Design of a High Fructose Corn Syrup Pilot Plant Tasneem Mufareeh Ali

Design of a High Fructose Corn Syrup pilot Plant

Tasneem Mufareeh Ali Mahmoud

B.Sc. (Hons.) in Chemical Engineering Technology University of Gezira (2011)

A Dissertation Submitted to the University of Gezira in Partial Fulfillment of Requirement for the Award of the Degree of Master of Science in Chemical Engineering

Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Technology Faculty of Engineering and Technology

January 2014

Design of a High Fructose Corn Syrup pilot Plant

Tasneem Mufareeh Ali Mahmoud

Supervision committee: Name: Position Signature Dr. Babiker Karama Abdalla Main Supervisor ……………. Dr. Imad Abdalmonem Mahagoub Co-supervisor …………….

Date: January, 2014

Design of a High Fructose Corn Syrup pilot Plant

Tasneem Mufareeh Ali Mahmoud

Examination committee: Name: Position Signature Dr. Babiker Karama Abdalla Chair person .…….……. Pror. Hamid Mohamed Mustafa External Examiner ...... ………. Dr. Abdalla Mohamed Ahmed slman Internal examiner .…………

Date of Examination: 28-1-2014

Dedication

This work is dedicated for all the great men and women This work is dedicated for my mother and my father who gave my live many of its meanings and means. To my brothers and sisters, and friends, who share me the voyage and path… My supervisor Dr; Babiker Karama Abdalla, To; Mohamed Mufarreh…

Acknowledgement

The Researcher wish to acknowledge with gratitude everyone who helped in the preparation and publication of this research. Great thanks are due to Mohamed Mufareeh, for helping me. Thanks are due to Dr. Imad Eldeen Abdulmoniem. The researcher also wish to acknowledge those who supported the practical arm of this study: Prof; Babiker Karama Abdalla, Thanks are also to my family and my friends who supported me in this study to be accomplished.

Design of High Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS) pilot Plant Tasneem Mufareeh Ali Mahmoud

Abstract High fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is widely used in industry for the production of foods and beverages. Our MyThis study objective is to design a plant for the production of HFCS from corn waste to participate in the provision of HFCS needed in Sudan. This HFCS production plant project is to meet the need for HFCS in Sudan. The annual consumption of HFCS in Sudan is 9000 tones. This plant will produce HFCS using acid hydrolysis followed by glucose isomerase enzyme hydrolysis of corn waste, and yields ethanol as a by-product. This is a full design and feasibility study. The project requires 2861.1 tons/day of corn waste, 1.14 tons /day sulfuric acid (H2SO4), 44.06 tons /day, of ethanol, 15.9*103 tons /day Glucose isomeraise and 1000 tonestons/day from (HCl). The cost of the raw material used by the project will be 58.72 Million $/year. The planned annual HFCS production of the project is about 10000 tones.The project will produce 171.7 tons of ethanol per day. Total capital investment cost is seven Million $.The estimated profite is 1.4 Million $ /year. The Ppayout period backe of the project (Payout time) is four years. A part of the energy needed by the plant is to be provided by steam boilers. The remaining will be provided as regular electricity. The plant is's proposed location in Sudan is in Al-Bbagir in Sudan, as because of the availability of appropriadte conditions for the cultivation of corn. The location of the plant also provides, security, labour, transportation, and facilitates guarantees the feasibility and effectiveness of the project. The plant complex consists of different specialized unitse. There are is a processing area, areas for utillities (like boilers and compressor), administration offices, hospitals , super market, schools, and social and sports clubs. According to my estimates, the project could probably pay back the investment capital in four years. This number may be overly optimistic, ; however, this project has all the requirements for success. The implementation of this project in Sudan has the potential of eliminating the reliance on imported HFCS by the food and beverage manufacturers and therefore significantly reduces the cost of production and enhances competitiveness, maintaining similar product quality.

