2/6

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Appendix 4 Hand hygiene knowledge test for health-care workers

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Comparison of Corneal Thickness with Online Optical Coherence Pachymetry and Ultrasound Pachymeter

Rany E. Mitwally1, MD, M. Tarek El-Naggar1, MD, FRCS, Mohamed A. Marzouk1*, MD.

1 Research Institute of Ophthalmology – Giza – Egypt. *[email protected]

Keywords: Pachymetry; Optical coherence; LASIK; Online.

1. Introduction commonly used because it is easy to use and Corneal thickness is the major limiting factor relatively inexpensive, and has been considered the in all tissue ablating corneal treatment procedures. gold standard for CCT measurement. Disadvantages Ablations deeper than planned may lead to over- of US pachymetry include the need to anesthetize the corrections and inadequate residual corneal thickness cornea, cornea–probe contact, corneal indentation and which increases the risk of postoperative keratectasia the possible compression effect during measurement (1-4). It is especially important in laser in situ leading to corneal surface disturbance (which can keratomileusis (LASIK) as the flap may lead to interfere with other evaluations such as topography mechanical instability of the cornea (5). Adding to the and wavefront acquisition). There is also the risk for difficulty and unpredictability is the fact that the cut corneal epithelial damage and transmission of depth of conventional microkeratomes is variable for infection. (11) In addition, measurements can vary as a each individual patient, therefore it is almost result of probe misalignment or decentration, and the impossible to reliably maintain a defined minimum of probe may not be perpendicularly aligned accurately untreated cornea in each individual case (6–9). positioned because of a lack of fixation and gaze Therefore, intraoperative measurements of corneal control. Other disadvantages include the estimation thickness appear to be desirable for the safe of the thickness of a single point with each contact, assessment of corneal thickness during LASIK. and changes in the speed of sound in corneal tissues Until recently, there was no possibility to with different degrees of hydration(12) No correlation measure corneal thickness during refractive corneal has been shown between compression and applied surgery. This has changed with the integration of force.(13-15) Therefore the reproducibility of US optical coherence tomography (OCT) into excimer pachymetry measurements is largely dependent on laser systems. With this new device, very fine examiner experience; inter-examiner reproducibility structures in the eye can be detected through an is lower than intra-examiner repeatability, even when interferometric principle. The significant advantages measurements are performed in normal corneas by of online pachymetry are the high resolution in expert examiners. micrometer range, no requirement of contact with the The purpose of this study was to evaluate the cornea and the continuous measurement of corneal role of online optical coherence pachymetry in thickness during the surgical procedure. (10) improving safety during LASIK procedures. The Several instruments are available to measure goals were to compare the results taken by acoustic the central corneal thickness (CCT) with varying and interferometric pachymetry, thus establish the degrees of accuracy. Ultrasound (US) pachymetry is

http://www.sciencepub.net/life 791 [email protected] Life Science Journal, 2011;8(2) http://www.lifesciencesite.com reliability and applicability of the online OCP device The online OCP was activated in all cases in routine clinical practice. after insertion of the lid speculum and with first alignment of the eye with the excimer laser system. It 2. Patients and Methods was continuously active until the end of the One hundred and fifty six eyes of 78 patients procedure. The flap was always centered on the with mild to moderate myopic/myopic astigmatic visual axis and opened immediately under the refractive error were inducted to this study. All eyes excimer laser microscope. At defined time points had a best corrected distance visual acuity of 20/20. during the procedure, measurements by both the There were no age or sex restrictions. online OCP and followed by the US pachymeter were Surgical Technique and Measurement taken and recorded as follows: (1) with first Preoperative US pachymetry was performed alignment of the eye (preoperative); (2) after the flap first. The device used was the Sonogage Corneo- was created and lifted; (3) at the end of ablation; (4) Gage Plus, Sonogage Inc. The ultrasound velocity at the end of the procedure after the flap was was set at 1640 m/sec. After topical anesthetic drops repositioned. Flap thickness was defined as the (proparacaine 0.5%) were instilled, the US probe was difference between measurements 1 and 2. Residual placed directly in the center of the eye, creating a 90- stromal bed was defined as the difference between degree angle. The final US pachymetry value was measurements 2 and 3. obtained from 1 measurement by 1 technician. The US pachymetry device takes multiple, rapid, and 3. Results sequential readings during a single applanation of the The results show that all the measurements probe. This gives a mean US pachymetry reading taken by the US were higher than the OCP. The with a standard deviation (SD). The reading was preoperative pachymetry measurements showed a accepted when the SD was less than 2.0 to 3.0 mm. mean difference of 26.4µ. The flap thickness was The patients were prepared to undergo LASIK higher with US, with a mean difference of 20.0µ. The with Schwind Amaris Excimer Laser system preablation pachymetry showed a mean difference of equipped with optical coherence pachymetry (OCP). 10.1 microns, the actual ablation depth presented a All the procedures were performed by one surgeon at mean difference of 0.35µ, and the postoperative the International Eye Hospital in Cairo, Egypt. Only pachymetry showed a mean difference of 9.6µ. The patients having same-day bilateral LASIK using the correlation coefficient between online OCP and U/S Moria M2 microkeratome to create superiorly hinged measurements was 0.92 (P<0.001); with a mean flaps were included. The right eye was always treated difference of 15.125 ± 6.9 µm. first. The head size used was 130µ. The same suction The mean postoperative refraction was SE of - ring and stop (following the Moria M2 nomogram), 0.5 ± 0.18 D; range from 0 to 1.25 D. microkeratome blade head size (130 µm) were used None of the eyes needed intraoperative in all eyes. However, to ensure consistency and avoid alteration of the planned ablation parameters; a 300 the variance in flap thickness when using the same µm residual stromal bed limit was not exceeded in blade for both eyes of each patient, each eye was any of the cases. treated with a new blade (i.e. first cut).

