UNIT 14 POLITICAL STRUCTURES AND PROCESSES IN SRI LANKA Structure 14.1 Objectives 14.2 Introduction 14.3 Constitutional History 14.4 Political Parties and Elections 14.4.1 The Party System 14.4.2 Electoral Politics 14.5 Constitutional Changes 14.6 L-cal Government 14.7 Xecent Political Developments 14.8 Lst Us Sum Up 14.9 Some Useful Books I 14.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises I 14.1 OBJECTIVES i i This unit deals with the structure and process of politics in Sri Lanka. After going I through the unit, you should be able to: I I Trace the evolution and features of political institutions in Sri Lanka; 1 t Describe the constitutional changes in the island; i Explain the political processes in the island-state; Describe the local government and people's empowerment; and ir Identify the main issues confronting the polity in recent times. b 14.2 INTRODUCTION Sri Lanka earlier known as ceylon, benefited from the traditions of the rule of law and constitutional government that emerged during 150 years of British colonial rule. These traditions fostered the development of a political system characterized by broad popular participation in the political process, generally strict observance of legal guarantees of human and civil rights, and an orderly succession of elected governments. Since the early 1980s, however, ethnic polarization and violence threatened to weaken the democratic institutions and erode democratic vaIues. In this unit, we trace the historical background of the present constitution; describe the features of the party system and political processes in Sri Lanka. 14.3 CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY When the Portuguese arrived on the island in the early 16~century they found the island divided into three independent kingdoms. Internal dissensions and frequent squabbles between these kingdoms provided opportunities for the Portuguese to Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU intervene in Sri Lankan affairs. By the end of that century, they established their Country Profiles: control over the kingdom bascd at Kotte and by the early 17 century brought the Sri Lanka, the Maldives kingdom based at Jaffna under their control. The Kandyan kingdom, however, remained independent. The Portuguese authority, however, was short lived on the island. In 1756, they were replaced by the Dutch East India Company. During the wars of the French revolution, when Netherlands came under the French control, the British moved into Sri Lanka from India and defeated the Dutch in 1796. As the British had no permanent interests in the island, they administered the island from Madras. However, they soon realised the island's strategic value and decided to make their hold on the island permanent. In 1802 Sri Lanka was made a crown colony. The British unified the whole of Sri Lanka for the first time in several centuries in 1815-1818 by absorbing the Kandyan kingdom. Sri Lanka's crown colony status meant that the island's affairs were administered by the Colonial Office in London, rather than by the East India Company that governed India at that time. The administration was carried on by the Governor who was appointed by the British Crown. The first legislature, a nominated Legislative Council was established in 1833. Its composition was based on coinmunal representation. The Cv initiative in all matters of government was vested with the Governor and the officials such as the cb~nmanderof troops, the colonial secretary and tlie Chief Justice. Over the next hundred years, there was a gradual increase in the legislative and financial powers of the Legislative Couneil. By the beginning of 20thcentury, the nationalist consciousness that permeated the social and religious fields in the latter half of the 19Ihcentury had gradually spread to the political arena. Several regional and communal associations began to voice proposals for political reforms. They asked for Sri Lankan participation in the executive branch, a wider territorial representation in the legislature, and the adoption of the elective principle in place of nomination. In order to press their demands, they came together to form the CeyloneseNational Congress in 1919. This resulted in the introduction of representative government under the Constitution of 1920. This constitution, which was modified in 1924 to satisfy nationalist demands, provided for an elected majority in the legislature, an increase in the number of territorially elected members, and the election of communal representatives. The executive powers, however, remained with the Governor and the official Executive Council. Amajorturning point in the island's political development was implementation in 193 1 of comprehensive reforms recommended by a royal commission headed by the Earl of Donoughmore. The so-called Donoughmore constitution abolished the former executive and legislative councils and provided for a State Council with both legislative and executive functions. The State Council, after a general election, divided itself into seven executive committees, each of which took charge of a group of government departments. A salient feature of this constitution was the