تصميم وحدة النتاج السكر عالي الفركتوز

تسنيم مفرح علي محمود

ملخص الدراسة أصبحت عصارة السكر الغنية بالفركتوز واسعة االستخدم في الصناعات الغذائية عموما وصناعة المشروبات خاصه.الهدف من هذا البحث هو تصميم مصنع النتاج السكر الغني بالفركتوز من بقايا الذرة للمساهمة في توفيره في السودان. حجم االستهالك السنوي من عصير السكر الغني بالفركتوز في السودان هي 9000 طن تقريبا. وهذه الدراسة هي تصميم ودراسة جدوى والطريقة المستخدمة هي عملية استخدام التحليل باستخدام االحماض ويليه التحليل باستخدام انزيم الجلكوز ايزومريس الذي يقوم بالتحول بين المتماكبين الجلكوز والفركتوز وينتج االيثانول كمنتج جانبي .يتطلب هذا المشروع حوالي 2861.1 طن/يوم من بقايا الذرة وحوالي 1.1طن/يوم من حمض الكبريتيك وحوالي 44.06 طن/يوم من االيثانول و15900طن/يوم من انزيم جلكوز ايزومريس و1000 طن من حمض الهيدروكلوريك, وتعتبر تكلفة المواد الخام حوالي 58.72 مليون دوالر خالل العام.ويعتبر الهدف االساسي من هذا المشروع هو انتاج 10000 طن سنويا من السكر الغني بالفركتوز وبجانب ذلك ينتج 171.7 طن من االيثانول في اليوم.وتعد تكلفة رأس المال حوالي 7 مليون دوالر ويعتبر الربح 1.4 مليون دوالر سنويا. ويقوم المشروع باعادة تكلفة انشائه في حوالي 4 سنوات. أما بالنسبة للطاقة التي يستخدمها المصنع فجزء منها يوفر من خالل استحدام المراجل البخارية و المتبقي من الكهرباء. في اقتراحي ان يقوم المصنع في السودان في مدينة الباقير، وذلك لتوفر الظروف المناسبة لزراعة الذرة, وايضاهي مدينة آمنة وبها عمال مهرة و قريبة في موقعها لنقل البضائع. تتكون المنطقة داخل المصنع من عدد من الوحدات المختلفة والمتخصصة التي تتم المعالجة فيها مثل الغاليات ومكاتب اإلدارة والمستشفيات و المحالت التجارية والمدارس و النوادي االجتماعية والرياضية.باالضافة لما ذكر من ميزات لهذا المشروع وهو ايضا يعيد تكاليف انشائه خالل سنوات فهذا يجعل منه مشروعا ناجحا.واخيرا تنفيذ مثل هذا المشروع في السودان تحد من استيراد السكر الغني بالفركتوز من قبل مصنعي االغذية والمشروبات وبالتالي هذا يقلل من التكلفة االنتاج ويشجع المنافسة محافظا على نفس مستوى جودة المنتجات.

Table of Contents CHAPTER ONE 1 Sweeteners 1 HFCS around the world 1 Justification of the problem 2

Objectives 3

CHAPTER TWO 4

Advantages of HFCS 4 Importance and uses of HFCS 4 Comparison between HFCS and other sweeteners 5 Types of HFCS and Usage 7 Properties of HFCS 7 Concern about relation between HFCS, obesity, diabetes 9 High fructose corn syrup: Production and uses 10

CHAPTER THREE 13 Comparison between the Types of reactions which produce HFCS 13 Production of HFCS 13 Material balance 23 The amount of substance use in the process 24 Material balance around equipment’s 24 Over all material balance 39 Energy balance 41

General equation for energy balance 41

Energy balance around equipments 41 Economical Evaluation 46 Introduction 46 Capital Investment 46 Pay pack period 48 Calculation 48

CHAPTER FOUR Possibility of the project 53

CHAPTER FIVE 55

Conclusion 55 References 56

List of tables

Table (2.1): examples for uses of HFCS in some industries Table (2.2): Comparison of Caloric Sweetener Compositions Table (2.3):Carbohydrate Composition (Dry Basis) Table (2.4): Physical & Chemical Properties Table (2.5) :Viscosities (Centipoises') Table (2.6):Weight/Volume Factors (100°F) Table (2.7): Microbiological Standards Table (2.8): Nutritional Data/100g Table (2.9): Nutritional values calculated per 100 g of HFCS Table (3.1): Molecular weight of component table(3.56)Material balanceــــــــــــ(table(3.2 Table (3.57): Cost of the equipment Table (3.58): Total capital investment Table (3.95): row material cost Table (3.60) :Operation labor cost Table(3.61): Total production cost