Table 1: Corneal pachymetry measurements with US and OCP; preoperative, pre-ablation and post-ablation LASIK

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µm 551.7 525.3 600 453.6 443.6 388.6 379.2

400 U/S

200 OCP

0 Preoperative Pre-ablation Post-ablation Pachymetry Pacymetry Pachymetry

Figure 1: Mean of different measurements with U/S and OCP

Figure 2: Mean of different measurements with U/S and OCP

MEAN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN U/S AND OC P MEASUREMENTS 30 26.4 25 20 15 15 10.1 9.6 10 5 0.35 0

Figure 3: Mean difference between OCP and US measurements during the different stages of the procedure

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4. Discussion measurement, location, and the need for a certain Accurate assessment of corneal thickness is amount of fluid in the tissue bed for proper coupling, important to minimize the risk for serious post- which may interfere with laser ablation. (7,28,29) LASIK complications, such as keratectasia. Knowing The major drawback of online OCP in clinical the corneal thickness allows the surgeon to compute use is that a fixed refractive optical group index of the depth of residual corneal tissue and determine the 1.3684 is used throughout the procedure. safety limit of a procedure. (16, 17) Given the amount of Experimental studies with corneas have shown that uncertainty in determining corneal thickness, the optical index is different in the epithelium, considerably more tissue would have to be left Bowman membrane, and the anterior and posterior unablated to ensure safety. This is especially stroma. In addition, hydration changes in human and important when treating eyes with higher myopic bovine corneas have been documented before and refractive errors with proportionally larger ablation after LASIK. (5) depths, and during enhancement procedures. Online OCP is an excellent scientific tool, but Furthermore, highly accurate corneal thickness further studies are needed to determine the measurements are critical in ensuring the accuracy implications of thinner central corneal thickness and safety of enhancement procedures. (18,19) measured with online OCP as well as to resolve the Although US pachymetry has been the standard for systematic differences in measurements by these CCT measurement because of its established pachymetric technologies. reliability, the high speed and noncontact approach of online optical coherence pachymetry make this References method a promising alternative. 1. Joo C-K, Kim T-G. Corneal ectasia detected after This study found that preoperative online OCP laser in situ keratomileusis for correction of less data (with the system-integrated 5% correction factor) than _12 diopters of myopia. J Cataract Refract were consistent with the ultrasound measurements. Surg 2000; 26:292–295. This is in accordance with the results in other studies, 2. Amoils SP, Deist MB, Gous P, Amoils PM. (20-25) which found slightly thicker corneal thickness Iatrogenic keratectasia after laser in situ measurements with the ultrasound than with slit keratomileusis for less than _4.0 to _7.0 diopters lamp-mounted OCP or other intraoperative OCP of myopia. J Cataract Refract Surg 2000; 26:967– measurements (without the use of a correction factor). 977 Several reasons for this have been suggested; these 3. Argento C, Cosentino MJ, Tytium A, Rapetti G, include tilting of the ultrasound probe, averaging Zarate J. Corneal ectasia after laser in situ mode, and edema from local anesthesia (26) Since keratomileusis. J Cataract Refract Surg 2001; ultrasound is still considered the gold standard, this 27:1440–1448 common denominator has been agreed on for 4. Seiler T, Koufala K, Richter G. Iatrogenic practical purposes, as all different pachymetry keratectasia after laser in situ keratomileusis. J techniques lead to slightly different results and it is Refract Surg 1998; 14:312–317 up to now uncertain which device measures closest to 5. Haw WW, Manche EE. Iatrogenic keratectasia the actual value. (27). after a deep primary keratotomy during laser in In our study, additional factors influencing the situ keratomileusis. Am J Ophthalmol 2001; reliability of the pachymetry measurements must be 132:920–921 considered. First, preoperative pachymetry 6. Flanagan GW, Binder PS. Precision of flap measurements with ultrasound and online OCP were measurements for laser in situ keratomileusis in recorded after local anesthesia was applied. 4428 eyes. J Refract Surg 2003;19:113–123 Second, the measurement location of the 7. Thompson RW Jr, Choi DM, Price MO, online OCP was always on the visual axis, whereas Potrezbowski L,PriceFWJr. Noncontact optical the location of the ultrasound pachymetry was the coherence tomography for measurement of center of the cornea. Despite these considerations, corneal flap and residual stromal bed thickness which are a problem in any study on this subject, after laser in situ keratomileusis. J Refract Surg both measuring techniques were consistent, including 2003; 19:507–515 the gold standard (ie, ultrasound pachymetry). 8. Genth U, Mrochen M, Wa¨ lti R, Salaheldine MM, Although several studies propose the use of Seiler T. Optical low coherence reflectometry for ultrasound for intraoperative pachymetry, there are noncontact measurements of flap thickness during several limitations to this technology. These include laser in situ keratomileusis. Ophthalmology 2002; the requirement of intraoperative contact with the 109:973–978 stromal bed, possible incitement of inflammation, the 9. Marcus S. Muallem, Sonia Y. Yoo, Andre C. problem of resolution and reproducibility of Romano, Joyce C. Schiffman, William W.

