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Urban History Review Revue d'histoire urbaine

The History of Urban Planning in America Schaffer, Daniel, ed. Two Centuries of American Planning. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988. Pp. 329. Illustrations, maps, and index. $48.50 (U.S.) cloth, $14.95 (U.S.) paper Fogelsong, Richard E. Planning the Capitalist City: The Colonial Era to the 1920s. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986. Pp. x, 286. Index Fisher, Irving D. Frederick Law Olmsted and the City Planning Movement in the United States. Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1986. Pp. 205. Illustrations, maps, index Mansel G. Blackford

Volume 18, numéro 1, june 1989

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Citer ce compte rendu Blackford, M. G. (1989). Compte rendu de [The History of Urban Planning in America / Schaffer, Daniel, ed. Two Centuries of American Planning. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988. Pp. 329. Illustrations, maps, and index. $48.50 (U.S.) cloth, $14.95 (U.S.) paper / Fogelsong, Richard E. Planning the Capitalist City: The Colonial Era to the 1920s. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986. Pp. x, 286. Index / Fisher, Irving D. Frederick Law Olmsted and the City Planning Movement in the United States. Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1986. Pp. 205. Illustrations, maps, index]. Urban History Review / Revue d'histoire urbaine, 18(1), 91–95. https://doi.org/10.7202/1017832ar

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Their task of providing a comprehensive times and on creating spaces for women in The History of Urban Planning in America introduction to the following articles was not the city as well as in the planning process. Schaffer, Daniel, ed. Two Centuries of an easy one. The book spans a wide range American Planning. Baltimore: The Johns of theoretical approaches, different methods The last article of the collection consists of Hopkins University Press, 1988. Pp. 329. and topics, and various conclusions about another essay by the editors. They raise a Illustrations, maps, and index. $48.50 the practical implications of feminist number of important questions related to (U.S.) cloth, $14.95 (U.S.) paper. research. Articles deal with analysis of the "gender-specific approaches to theory and impact of economic restructuring on gender method." The main problems faced by Fogelsong, Richard E. Planning the roles and on the way the city is spatially feminist research are outlined and an Capitalist City: The Colonial Era to the organized as well as with the design and agenda for further inquiry is offered. The 1920s. Princeton: Princeton University implementation of urban structures commitment to develop methods sensitive to Press, 1986. Pp. x, 286. Index. responding to the needs of women. The women and to ensure that findings reach methods are varied, ranging from a feminist those engaged in policy and practice is Fisher, Irving D. Frederick Law Olmsted reading of published statistical data to presented as an essential element in feminist and the City Planning Movement in the examination of letters produced by women research. In many respects, however, the United States. Ann Arbor: UMI Research active in urban reform. Action research also content of their article does not differ much Press, 1986. Pp. 205. Illustrations, maps, receives some attention. from previous publications on similar matters. index. Despite references to Women and Among these articles, an essay by Suzanne Environments, it lacks the Canadian As Daniel Schaffer observes in his Mackenzie and another by Damaris Rose perspective that makes the rest of Life introduction to the collection of essays and Paul Villeneuve are highly significant Spaces: Gender, Household, Employment a comprising Two Centuries of American parts of the book. They investigate how city significant contribution to feminist studies. Planning, the American planning profession, structure changes with restructuring in the especially urban planners, is under attack labour market and in gender roles. The first Finally, the book furnishes an annotated from many quarters at present and is torn by essay considers two such periods, both bibliography. According to the editors and internal divisions. In one of the essays marked by an "urban crisis" and a "woman their collaborator Susan Montonen, it brings making up Schaffer's volume, Howell Baum crisis," namely the late 1800s and the mid together the principal contributions in print explores the roots of the current "conceptual 1900s. The second article deals specifically about gender relations and the Canadian crisis" in the planning profession, finding with the contemporary period in inner-city environment dating from the early 1970s. As them in attacks both from above by Montreal neighbourhoods. The other articles is true of most edited bibliographies, it is far policymakers, such as former president are more policy-oriented. William Michelson's from exhaustive. It provides nevertheless an Ronald Reagan, who are wedded to the essay is a contribution to the understanding excellent starting point for researchers market mechanism, and from below by of the impact of major economic changes on concerned with the gender relations within minority groups who see redevelopment the lives of women in the urban community community environments in Canada. destroying their neighbourhoods. Planners and how these women have experienced need, Baum concludes, to rethink their ideas these changes. The author is concerned Anne Gilbert and actions. Perhaps as part of their about elements of urban structure that act Coordonnatrice de la recherche reformulation, some planners and scholars either to facilitate or to hinder the lives of Association canadienne-française de are turning to history, looking anew at the working women. This concern is prominent l'Ontario development of urban planning in the United in Gerda Wekerle's article on the origins and States. The past few years have witnessed evolution of women's housing cooperatives an outpouring of books and articles on the in Canada and is the background of Fran history of American urban planning and the Klodawsky and Aron Spector's discussion of establishment of new academic groups to single-parent family housing as an issue in further its study — the Planning History Canadian cities. Denise Piche's article deals Group within the Organization of American with the related, although different, question Historians and the Society for American City of bringing women into the planning process. and Regional Planning History for example. It is based on the early stages of a project The three works under review suggest some using action research. The focus is on of the approaches currently being taken to women's experiences during their leisure this historical examination of urban planning.