Table of figures Fig (2.1)The formulae of fructose and glucose Figure(2.2): Sweetener consumption in the United States Fig (2.3) block diagram of HFCS production Fig (3.1) Block diagram of production HFCS 55 Fig (3.2)Production of High-Fructose Corn Syrup Fig (3.3) flow chart of HFCS

Chapter one

Introduction

1.1 Sweeteners: Liquid and solid sweeteners are produced around the world from several starch sources including corn, wheat, tapioca, potatoes and even cellulose hydrolyzed. The most widely used of Liquid sweeteners is corn. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants but are only present in sufficient concentrations for efficient extraction in sugar cane and sugar beet.

High-fructose syrups are sweeteners produced from several starches, but corn is the primary starch used to produce HFS (Starch is a polymer made of glucose molecules linked into long chains). High fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is the largest single sweetener syrup produced. (Marc J.E.C. van der Maarel et.al, 2001)

High fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is a sweetener made from corn and can be found in numerous foods and beverages. HFCS is composed of either 42 percent or 55 percent fructose, with the remaining sugars being primarily glucose and higher sugars. In terms of composition, HFCS is nearly identical to cane sugar (sucrose), which is composed of 50 percent fructose and 50 percent glucose. Glucose is one of the simplest forms of sugar that serves as a building block for most carbohydrates. Fructose is a simple sugar commonly found in fruits and honey. (Kay Parker et.al, 2010). High-fructose corn syrup started to take over the market and replace cane sugar in the 1980s. Compared to sucrose, HFCS provides foods with better flavor enhancement, stability, freshness, texture, color, durability, and consistency, also It is cheaper and more versatile ingredient that can be used not only to sweeten foods, but also to extend shelf life, prevent freezer burn and, in the case of baked goods, get them brown and keep them soft. It is now in all sorts of products you wouldn't necessarily expect, including frozen foods and breads.

HFCS consists of 24% water, and the rest sugars. The most widely used varieties of high-fructose corn syrup are: HFCS 55 (mostly used in soft drinks), approximately 55% fructose and 42% glucose. 1.2 HFCS around the world: 1.2.1United States US sweetener consumption, 1966–2012, in dry pounds. It is apparent from this graph that overall sweetener consumption, and in particular glucose-fructose mixtures, has increased since the introduction of HFCS. Thus, the amount of fructose consumed in the United States has increased since the early 1980s. This would be true whether the added sweetener was HFCS, table sugar, or any other glucose- fructose mixture

A system of sugar tariffs and sugar quotas imposed in 1977 in the United States significantly increased the cost of imported sugar, and U.S. producers sought cheaper sources. HFCS derived from corn is more economical because the domestic U.S. prices of sugar are twice the global price and the price of corn is kept low through government subsidies paid to growers. HFCS became an attractive substitute and is preferred over cane sugar by the vast majority of American food and beverage manufacturers Soft drink makers such as Coca-Cola and Pepsi use sugar in other nations but switched to HFCS in the U.S. in 1984. Large corporations, such as Archer Daniels Midland, lobby for the continuation of government corn subsidies. 1.2.2 Mexico Other countries, including Mexico, typically use sugar in soft drinks. Some Americans seek out Mexican Coca-Cola in ethnic groceries because they prefer the taste compared to Coke in the U.S. which is made with HFCS. Kosher for Passover Coca-Cola sold in the U.S. 1.2.3 European Union In the European Union (EU), HFCS, known as isoglucose in sugar regime, is subject to a production quota. In 2005, this quota was set at 303,000 tons; in comparison, the EU produced an average of 18.6 million tons of sugar annually between 1999 and 2001.[38] Wide-scale replacement of sugar with HFCS has not occurred in the EU. For labeling purpose, syrup with more than 50% of glucose, like HFCS 42, called Glucose-Fructose Syrup (GFS), and more than 50% of fructose, like HFCS 55, called Fructose-Glucose Syrup (FGS), although production within Europe is minimal. 1.2.4 Japan In Japan HFCS consumption accounts for one quarter of total sweetener consumption. In Japanese Agricultural standard it is called (lit, isomerized sugar). If a syrup contains more than 50% of glucose, it is called (lit. glucose fructose syrup); if syrup contains 50% to 90% of fructose, it is called (lit. fructose glucose syrup); and if syrup contains more than 90% of fructose, it is called (lit, high fructose syrup).