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Culbertson. Corneal flap thickness in laser in situ Orbscan pachymetry measurements and DHG keratomileusis using the Moria M2 ultrasound pachymetry in primary laser in situ microkeratome. J Cataract Refract Surg 2004; keratomileusis and LASIK enhancement 30:1902–1908. procedures. J Cataract Refract Surg 2001; 10. Wirbelauer C, Pham DT. Intraoperative optical 27:681–685. coherence pachymetry during laser in situ 20. Irmingard M. Neuhann, Barbara A.M. Lege, keratomileusis – first clinical experience. J Markus Bauer, Joerg M. Hassel, Anton Hilger, Refract Surg 2003; 19:372-377. Thomas F. Neuhann. Online optical coherence 11. Ho T, Cheng ACK, Rao SK, Lau S, Leung CKS, pachymetry as a safety measure for laser in situ Lam DSC. Central corneal thickness keratomileusis treatment in 1859 cases. J Cataract measurements using Orbscan II, Visante, Refract Surg 2008; 34:1273–1279 ultrasound, and Pentacam pachymetry after laser 21. Wirbelauer C, Pham DT. Continuous monitoring in situ keratomileusis for myopia. J Cataract of corneal thickness changes during LASIK with Refract Surg 2007; 33:1177–1182 online optical coherence pachymetry. J Cataract 12. de Sanctis U, Missolungi A, Mutani B, Richiardi Refract Surg 2004; 30:2559–2568 L, Grignolo FM. Reproducibility and repeatability 22. Wirbelauer C, Aurich H, Pham DT. Online of central corneal thickness measurement in optical coherence pachymetry to evaluate keratoconus using the rotating Scheimpflug intraoperative ablation parameters in LASIK. camera and Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2007; ultrasoundpachymetry.AmJOphthalmol 2007; 245:775–781 144:712–718 23. Wirbelauer C, Scholz C, Hoerauf H, Pham DT, 13. Amano S, Honda N, Amano Y, Yamagami S, Laqua H, Birngruber R. Noncontact corneal Miyai T, Samejima T, Ogata M, Miyata K. pachymetry with slit lamp adapted optical Comparison of central corneal thickness coherence tomography. Am J Ophthalmol 2002; measurements by rotating Scheimpflug camera, 133:444–450 ultrasonic pachymetry, and scanning-slit corneal 24. Rainer G, Findl O, Petternel V, Kiss B, Drexler W, topography. Ophthalmology 2006; 113:937–941 Skorpik C, Georgopoulos M, Schmetterer L. 14. Buehl W, Stojanac D, Sacu S, Drexler W, Findl O. Central corneal thickness measurements with Comparison of three methods of measuring partial coherence interferometry, ultrasound, and corneal thickness and anterior chamber depth. Am the Orbscan system. Ophthalmology 2004; J Ophthalmol 2006; 141:7–12 111:875–879 15. Lackner B, Schmidinger G, Pieh S, Funovics MA, 25. Much MM, Haigis W. Ultrasound and partial Skorpik C. Repeatability and reproducibility of coherence interferometry with measurement of central corneal thickness measurement with central corneal thickness. J Refract Surg 2006; Pentacam, Orbscan, and ultrasound. Optom Vis 22:665–670 Sci 2005; 82:892–899. 26. Javaloy J, Vidal MT, Villada JR, Artola A, Alio´ 16. Dilraj S. Grewal, Gagandeep S. Brar, Satinder P.S. JL. Comparison of four corneal pachymetry Grewal. Assessment of central corneal thickness techniques in corneal refractive surgery. J Refract in normal, keratoconus, and post-laser in situ Surg 2004; 20:29–34 keratomileusis eyes using Scheimpflug imaging, 27. Iskander NG, Anderson Penno E, Peters NT, spectral domain optical coherence tomography, Gimbel HV, Ferensowicz M. Accuracy of and ultrasound pachymetry. J Cataract Refract Orbscan pachymetry measurements and DHG Surg 2010; 36:954–964 . ultrasound pachymetry in primary laser in situ 17. Price FW Jr, Koller DL, Price MO. Central keratomileusis and LASIK enhancement corneal pachymetry in patients undergoing laser procedures. J Cataract Refract Surg 2001; in situ keratomileusis. Ophthalmology 1999; 27:681–685 106:2216–2220 28. Flanagan G, Binder PS. Estimating residual 18. Kawana K, Tokunaga T, Miyata K, Okamoto F, stromal thickness before and after laser in situ Kiuchi T, Oshika T. Comparison of corneal keratomileusis. J Cataract Refract Surg 2003; thickness measurements using Orbscan II, non- 29:1674–1683 contact specular microscopy, and ultrasonic 29. Reader AL III, Salz JJ. Differences among pachymetry in eyes after laser in situ ultrasonic pachymeters in measuring corneal keratomileusis. Br J Ophthalmol 2004; 88:466– thickness. J Refract Surg 1987; 3:7–11 468. 19. Iskander NG, Anderson Penno E, Peters NT, 5/21/2011 Gimbel HV, Ferensowicz M. Accuracy of

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The deferral of investigation or prosecution in the ICC by request of the Security Council of UN organization

Amir Hussein Rahgoshay1

1 PhD Student, Department of Criminal Law and Criminology, Science and Research branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. [email protected]

Abstract: Pursuant to Article 16 of the ICC, The Security Council of UN may request a deferral of proceedings for a period of twelve months. It allows the Security Council to block a case from reaching the court. The power of the Security Council Makes some concerns to judicial Independence of the ICC, but this power is based on a number of conditions and limitations, both arising from the UN charter and the Statute of the ICC. This power of Security Council originated from the UN Charter that charge and compel the Security Council to maintain international peace and security. [Amir Hossein Rahgoshay. The deferral of investigation or prosecution in the ICC by request of the Security Council of UN organization) Life Science Journal. 2011;8(2):796-804] (ISSN:1097-8135). http://www.lifesciencesite.com.

Keywords: ICC, Security Council, UN Organization, International Peace

1. Introduction contains no limitation on the number of times that a Pursuant to Article 16 1 of the statue, the Security request for deferral may be renewed which implies Council may request a deferral of proceedings for a that it could be indefinite. Hence, it allows the period of twelve months. The subjection regulates to Security Council to block a case from reaching the defer investigation or prosecution. Such a request court. However, a non renewal of a deferral request may be renewed under the same conditions by the automatically allows the ICC to take up an Security Council. The request must be included in a investigation or prosecution where it was left off3. resolution adopted under chapter VII of the United (Bourgon, 1998) It is important that the ICC to be born Nations charter. Pursuant to Article 39 of the charter, from the statute is made available to the Security the Resolution must include a determination by the Council acting under chapter VII of the UN chapter. council of the existence of a threat to peace, breach of Because council’s powers for referral of a situation to the peace or act of aggression. Thus, the request for ICC (Article 13 (b)) and deferral by virtue of Article deferral amounts to a measure that is outside of using 16, is subject to a number of conditions and armed force, pursuant to Article 41 of the charter. limitations, both arising from the UN charter and the The request for deferral found in Article 16 amounts statute. So it is independence of the court in action, to providing the Security Council with a veto power even the Security Council can not in any way modify 2 1 over the action of the ICC. (Bergsmo, 1998) those rules. (Al Habib, Eshaq, 1999, Alaye, Mostafa, While the Statute suggests that the Security Council’s 1999) deferral be for 12 months, which runs from the date It could be said that allowing such an Article in of the Resolution, The council may decide on a statute damages Independence principal of the Court shorter period. Such a request may be renewed under in view of the orical and doubt about existence of the the same conditions, as for the initial deferral. A independence court. 3 2 But keep in mind that by Security Council’s Resolution adopted under chapter attention to designed negotiations in Rome VII of the united charter is required. This article conference and sensitivity of delegations of some states to extra–ordinary roll of the security in the 1 - Article 16 : Deferral of investigation or prosecution court , in fact , Article 16 to use of limitation on No investigation or prosecution may be commenced or proceeded widespread powers of the Security Council is in with under this Statute for a period of 12 months after the Security better situation, because to the contrary using of the Council , in a resolution adopted under chapter VII of the chapter of the United Nation , has requested the court to that effect , that veto power that controversial is applicable by one request may be renewed by the Council under the same conditions. state that is having such a power, deferral of 2 - M. Bergsmo, "the jurisdictional Regime of the International Criminal court" , 6 European journal of crime , criminal law and 1 - condorelli , luigi and Santiago Villalpando , Referral and criminal justice ( April 1998 ) 345. Deferral by the security council , In the Rome Statute of the 3- Bourgon , Stephan , jurisdiction Ratione Temporis , In the Rome International , Criminal court , abid , p . 628. Statute of the International Criminal court , A commentary , Edited 2 - Al Habib , Eshaq , the International criminal court in a glance : by Antonio Cassese , Paola Geata , john R . W. D . Jones, oxford Emergencies and worries , In the International criminal court and university press, p . 554. Islamic Republic of Iran , Tehran , foreign affairs ministry press center , first published , 1378 , p . 349.