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Two Centuries of American Planning towns that had developed north of Chicago fabric." From the mid 1950s on, however, presents an overview of how, in the space of by the 1880s and the 1890s. Focusing upon planners lost sight of the neighbourhood and just four generations, the United States the private and public work of Andrew Green shifted their attention to downtown "moved from a rural to an urban to a in New York City, David Hammack claims redevelopment, and public housing suburban and now a post-suburban nation." that "a form of comprehensive planning was degenerated into "a deprived perilous world The title of this collection is a bit misleading, in process long before the age of the formal of social malaise and instability." Finally, for the essays examine urban planning comprehensive plan." essays by Robert Fishman and David almost to the exclusion of any consideration Goldfield examine how technological and of other types of planning efforts. Within this Several of the essays investigate Frederick social changes are creating new types of limitation, however, the volume offers a Law Olmsted's impact upon urban planning cities in the 1980s, especially self-sufficient valuable introduction into how Americans in America, treating his work as a transition peripheral communities beyond central cities have tried to shape their urban environment from older to more modern conceptions of and their traditional suburbs. from the early 19th century to the present planning. Dana White surveys Olmsted's day. Many of the essays underline a career, concluding that modern planners can Two Centuries of American Planning is a fundamental conflict in the goals of urban still learn much from his pioneering efforts. In solid survey of the development of city planning in America: on one hand a concern a more positive assessment than those of planning in the United States, a volume for stimulating economic growth through some scholars, Dana concludes that particularly well suited for use in upper- private development, while on the other a Olmsted's "creations appear to be natural, division college and university courses on desire to reform society in the interests of pristine, eternal" and "seem expressions of a urban history or urban planning. Appropriate equity. no-nonsense, back-to-basics Yankee and clearly reproduced maps and commonsense." In a particularly illustrations enhance the value of the work, Planning began, the volume shows, well sophisticated and well-argued piece, William and full endnotes for each essay guide the before the 20th century. Edward Spann Wilson illustrates how Olmsted's ideas reader to additional primary and secondary examines the adoption of the gridiron street combined with new elements to create a sources. None the less, the study possesses plan by New York City in 1811, seeing in this park movement in Seattle in the early 1900s, shortcomings. The volume overemphasizes action a shift away from earlier urban and how this development paved the way for the importance of planning, especially urban planning that was "imbued with socio• partially successful comprehensive city planning, in American history. Many cities political and aesthetic concerns" in such planning. David Johnson looks at the grew up with only minimal attempts, private colonial centres as Philadelphia, Annapolis, development of regional planning in New or public, at planning, and with even fewer and Savannah to "simpler and more York in the 1920s and 1930s, finding its roots successes. This unintentional bias may utilitarian plans intended to facilitate the rapid in Olmsted's 19th century efforts. Johnson derive from the focus of many of the study's urban development which occurred during traces the uneven growth of the idea of essays on just a few large cities, especially the nineteenth century." Essays by Henry regional planning, culminating in the 1929 New York. What was happening in smaller Binford and Michael Ebner show how Regional Plan of New York. cities? Then, too, even within its exploration suburbs with characteristics distinct from of the evolution of urban planning, this their mother cities and from each other grew Four essays examine the evolution of cities volume neglects important developments. up around Boston and north of Chicago. The and city planning since the 1920s. In one of Aside from Wilson's essay, there is little development of transportation facilities the few studies to go beyond urban planning, about the city beautiful-city functional combined with new ideas about the city to John Hancock provides a critical survey of movement, which many historians regard as create suburbs as middle-class residential the diverse planning efforts of the 1930s, an important turning-point in the city planning enclaves. Private, not public, planning efforts concluding (correctly) that "New Deal movement. Even more surprisingly, given the were of most importance. "Small policies for urban America were unambitious recent interest in it by scholars such as Marc entrepreneurs, hustlers," were, Binford and piecemeal." John Bauman looks at the Weiss, the volume hardly touches upon the shows, instrumental in the growth of development of public housing policies after development of zoning. Despite these few Cambridge and Somerville as suburbs of World War II by exploring developments in drawbacks, Two Centuries of American Boston. As time progressed, however, Philadelphia. He shows that in the immediate Planning is a valuable collection, well suburban leaders came to think of their postwar years planners initiated a successful designed as an introduction to the history of communities as distinctive places. Ebner "shelter-oriented redevelopment programme" urban planning in the United States. documents how a North Shore suburban in which "low- and moderate-income ethos had taken root in the eight suburban housing was woven into the neighbourhood