adoption of universal adult franchise. Sri Lanka became the first Asian polity to bring the entire adult population into the political process. Earlier, only four percent ofthe male population, defined by property and educational qualification could vote. The Donoughmore constitution gave Sri Lankan leaders opportunities to exercise political power and to gain governmental experience with a view toward eventual self- government. However, the provisions for minority representation included in the constitution gave scope for articulation of group interests, which worsened intergroup , relations. A number of communal associations such as the Sinhala Mahasabha and the All Ceylon Tamil Congress came into being. While the Sinhalese leaders utilised their power to improve tlie conditions of the Sinhalese electorate, the minorities, especially Taniils felt neglected and dominated and at every stage demanded safeguards which, however, were construed by the Sinhalese leaders as impediments in the path of self-government. During the World War 11, national leaders in Sri Lanka cooperated with the British Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOUwar effort, but exerted pressure on the colonial rulers to grant self-government. This 6 resulted in the setting up of a constitutional commission, headed by Lord Soulbury. The constitution drafted by Soulbury was modelled on the British Westminster system Political Structures and of government. Adopted in 1946, the Soulbury constitution established a parliament Processes in Sri Lanka headed by the British monarch (represented by the Governor General) and two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The latter, was the more powerful chamber of the government as its members were elected directly by the people in a combination of single and multi-member electoral districts. In the Senate, some members were nominated by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the cabinet and the rest were elected on the basis of proportional representation. Executive power, formally vested in the monarch (in the person of his or her representative, the Governor General), was in actuality exercised by the Cabinet headed by the Prime Minister. The Soulbury constitution became the basic document of Sri Lanka's government when , the country achieved independence on February 4, 1948. 14.4 POLITICAL PARTIES AND ELECTIONS 14.4.1 The Party System The evolution of party system in Sri Lanka can be traced to the formation of Ceylon National Congress in 19 19. The Ceylon Congress which was modelled after the Indian National Congress, fought for independence from the colonial rule. In its beginning, it was a broad-based party with members from all ethnic groups. With the introduction of electoral politi.cs, divisions within the ranks of the Congress party emerged. Sinhalese leaders wanted to do away with communal representation and make territorial representation universal, but minorities desired to retain it to secure power for their communities. As divisions became wide, the Tamils broke away in 1944 and formed their own party, the Tamil Congress. In the subsequent years, these two parties split up into several groups and there were alignments and realignment in their structure. Sri Ldnka also saw the emergence of leftist parties during the colonial period. These were formed by some Gpper middle class youth who were western-educated and attracted to the Marxist ideas. Three prominent Marxist parties that were active in politics were the Lanka Sama Samaj Party (LSSP), the Communist Party (CP) and the Bolshevik-Leninist Party of Indias(BLP1). ! There were also a gradual evolution of other moderate and liberal parties like the United National Party (UNP) and the Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP) in the political process. In 1946, Don Stephen Senanayake broke away from the Ceylon National Congress and formed the UNP. Under Senanayake, the UNP which advocated a liberal democratic order became quite popular among the masses and there was a complete alignment of forces under it. It attracted prominent leaders like S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike of the Sinhala Maha Sabha, Sir John Kotelawala, J.R. Jayewardene and Dudley Senanayake into its fold. The UNP also included some prominent Tamil and Muslim politicians. Therefore, the UNP was placed at the top of all political parties in the 1947 election. While the party represented various ideologies and personalities, it was united in its emphasis on agricultural development as the basis of economic progress and commitment to social welfare policies. In this realignment of political forces, an important political development was the split in the UNP. In July 1951, S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike left the UNP with a group of supporters and founded the Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP). Though its membership included both leftists and rightists, it emerged as a party of moderate left, holding the centre between the UNP and the left. The SLFP, which was also more sympathetic to the cultural sensitivitiesofthe Sinhalese, adopted a nationalist and anti-western posture.