http://www.sciencepub.net/life 796 [email protected] Life Science Journal, 2011;8(2) http://www.lifesciencesite.com investigation or prosecution by virtue of Article 16 provisions considerably under mined the will need consensus of all nine permanent members independence of the court by allowing for extensive of the council. control by a political organ. Yet as was clearly stated Anyway, this conversely extra,–ordinary Article as by several delegations on a number of occasions, the compared with the text that was included in first plan Statute itself cannot affect the powers of the council of statute that was regulated by International law under the Charter. By virtue of the operation of commission is more advanced. By virtue of the first Article 103 of the charter, the Council, were it to text, the court was prohibited from prosecuting any adopt a mandatory resolution under chapter could case that "the Security Council perceives it as still bypass existing treaty mechanisms for the threating against peace or breach of peace or act of prosecution of individuals in the sense that Member aggression by virtue of chapter VII of the charter, states obligations under charter would have to prevail unless the Security Council decides differntly.3 over those under the ICC were to conflict.36 This regulation permits a state that is a member of the It seems if we believe to prevent the Security Council Security Council to prevent the prosecution, from using veto power for preventing the proceeding something that may be concealed by decision of the of the court, we will see an amendment in The United security itself and a decision of the Security may be organization. (Gowlland, Debbas Vera, 2001) While blocked by using of the veto power by one of the five cannot ratify regulations of charter by statute and permanent member (united states of America, ratification of charter is tied to definition conditions England, china, France and Russian Federation) in that set in Article 108. this question Arise that does any time.44 the court has the situation that proceed in from of The causation of drawing of this negotiation in the possibility of sabotage measures by the Security course of Rome conference was to set a connection Council which is aimed at international peace and between duty of the court for prosecution and trial of security ? crimes included in Article 5 of statute and the duty of Anticipation of this privilege for the Security Council, the Security Council to set reservation or restoration while any state or international institution has not this of peace and international security (Articles 39, 41 privilege, indicates the special place of the Security and 42 of charter). (Condorelli, Luigi) After abundant Council in international relations and needs special negotiation, in the end, to be dissolved by proposal attention from of Rome conference members.17 state of Singapore based on giving permission for The two principal questions in this essay are: 1- deferral of investigation and prosecution in one year what are the conditions and limitation for the period and the possibility of renewal.1 Security Council for applying deferral power of By approval of Article 16 in current situation, the investigation or prosecution of a case in the ICC? Security Council’s powers which are included in the 2- Can the ICC seek refuge of proceeding deferral by original ILC Draft be limited considerably, because the security? to use this power from the Security, it is necessary conditions and limitations as follows: Hypothesis: 1- Issuing of resolution and request of deferral 1- Under Article 16, the deferral by the Security investigation or prosecution from the court. Council should thus respect the conditions set up by 2- Agreement of five permanent members with the UN charter, but also deriving from the system of this resolution. the ICC Statute. The conditions of the Security 3- Temporal time limit of 12 months, while it Council for applying, This power is inserted in is renewed under those conditions. Articles 24, 39, 41 and 42 of the UN Charter. 4- Comparing of resolution with Article 39 of 2- The ICC itself is the only authority for United Nations Charter.25 interpretation from the Article 16 that the court has These safeguards have attenuated some of the the right to seek refuge the request of deferral by the concerns expressed in Rome that the previous Security Council. 2. Source and Condition of deferral power 3- The Report of the International Law Commission about act of The more important condition to use power of 46th session, 2 may to 22 jullay 1994, A/49/10 document of UN, deferral by the Council is that when a case is Article 23 (3). proceeding in the court and the Security Council by 4- Schebas , william A , an Introduction to the International Criminal court , translated to persion by Baqer Mirabasi and virtue of Article 16 of statute and the charter of Hamid Alohveyi Nazari , 1384 , jungle publication , first published , Tehran , p . 88. 3 - Ibid, p. 3. 2 - Gowlland, Debbas, Vera, the Relationship between the Security 1 - khatami far , Abdolah , the Relationship between International Council and international criminal court, WWW. Global Criminal Court and the Security Council with emphasis on darfur Policy.Org / int / justice / icc / crisis / 2oo1 relationship htm – 25k, case of sudan , thesis for master , faculty of law of Azad university p. 3. , central Tehran , 1385 , p . 42 – 43.