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More problematic is Richard E. Fogelsong's planning. Here he is on safer ground. "insufficiently responsive to the property Planning the Capitalist City: The Colonial EraHousin g reform, especially in New York, contradiction"; nor did it adequately address to the 1920s. A revised dissertation in which he investigates in detail, was an the "capitalist-democracy contradiction," for political science written at the University of important attempt to come to grips with the voluntary, private associations of Chicago, this study aims at presenting "a urban problems. One need not be Marxist in businessmen and planners in charge of the theoretically informed history, one that goes approach to agree with him that the housing beautification efforts lacked the power to beyond the marshaling of facts around reform movement was elitist in leadership require compliance to their narrow historical questions or theorizing and sought, at least in part, to impose recommendations. without historical reference." Deeply "middle-class standards of morality" upon influenced by the works of Nicos Poulantas, "the ill-housed immigrant poor." This is, in Around 1909 the city beautiful was Claus Offe, Manuel Castells, and David fact, the standard interpretation put forward superseded by the city practical movement, Harvey, Fogelsong takes a Marxist approach by the historian Roy Lubove two decades which Fogelsong reviews in the final to the history of urban plannning, seeing in it ago. Similarly, the park movement which substantive chapter of his work. He sees the unfolding of two contradictions: one spread across America in the late 19th and three inter-related developments as "between the social character of land and its early 20th centuries contributed in important comprising this alteration in urban planning: a private ownership and control" and the other ways, as numerous historians have shown, shift away from beautification to a concern "between the need to socialize the control of to the development of the city beautiful for transportation needs and other economic urban space ... and the danger of truly movement. And, like the housing campaign, matters in the drafting of comprehensive city socializing, that is, democratizing, the control the park movement was, as Fogelsong points plans, the creation of government of urban land." out, elitist in origins and represented, again at commissions to implement the plans, and least in part, the efforts of business groups to recourse to zoning to shape the urban Fogelsong begins by examining the colonial impose their values upon others. Focusing environment. He observes that the city period, for him something of a golden age in upon Olmsted's creation of New York City's practical was more nearly successful than which town planning was an essential Central Park, Fogelsong probably goes too the city beautiful in achieving its goals feature of urban development. While useful in far, however, in claiming that "early park because it came closer to reconciling the reminding us that town planning was planners helped educate the city's business contradictions inherent in urban development important in New England and that even class about the need for state-organized and planning. In particular, he claims, the city larger centres such as Philadelphia and forms of collective consumption as antidotes practical movement achieved "a modicum of Savannah bore the imprint of planners, his to the anarchic effects of the market collective control of urban development in account goes too far in drawing a sharp system." the interest of capital without subjecting that distinction between the nature of city control to the claims and considerations of planning in colonial and later times. From these beginnings, Fogelsong moves to non-capitalist groups." Yet not even the city Fogelsong views the colonial period, the core of his study, an examination of early practical movement was totally successful. It incorrectly, as a pre-capitalistic age in which 20th century urban planning, beginning with could not be, according to Fogelsong, for it was invariably "taken for granted that the city beautiful movement. After dealing some businessmen continued to see government or such other collective with the "White City" in Chicago, he looks at planning as a threat to their control over institutions as existed should seek to provide the results of city beautiful movements in private property. In the city practical for the public good" and in which "there was Washington, Cleveland, San Francisco, and movement was born, he concludes, "a yet no accepted distinction between public elsewhere. The city beautiful movement was, dynamic of support and opposition between and private that prevented local authorities according to him, "an attempt to create planners and businessmen that continues to from organizing the development of the town social and moral cohesiveness in a be acted out, in realm after realm today." on the basis of their conception of the public heterogeneous urban society in which face- interest." To the contrary, capitalism was to-face methods of social control had proven Fogelsong provides a useful survey of the central to the economies of the colonies, and to be unworkable." Although led by early urban planning movement in America, urban and rural land speculation was part of businessmen and professional planners, the showing how several common themes run colonial business. city beautiful movement largely failed, none through efforts to grapple with the explosive the less, because it was not attentive enough growth of American cities. Particularly Moving into the 19th century, Fogelsong to the economic needs of businessmen. valuable is his comparative point-of-view, for examines efforts at housing reform and park Beautification did not provide for more he makes a real effort to connect development as precursors to urban economical land use and was, thus, developments in the United States to similar