1.3 Justification of the problem

In some products sweetened with sucrose, the covalent bond between the fructose and glucose molecules breaks down in low acid environments, such as those found in soft drinks, as well as at high temperatures, such as during storage in hot climates, the sucrose content of a cola beverage decreased from 36% of total sugars to only 10% of sugars 3 months after manufacture, and the free fructose content increased from 32% to 44% of total sugars. This creates variability in the taste profile of the product. In contrast, HFCS maintains its structural stability over a range of temperatures and acidic conditions.

1.4 Objectives

1.4.1General objective:

Design of a Novel Plant for High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) Production from corn. 1.4.2 Specific objectives:

To optimize this design I need to do: Material balance: to calculate the amount of material which I need in the plant. Energy balance: to calculate the amount of energy which pilot plant need it to operate and produce the HFCS. Economic evaluation: to knew the possibility of the project.

Chapter two

Literature review 2.1 Introduction:

People used to drink soft drinks extravagantly, every day 1.6 billion bottles sold around the world, So that it has become the largest brand on the level. 2.2 Advantages of HFCS:

HFCS is commonly used to make sodas, fruit drinks, chips and candy bars. However, many other foods also contain HFCS, such as bread, fruit-flavored yogurt, and cereal, condiments like ketchup, canned vegetables, salad dressings and granola bars. (Kay Parker et.al, 2010)

Cheaper for farmers to grow corn than sugar cane. Foreign sugar makes the price of HFCS substantially lower than the price of sugar. So a lot of food producers choose HFCS to reduce their production costs and maximize profit.

HFCS is made when corn syrup is treated with enzymes to convert some of its glucose into fructose, resulting in syrup that is 42 percent or 55 percent fructose. Sucrose contains one molecule of glucose and one molecule of sucrose. Although its producers argue that HFCS and table sugar have the same composition and the same calorific value, glucose and fructose are bound differently in each one. In cane sugar, or sucrose, the two molecules are linked by a chemical bond. When you eat table sugar, your body separates the two molecules during digestion before they are absorbed into the body. In HFCS the molecules are not liked, they are "free molecules.