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United Nations perceive continuation of proceeding elements , existence of this Article in the Statue is in the court as threat or preach of international peace necessary.110 and security. It could be asked whether the resolution of deferral The power of deferral of investigation or prosecution should be accompanied ( or followed ) by effective that is negative topic and require issuing of a action by the Security Council to maintain or restore resolution by the Security Council , do not cause international peace and security. Though present in spoil in act of the court because possibility of issuing previous drafts and often placed at the core of the of this resolution which needs a consensus of rationale of this provision, such a condition is not decision of all permanent members of the Security explicitly required by the final version of Article 16. Council is rarely and even it conceals with using veto Its deletion appears to be in accordance with the wide power by one of permanent members of the Security discretion that characterizes the exercise of the and using of veto power in this conditions is benefit Security Councils powers under chapter VII: for the court Secondly , by removing conditions of accordingly, the Security Council could consider that issuing of deferrals resolution, remove obstacle for the deferral per se constitutes an appropriate and proceeding by the Court.1 8 Under Article 16 , the sufficient means to maintain international peace and source of the power by the security Council to defer security, it could also decide upon the adoption of proceedings before the court, clearly stems from further measures for this end. The only real condition chapter VII of the UN charter and is to be connected for the Security Council appears to be the general with its responsibility for the maintenance of obligation to give reasons for its decision in keeping international peace and security. (Ebrahimi, Sayed with the purposes and principles of the UN charter Nasroalah)The deferral by the Security Council and the objectives established under chapter VII.211 should thus respect the conditions set up by the UV The Security Council’s power to block the exercise charter, but also those deriving from the system of of jurisdiction by the ICC is difficult to understand the ICC statute. In this sense, the power of the and some what paradoxical. While, on the one hand, Security Council should be interpreted restrictively, it is argued that the ICC is being set up to try crimes as absolutely exceptional in the relations between of the gravest magnitude for the sake of humanity, on political organs and the jurisdictional function.29 the other, it is argued that the maintenance of Under Article 34 of charter "the security council may international peace and security might require that investigate any dispute, or any situation that might those alleged to have committed these crimes – be lead to international friction or give rise to a dispute, permitted to escape from justice if the Security in order to determine whether the continuance of the council so decides. For this reason, the support of the dispute or situation is likely to endanger the Security Council would be difficult to justify in the maintenance of international peace and security." So eyes of the international community. it is possible that security receive continuance of 3. Studding of Article 16 of the court statute preceding a case before the court to endanger The Security Council is called to intervene in the international peace and security. Under Article 39 of exercise of the ICCs jurisdiction in a, negative way. charter, obtain existence of any threat against peace, By virtue of Article 16, this UN organization is breach of peace or aggression will be on the Security entitled to defer investigation or prosecutions before Council. In addition to that the Security can receive the court for a limited ( though renewable ) period of continuance of proceeding as breach or threat against twelve months. This provision thus acknowledges the peace; it is possible that causation of deferral of Security Councils primary responsibility for the investigation or prosecution be that the Security finds maintenance of international peace and security, the previous situation of threat or breach of peace allowing it to coordinate – even in terms of time – the which the court by that causation to proceed is prosecution of international crimes with the other concealed. it gives reasons for necessity of existence measures which it undertakes for the fulfillment of its of this Article in the statute of ICC that is as mission.112 recognition of original role of the Security council to By virtue of Article 16, the deferral by the Security maintain international peace and security and as well Council will have limited temporal effects: the stay in as for the sake of harmony between two state the proceedings should not exceed twelve months. This condition does not arise from the UN charter 1 8 -I abib , p . 43. 2 - Condorelli , Luigi and Satiago Villalpando , Referral and 1 - United Nations Department of public Information , Analysis of Deferral by the Security Council , In the Rome statute of the Issues in the Draft Statute , may 1998 , p . 4 . http : // www . un . International criminal court , op . cit , p . 646. org / icc / dstatate , htm. 2 - Condorelli , Luigi , op . cit , p . 648. 2 - Condorelli , Luigi , op . cit, p . 628.

http://www.sciencepub.net/life 798 [email protected] Life Science Journal, 2011;8(2) http://www.lifesciencesite.com and is rather directly imposed by the statute it self, the objective provided for in the chapter VII of the limiting the interference of the Security Council with charter. the judicial activity of the court. It dose not result in a It is also confirmed by the worlds of Article 16, restriction of the powers of the Security Council which specifically refer to investigation or under chapter VII , since the renewal of the deferral prosecution, before the court, as opposed to a general is possible every twelve months, but it is subjects to term such as proceedings.1 certain conditions. In fact, the Security Council will 4. Issuing of resolution and announcing of that to have to vote and to be justified by reference to the the court persistence of a threat to the peace, breach of the The first condition for applying of Article 16 for the peace, or act of aggression and to the fact that the Security Council and request of deferral of deferral of the activity of the court constitutes an investigation or prosecution in the court is that as the appropriate means to maintain or restore international case is proceeding in the court and a resolution is peace and security. The mechanism thus encourages issued from the Security for deferral of investigation a renewed debate within the Security Council and and or prosecution and is announced to the court. creates accountability on the part of this UN body.113 According to Article 27 of the United Nation charter, It cannot ignore that ICC is regulated on the present the resolution which is bearer of deferral of world discipline and logically will operate on the investigation or prosecution must be decided by basis of international accepted rule and influence of positive vote2 16 of all nine permanent members. big powers. The Article 16 is the reason of creation Consequently none of the Security Council members of the situation and relationship between overruling is not capable to prevent the court alone from rule and judicial proceeding of the court.214 While continuance of investigation or prosecution in the political tendencies and probably tyrannical of the definite case , because demand of deferral of Security Council for the sake of third countries investigation or prosecution must be decided by the namely south countries is not hidden for any one , but Security Council members that is included all in fact mentioned Article take a veto right to the permanent members.317 According to Article (2) 17 , Security Council and this matter will be crowbar to relations agreement between the International pressure the court in the future and it creates serious Criminal Court and the United Nation organization problem for the court in the way of criminal justice "when the Security Council , in using of the chapter procese.3 15 The demanded deferral by the Security VII of UN charter, adopts a resolution and request Council might conform with the UN charter. In the from the court which by virtue of Article 16, no first place under Article 39 of the UN charter, the engage any investigation or prosecution or continue, Security Council should, as a preliminary step, the request immediately will transmit by the General determine the existence of a threat to the peace, Secretary to the president and the prosecutor. The breach of the peace, or act of aggression. This court will announce reception of the request by the situation doss not need necessarily to find its direct General Secretary, and in the case of need", so that case in the investigation or prosecution per se : the will inform the Security Council, from the measures Security Council could refer to a larger factual or that adopt in this regard. political back ground , related to the proceedings So, after issuing of resolution, it must be announced before the court and placed in one of the categories by the General Secretary of UN to the president of described in Article 39, on the contrary , the Security the International criminal Court for action. Council shall indeed justify its decision of deferral as The practical current of the Security Council shows a means to maintain or restore international peace that consensus of the permanent members of the and security : it should give reasons for its decision Security Council about threat against peace, breach by demonstrating that the suspension of the of peace or aet of aggression is difficult. This investigation or the prosecutions will contribute to situation can conceive as hope full for independence of the court for prosecution of international criminals. 1- Condorelli , Luigi , op . cit, pp . 648 - 649. 5. The Conformity of deferral with chapter VII of 2 - Alaye , mostafa , International Criminal court , the charter Human Right and studing of matter of joining In the International Criminal Court and the Islamic Repulic 1- condorelli, op . cit, p . 647. of Iran , foreign state press , Tehran , 1378 , p . 412. 2 - The impossible vote of permanent member, 3 - Ebrahimi , Sayed Nasroulah , the preface on according to current policy, does not account establishment of International Criminal Court and applying of veto. studing of its Statute , In the International Criminal 3 - p.30. http : // www.un.org/ icc 4 – Declaration of Court and Islamic Republic of Iran , op . cit , p . 386. the hague.