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developments in Great Britain and Europe, planning. Despite its title, this study reveals conception of the city. The growth of cities, especially in his accounts of the housing and little about the movement for urban planning. Olmsted believed, represented the park movements. One need not share his The celebration in 1972 of the 150th progressive development of civilization, and Marxist outlook to agree that much of the anniversary of Olmsted's birth sparked cities were to be valued for the cultural, planning movement was elitist in leadership renewed interest in his work, and Fisher's social, and economic opportunities they and that it sought to impose the values of study, first written in 1976 but published a brought people. Yet urban growth, Olmsted middle-class businessmen and professionals decade later, is one of the results of that recognized, also had a negative side: it upon other segments of society. The interest. Fisher begins by highlighting the separated man from nature and led to an planning movement was, Fogelsong correctly formative influences upon Olmsted's ideas. A verspecialization in work, creating an artificial demonstrates, far from democratic. love of nature inherited from his family, environment for many. Enter the large city German Romantic idealism, and an park. Parks could, Olmsted thought, act as None the less, his sweeping survey obscures admiration for the didactic and moral aspects antidotes to the artificiality of urban life. Fisher much of the complexity of the urban planning of John Ruskin's writings combined to instill concludes that, through his park work, movement, and particularly why it was only in Olmsted social and aesthetic ideals that Olmsted was seeking "social reform by partly successful. Businessmen were far would shape his later actions. Fisher then achieving individual psychological change from monolithic in their approach to planning. devotes separate chapters of his study to through aesthetic impulse. He was There was much more conflict between analyses of different aspects of Olmsted's attempting to change society by indirection." groups of businessmen than Fogelsong thoughts. suggests, and these divisions made it Fisher's slender volume is a welcome impossible in city after city for businessmen Three aspects were, Fisher argues, of addition to the growing literature on Frederick to present a united front in support of greatest significance. Perhaps most Law Olmsted, probing in detail the sources of planning, thus dooming the planning important, according to Fisher, was the his ideas. And, as in the work edited by movement to defeat. As Fogelsong himself "organic principle" that "became an intregal Schaffer, well-reproduced maps and notes at the conclusion of his study, part of Olmsted's aesthetic theory." In laying diagrams grace this study. Yet it too has "Undoubtedly, more such conflict would have out Central Park, for example, he viewed the weaknesses. Most fundamentally, Fisher been included had the focus (of my book) different parts as necessarily interconnected claims too much for Olmsted. While very been on planning in particular cities." Recent and as a result he constructed the roads, important in the development of city planning, studies of planning in specific cities do, bridges, and walks in ways that would not his work was not, contrary to Fisher's indeed, reveal a pattern of intense conflict detract from the overall aesthetic impact of suggestions, the only source of planning among business groups. Public disputes over the park. Fisher also examines the aesthetic ideas and actions. As other studies, including where to locate civic centres, new harbour principles underlying Olmsted's work, the two reviewed above in this essay, have facilities, and redesigned transportation especially his belief, taken from the shown, urban planning was a complex systems split businessmen into warring Romantics, that the unconscious faculties of movement originating in numerous sources. camps in such cities as Seattle, Portland, and the mind could be stirred into conscious The planning movement was more than San Francisco, and defeated attempts at action by the arranged landscape beauty of simply "a manifestation of a social reform comprehensive planning in those centres. city parks. Olmsted sought, Fisher writes, "to that had its inception in the 1850s and in the Nor were ethnic and labour groups always free the imagination of the observer through efforts of Frederick Law Olmsted." Then, too, as compliant as Fogelsong suggests. In aesthetic experience." Far from being elitist, while admirable in exploring the evolution of some cities on some occasions they were Fisher concludes, Olmsted tried to appeal to Olmsted's ideas, Fisher fails to relate able to thwart or modify the desires of everyone through his park work. Finally, adequately those ideas to what Olmsted and planners and businessmen. In short, the Fisher investigates Olmsted's conceptions of other early planners were doing. The studies political situation with regard to urban beauty — his love of the picturesque, the of other scholars, particularly Laura Wood planning was more pluralistic than he serene, and the openness in nature. Roper and John Emerson Todd, present illustrates. more well-balanced accounts of Olmsted's From his examination of the concepts work and its later impact. If Fogelsong's study suffers from a lack of underlying Olmsted's work, Fisher moves to specificity, Irving Fisher's Frederick Law the most valuable part of his study, an All of these studies further our understanding Olmsted and the City Planning Movement in analysis of how Olmsted viewed cities and of the history of urban planning in America, the United States offers a narrow intellectual the roles of parks in them. Fisher shows but they also point to the need for additional biograpy of one of the founders of urban clearly that Olmsted had a positive research on this topic. The essays in Two