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Article 16 of statute by expression "…in a resolution place at the time that as the commission the UN adopted under chapter VII of the charter of the organization officials in the Bosniea and Herzgowina United Nation, has directed the court to that effect (UNMBH) came into effect. The untied states, which (deferral of investigation or prosecution ) compel the was largest participator in the commission in view of Security to rely on chapter VII of UN chapter for human and things sources, threats if nations of that deferral. This means that the Security must obtain country that apply as official or is applied in the past, against peace, breach of peace or act of aggression for commission of any act that be commit negligent according to Article 39 of the UN charter. This in relation to their commissions, were not immune problem is possible that the court can study the from prosecution of the International Criminal Court, conformity of action of the security. In the past, it will cut it’s aids. The rest of the Security Council international courts dislikes severely from prediction members consent to the Security Council demand and of this role for the Security Council.118 But in the issue resolution 1422 dated 12 July 2002 and refer it place of the court, its statute, take this power (deferral Article 16, while this resolution is deviation from of investigation or prosecution) to the Security regulation of Article 16 of the statute and the UN Council. This is arised from the charter that the charter. Security is the first responsible for reservation of Without doubt, the United States for Reaching to its international peace and security and the court is an goals, take play the UN and with means of UN independent institution outside from the UN payment of its debts for obtain its demands take organization. It is possible that in some instances, the pressure on it.120 court preceding is entered to the domain of In the mentioned case, United States by threat to veto international peace and security, so, it was necessary of all commission of peace reservation official of the to make a relationship between two institutions. UN organization obtained its demand. While in the The court should have been the power to review the final, this resolution in 2004 disapproved. America , Security Council decision for deferral, according to in the recent years , see Article 39 of charter for the competence de la competence. This is like to reservation of national benefits and its reaction to review by the past Yugoslavia International criminal international premise have been conformity with its court about legitimacy of the Security Council national benefits , Not reservation of international resolution in safeguarding of the independence in the peace and security. case of tadic.1 The Security Council can use Article 16 from two 6. The objections of the Article 16 of the statute views in hand that continuance of investigation or Some believe that the Article 16 is unacceptable prosecution of a situation in the court , threat logically, because it is caused the judicial function of international peace and security and on the other the court to be tied to decision of a political hand that the situation which was a threat to organization while it should point out that this international peace and security is canceled. Of analogous power about priority of decision of course, the second situation will be a bread political organ on function of judicial institution, this interpretation from Article 16 that we may see the is not about function of ICJ and the Security Council. Security how will act in the future. Because Because they owe organs of the UN and it subject to according to this Article in the view of the security, the charter. continuance of proceeding in the court will be a The same preparatory works, comes into existence threat to international peace and security, it has the about conformity of the Security Council for right of deferral of proceeding and cease of the reservation of international peace and security under threating situation of international peace and security. Article 24 the UN charter.219 Because duty of the court is prosecution and trial of As it was felt, the Article 16 takes abuse only some international criminal any way and in the time that day after that Rome statute put into force. It takes this premise is not a threat for international peace and security, the court has the right of proceeding and the 1 - pradel , jean , droit penal compare , paris : Dalloz , security can not prevent it. Anyway, there is the 1995 , p . 251. principal criticism that how does fulfillment of international justice can receive threat to international 1- - Seils, paul and Marieke Wierda , the international peace and security. (Schebas, 2005) The Rwanda criminal court and conflict mediation , June 2005 , at: court give attention to this topic that halt of commit 9. www.ictj.org/images/content/1/1/119, p. 2 - See VILC (1994) Vol. II, part 2, at 43 – 45, Report 1 - Saed , Edward , and now the Last day (1387) , In of the ad hoc committee (1995), supra note 28, at the last day of unruly states , Translated to farsi by para. 124, Report of the preparatory committee (13 masood khirkhah , philosophy publication Institution September 1996), supra note, para 141. , first edition , p . 33.

http://www.sciencepub.net/life 800 [email protected] Life Science Journal, 2011;8(2) http://www.lifesciencesite.com of crimes in the Rwanda quarrels , is not necessary accused right. In addition the prosecutor can de mind means restore international peace and security to this the amendment of arrest order for decrease or country "because until the time that the justice is not increase from pre trial of the court or demand to fulfill about criminals cannot claim that the peace and summon order of a person from pre trial chamber. If security completely settled again.221 the pre trial chamber is satisfied that there is For the same reason one can say that deferral of sufficient reasons …. Will issue summon? With investigation or prosecution in the court, is not deferral by the Security Council all of above necessary means reservation or restore international mentioned are contrary with a fair Trial. peace and security and the Security cannot receive in Surplus, for the Security Council, for issuing of any time only this affective measure include in the deferral resolution, what is most priority is Article 41 of the as charter and maybe it is necessary reservation of international peace and security, but it that surplus deferral, resort to another measures for does not mean that obtaining this priority can ignore obtain this aim. guarantees for a fair Trial. The court should attain Another object of this Article, namely deferral of that does the resolution is caused that accused stay in proceeding is related to guarantee of accused right. detention, in the under way and without trial or not? Since deferral is causes delay of proceeding for a If it is so, the act of the Security Council is long time whichever can continue for one year this inconsistent with the charter, because it is deviance delay is inconsistent with accused right for trial from the goals of chapter VII. Studying of existence without undue delay. (Khatami far, 2006) In addition of specified conditions in the chapter VII of UN one can ask, does contamination of detention for charter and the statute of the court about demanded deferral period about accused during in infinite time deferral by the security, is the sufficient judicial is in control of the court? So that we know according guarantee for the accused right. Article 58 of the statute, "at any time after the The Security is bound to observance of the purported initiation of an investigation, the pre trial chamber of the court statute, because by ratification the shall, on applying the prosecutor, issue a warrant of relation agreement inserted in Article 12 of the arrest of the person if , having examined the Statute, the obligation is enjoyed legal aspect. These application and the evidence or other information two institutions by preamble and Article 2, recognize submitted by the prosecutor , it is satisfied that : responsibility of each other and the UN organization (a) There are reasonable grounds to believe recognize the court as independence permanent that the person has committed a crime judicial institution that according to Article 1 and 4 of within the jurisdiction of the court. the statute has international legal personality and UN (b) The arrest of the person would be organization and the court are obliged reciprocally to respect each other situation and commission. So the ؛ necessary (i) To ensure that the persons appears at the Security Council cannot intentionally to the court commissions and focus only on international peace ؛ trials (ii) To ensure that the person does not obstruct or and security. endanger the investigation or the court proceedings , or (iii) Where applicable, to prevent the person from 7. The procedure in case of deferral continuing with the commission of that crime or a Probably due to its turbulent history of drafting, related crimes which is within the jurisdiction of the Article 16 is a totally isolated provision in the court and which arises out of the same procedural system of the ICC statute; it contains no circumstances …" regulation of the mechanisms to put the deferral into So according to above instances, deferral of effect and no other article refers to it. Moreover, the investigation and prosecution as a whole and with Rules of procedure and Evidence have failed to prohibition of the prosecutor from doing any work is confront and deal appropriately with this issue. In the incompatibility of the criminal justice. absence of any adequate regulation, we will identify According to notes of 4, 5, 6 and 7 the mentioned hereinafter the general principles that should guide Article the order of arrest while does not issue an the procedure before the court in case of deferral. order that be contrary with that, will be creditable and The request of deferral by the Security Council in the deferral time does not specify this situation in should be addressed to the president of the ICC, the statute that this subject is incompatible with which has the responsibility for the proper administration of the court. By interpreting prima 2 - Prosecutor V. Kanyabashi , case No . ICTR – 96 – facie the resolution of the Security Council, the 15 – T, ICTRT. ch , Decision on the Defense Motion presidency shall identify those cases currently on jurisdiction , para . 26. proceeding to which the deferral should apply and

http://www.sciencepub.net/life 801 [email protected] Life Science Journal, 2011;8(2) http://www.lifesciencesite.com communicate the request to the competent chambers. deferral ). Because be bounding may be receive as In any event, the presidency shall also notify the acceding from limit of Article 16 of the statute.224 request to the prosecutor – as it is pertinent to the 8. Consequences of the Deferral future conduct of his or her investigation. If The main consequence of deferral is expressly applicable, the interested suspects or accused, should provided for by Article 16: "no investigation or also be has informed. (Security Council, 2005) prosecution may commence or proceed." It stems Although, under Article 16, the court appears to have from the broad language used by this provision that no discretionary power in deciding whether to abide the deferral entails the suspension of any judicial by the request of deferral , the decision by the proceeding before the court, from the investigations Security Council is subject to such formal and of the prosecutor to trials themselves (either in the substantial conditions as to require review by the first instance, in appeal or revision). jurisdictional organs, This the interests of justice and The deferral, however, should not mean the complete in order to safeguard the independence of the paralysis of the ICC with regard to the situation: the judiciary. (Prosecutor V.) Consequently, the decision wording of Article 16 clearly refers, and limits its to suspend current proceeding should pertain to: (a) consequences exclusively, to the investigations and the pre – Trial chamber – guarantor of the interests of prosecutions before the court. The prosecutor should justice in the investigation phase – if the prosecutor is then be entitled to conduct those examinations that examining the case, (b) the Trial chamber – that shall precede the actual initiation of the investigation ensure a fair and expeditions trial as well as full following an authorization by a pre trial chamber325: respect of the rights of the accused – once the Trial he or she could, in particular, steps to analyze has begun, or (c) the Appeals court, if the case is seriousness. Moreover, the administrative duties of under appeal. In addition, since the prosecutor should the court linked with the deferred cases should be exercise his or her functions in full respect of the completed. It could be asked whether some statute, he or she shall abstain from initiating, or exceptional judicial activities can still be pursued continuing with, investigation on the situation at after the deferral. Councils burden to take the stake. (Lione yee) To the contrary, since Article 16 necessary measures to secure confidentiality in the refers only to "investigations" and "prosecutions", interests of justice and to return the relevant There for nothing prevents the prosecutor from documents at the end of the period of deferral. (YILc, continuing to gather information that would prove 1994) A more initiate issue concerns the guarantee of useful in future proceedings, once the deferral period the right of the accused, since the deferral will entail has expired.122 a delay in the proceeding for a long period. Doubts Of course, the prosecutor also according to Article 19 can be expressed as to the compatibility of the (3) of the statute can demand judgment from the Security Council’s request of deferral with the right court about the subject of acceptance capability. So, of the accused to be tried without undue delay. (Seils, the principal question is, can the ICC refuse the 2005) Moreover, it could be asked whether the request of proceeding deferral by the security? Some continued detention for the period of deferral of those believe that it does not appear, existence of the accused that were kept under custody of the court expression at the Article 16 of the Statute that say: pending trial is not to be considered arbitrary.1 26 "No investigation or prosecution may commenced or (Stan, Karestan , 2002) proceed after the security council … has requested That should certainly be the case for those measures the court …" invest with the prosecutor a power considered appropriate by the court for the protection about commencing or proceeding of prosecution of witnesses and victims, since it would be before the court after the request of the Security unacceptable for their safety and well being to be council rely on the chapter VII. (United Nations, affected by the deferral of the Security Council. On 1998) But the important subject is that the court itself the other hand, Article 56 of the Statute, as presently is the only authority for interpretation of the Article worded, does not allow the court to proceed in such 16 As such the court has the right to deny the request cases where the prosecutor, though not actively of deferral by the Security council.123The ICC is not investigating a case, finds himself or herself bound by the request of the security council ( for confronted with a unique opportunity to take testimony or a statement from a witness or to 1 - condorelli , Lugi and Santiago Villalpando , op . cit , p . 650. examine, collect or test evidence, which may not be 1- Stan , Karesten (2002) , the exemption of the forces of the peace keeper of the non member states of the ICC statute from judicial 2 - abid , p . 257. jurisdiction of the ICC , the ambiguous of 1422 resolution of the 3 - Article 15 (1), (2) of the statute. security council (1384) , Translated to farsi log Sayed 1 - Condorelli, Luigi and Santiago Villalpando, op. Cit, pp. 651 – Hessomoldin Lesani , law magazine , No . 32, p. 253. 652.