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Centuries of American Planning explore Scobie, James R. Secondary Cities of The chapter on Corrientes, the first city, is many of the episodes in city development Argentina: the Social History of subtitled "A Study in Stagnation." Here the and urban planning in the United States, but, Corrientes, Salta, and Mendoza, 1850- central theme is that for reasons internal and, precisely because they are separate essays, 1910. Stanford: Stanford University Press, primarily, external Corrientes grew only do not present a comprehensive look at the 1988. Pp. XVI, 276. Maps, black and white modestly and was never able to capitalize on development of the planning movement. photographs, illustrations, notes and advantages it sometimes appeared to Planning the Capitalist City attempts to index. possess. present an overview of the connections between the development of planning Szuchman, Mark D. Order, Family and In contrast, Salta ("The Sleeping Beauty"), thought and the realities of how planning was Community in Buenos Aires 1810-60. despite severe problems of health and carried out. Too often, however, it fails to see Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988. hygiene and a rigid social structure, was the complexity of the situation and becomes Pp. XIII, 307. Figures and tables, eventually able to develop its pre-existing mired in its ideological approach to planning. illustrations, methodological appendix, economy and to add some modest local Frederick Law Clmsted and the City Planning notes, bibliography and index. industrial development. Movement in the United States is an intellectual biography that does not Before his untimely death, Jim Scobie had, Mendoza presents a more complex and demonstrate well enough how ideas were by the volume and quality of his publications, dynamic picture. Despite the devastation of carried over into actions; it also become the best-known and most-respected the 1861 earthquake, the city revived quickly, overemphasizes one person's impact on the interpreter of Argentina to the English- and by the end of the 19th century had city planning movement. What is needed are speaking world. The scholarly community, entered a period of rapid demographic and works showing more clearly the connections therefore, should welcome with excitement economic growth. Alone of the cities studied, between ideas and actions, ones that explore this posthumous work, so ably completed Mendoza attracted a large number of in some detail the cooperation and conflict and edited by his friend and colleague southern European immigrants who between different groups and individuals Samuel L Bailey. In a sense Secondary transformed the Pampas. Yet even Mendoza active in the planning movement. Until such Cities of Argentina is a continuation of a failed, in the period under review, to develop works appear, urban planners will be unable sequenc. In 1964 Scobie published a new social structure or to transform the to benefit fully from the study of planning Argentina: a City and a Nation; a decade Cuyo region, of which it had become the history. For instance, an examination of the later Buenos Aires: "Plaza to Suburb." Then economic centre. complex relationships between planners, his focus turned from the metropolis to business groups, and labour groups in the sleepy Corrientes, colonial Salta, and Technically, Secondary Cities of Argentina is progressive period might well offer insights burgeoning Mendoza. well produced. Its maps, diagrams, graphs, useful for those seeking to redefine the and tables are clear and meaningful, and it is relationships between planners, government, Crucial to an understanding of this book is well illustrated. Even more important, the and minority groups in the present day. his belief that these secondary cities, and notes and sources, despite Dr Bailey's others like them, "linked rural economies and modesty in the matter, are organized, Mansel G. Blackford inhabitants with the outside world while informative, and succinct Department of History insulating the traditional rural environment Ohio State Unviersity from the changing character of large urban This book is readable, interesting, and centres. In this intermediate position informative to the widest readership, and it economic relationships and social structure stands as a worthy monument to Scobie's changed slowly ... continuity within the memory. secondary centres thus reinforced conservatism, accentuated the gap between Mark Szuchman's Order, Family and major cities and the rest of the country, and Community in Buenos Aires 1810-60 makes contributed to the resistance to change that an interesting comparison to Scobie's book. characterizes much of Latin America today." Both deal with aspects of urban history in 19th-century Argentina and are works of Within this framework, the three cities are mature scholarship, but there the then described, compared, and contrasted. resemblance ends. Scobie's work is And what a dramatic contrast they provide. essentially urban history conceived as

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