http://www.sciencepub.net/life 802 [email protected] Life Science Journal, 2011;8(2) http://www.lifesciencesite.com available subsequently for the purposes of a trial. The Amir Hossein Rahgoshay exercise of the power of deferral by the Security PhD Student, Department of Criminal Law and Council causes a number of further problems, related Criminology, Science and Research branch, Islamic to the preservation of the interests of justice. They Azad University, Tehran, Iran should be solved, appropriately in accordance with Email: [email protected] the judicial system established by the Statute as a whole and in respect of the function attributed to the References Security Council under the UN charter. Hereinafter, [1] Al Habib, Eshaq, the International Criminal we will limit ourselves to some examples of the Court, in a glance : Emergencies and Worries , In the complications that may arise as a consequence of a International Criminal Court and Islamic Republic of deferral and their possible solutions. (M. Bergsmo, Iran, Tehran, foreign affairs ministry press center , 1998) first published, 1999. In case of deferral of proceedings before the court, [2] Alaye, Mostafa, "International criminal court , the prosecutor will find himself or herself in Human Right and studding of matter of joining" , In possession of documentation related to a situation the International criminal court and the Islamic being dealt with by the Security Council under Repulic of Iran , foreign state press , Tehran , 1999. chapter VII. (Saed, Edward, 2008) The question then [3] Bourgon, Stephane, jurisdiction Ratione arises whether he or she has the obligation to deliver Temporis, In the Rome Statute of the International the information to the Security Council for a better Criminal Court, A Commentary, Edited by Antonio evaluation of the situation, taking into account that it Cassese, paola Geata, john R. W.D. Jones, oxford may reveal the identity of witness in danger or the university press. contents of seated documents: confidentiality may [4] Condorelli, Luigi and Santiago Villalpando , then be essential for the continuation of the judicial Referral and Deferral by the Security Council , In the proceedings after the period of deferral. The problem Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court , A is not contemplated by the Statute. It should be duly commentary, Edited by Antonio Cassese , paola considered in the Relationship Agreement between Geata , john R . W. D jones , oxford university press. the court and the UN under Article 2: the agreement [5] Ebrahimi, Sayed Nasroalah , the preface on should, in particular, provide for the possible establishment of International Criminal Court and obligation for the prosecutor to cooperate with the studing of it,s statute , In the International Criminal Security Council, conversely, so shall the Security Court and Islamic Republic of Iran , op . cit. Council. [6] Gowlland, Debbas Vera , the Relationship between the Security Council and international Conclusion criminal court, WWW.Global.policy.org/int/justice/ Deferral of investigation or prosecution by the icc /crisis/2001 relationship htm – 25k. Security Council rely on Article 16 of the statute [7] Khatami far , Abdolah , the Relationship between acknowledges the Security Council’s primary International criminal court and the Security council responsibility for the maintenance of international with emphasis on darfur case of sudan , thesis for peace and security. The Security Council master , faculty of law of Azad university , centeral responsibility arises from Chapter VII of the UN Tehran , 2006. chapter. [8] Lione yee, the International Criminal Court and The ICC may prosecute crimes inside it jurisdiction the Security Council: article 13 (b) and 16, in lee, the is related to international peace and security. international criminal court. Nevertheless, the provision was strongly criticized [9] M. Bergsmo, the jurisdiction Regime of the and concerning the possibility of a deferral, which International Criminal Court, European journal of amounts to providing the Security Council with a crime, Criminal Low and Criminal justice (April veto power as it relate to the courts activity, the strict 1998). conditions of application it is subject to, as a measure [10] P. 30. http: // www. un.org / icc 4 – Declaration pursuant to Chapter VII of the United Nations of the hague. Charter will make it very difficult to use. (Pradel, [11] Pradel, jean , droit penal compare , paris : Dalloz 1995) The Security Council showed that it has a , 1995. broad interpretation of the Article 16 and the statute. [12] Prosecutor V. kanyabashi, case No. ICTR – 96 – Therefore the urgent necessity is amendment of 15 –T, ICTRT. ch, Decision on the Defence Motion Article 16 to restrain the Security Council from on jurisdiction. abusing its power. [13] Schebas, William A, an Introduction to the International Criminal Court, translated to persion by Corresponding Author:

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Baqer mirabasi and Hamid Alohveyi Nazari, 2005, jungle publication , first published , Tehran. [14] Seils, paul and Marieke Wierda, the international criminal court and conflict Mediation , june 2005 , at : .9 . www. ictj. org / images / content / 1/1/119 … p. [15] Saed , Edward , and now the Last day (2008) , In the Last day of unruly states , translated to farsi by masood khirkhah , philosophy publication Institution , first edition. [16] Stan , Karestan, (2002) the exemption of the forces of the peace keeper of the non member states of the ICC Statute from judicial jurisdiction of the ICC, the ambigious of 1422 resolution of the [17]Security Council (2005), transtated to farsi by sayed Hessomoaldin Lesani, Law magazine, No . 32. [18] The Report of the International Law Commision about act of 46th session, 2 may to 22 jullay 1994, A/49/10 document of UN, Article 23 (3). [19] United Nations Department of public Information, Analysis of Issues in the Draft Statute, May 1998, p.4. http://WWW.UN.Org/icc/dstatate, htm. [20] YILc (1994) Vol. II, part 2, at 43–45, Report of the ad hoc committee (1995) , supra note 2, Report of the preparatory committee (13 September 1996).

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