2.3 Importance and uses of HFCS

As the result of improvement of our life we need more products Compatible with this improvement. HFCS alternate sugar as the result of his Superiority and make product better. 2.3.1 Uses in Beverages and Frozen Foods HFCS raises the freezing point in frozen beverage mixes which, According to the Sweet Surprise website, makes them easier and quicker to thaw and mix with water. Manufacturers also use it as a flavor stabilizer to ensure a longer shelf life in soft drinks, such as colas and fruit drinks. The Sweet Surprise website also states that HFCS provides greater stability in carbonated sodas than cane sugar. In frozen fruits, it enhances the flavor of the fruit, regulates tartness and helps maintain the texture and integrity of the fruit. It also helps reduce freezer burn. 2.3.2 Uses in baked Goods In addition to its sweetening properties, HFCS also acts as a browning agent, which creates the golden brown crust on baked goods. Additionally, according to the Corn Refiners Association, HFCS provides sugar to complete the yeast fermentation process, which allows dough to rise. It also helps keep baked goods moist by preventing sugar crystallization during the baking process. HFCS enhances the flavor of fruit fillings and manufacturers also use it as a preservative. Common baked goods with HFCS include unsweetened items such as breads, biscuits and dinner rolls, and sweetened items such as cookies and cakes. 2.3.3 Uses in Creams, Sauces and Meats HFCS provides sugar for the fermentation process in yogurt. It is also used as a thickener to create a creamy texture in low-fat and non-fat dairy products such as cottage cheese, yogurt and sour cream. In savory sauces, such as spaghetti sauce, HFCS enhances the spices and cuts the acidity of tomatoes. HFCS acts as a thickener in sauces, such as barbecue, teriyaki and tomato-based products, which allows them to cling to the surface of foods. HFCS also appears in meat products, such as sausages and processed lunch meats, as a stabilizer, binding agent and flavor enhancer. 2.4 Some examples for uses of HFCS in some industries: Table (2.1) examples for uses of HFCS in some industries Beverages HFCS provides greater stability in acidic carbonated sodas than sucrose; flavors remain consistent and stable over the entire shelf-life of the product. Baked goods HFCS gives a pleasing brown crust to breads and cakes; contributes fermentable sugars to yeast raised products; reduces sugar crystallization during baking for soft-moist textures; enhances flavors of fruit fillings. Yogurt HFCS provides fermentable sugars; enhances fruit and spice flavors; controls moisture to prevent separation; regulates tartness Spaghetti sauces, ketchup HFCS enhances flavor and balance – replaces the “pinch of table sugar and condiments grandma added” to enhance spice flavors; balances the variable tartness of tomatoes. Granola, breakfast and HFCS enhances moisture control, retards spoilage and extends product energy bars freshness; provides soft texture; enhances spice and fruit flavors.

2.5 Comparison between HFCS and other sweeteners:

Sugar and HFCS have the same number of calories as most carbohydrates; both contribute 4 calories per gram. They are also equal in sweetness. 2.5.1 Cane and beet sugar Cane sugar and beet sugar are both relatively pure sucrose. While glucose and fructose, which are the two components of HFCS, are monosaccharide, sucrose is a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose linked together with a relatively weak glycoside bond. The fact that sucrose, glucose and fructose are unique, distinct molecules complicates the comparison between cane sugar, beet sugar and HFCS. A molecule of sucrose (with a chemical formula of C12H22O11) can be broken down into a molecule of glucose (C6H12O6) plus a molecule of fructose (also C6H12O6 — an isomer of glucose) in a weakly acidic environment by a process called inversion. Sucrose is broken down during digestion into a mixture of 50% fructose and 50% glucose through hydrolysis by the enzyme sucrose.

Fig (2.1) the formulae of fructose and glucose 2.5.2 Honey Honey is a mixture of different types of sugars, water, and small amounts of other compounds. Honey typically has a fructose/glucose ratio similar to HFCS 55, as well as containing some sucrose and other sugars. Like HFCS, honey contains water and has approximately 3 cal per gram. Because of its similar sugar profile and lower price, HFCS has been used illegally to "stretch" honey. As a result, checks for adulteration of honey no longer test for higher-than-normal levels of sucrose, which HFCS does not contain, but instead test for small quantities of proteins that can be used to differentiate between HFCS and honey.

Table (2.2) Comparison of Caloric Sweetener Compositions Component Percentage HFCS-55 Sugar Honey Fructose 55 50 49 Glucose 42 50 43 Other Sugars 3 0 5

Figure (2.2): Sweetener consumption in the United States (Daniel Finnie, et.al, 2008) 2.6 Types of HFCS and Usage

- HFCS 42: The percentage of glucose is 58% and fructose is 42%. Which use in some beverages, beer, confectionary products canned goods, HFCS55 - HFCS 55: The percentage of glucose is 45% and fructose is 55%. Which use in soft drinks, ice cream, yogurt, processed foods, feed for honey bees for crop pollination - HFCS 90: The percentage of glucose is 10% and fructose is 90%.This used to make HFCS 55. (Blaise W. Leblanc, 2008) 2.7 Properties of HFCS:

HFCS is a viscous, colorless and odorless liquid. Nutritionally, is a carbohydrate containing percentages of glucose and fructose. The fructose is combined with regular corn syrup to achieve the desired level of sweetness and viscosity; Because HFCS is usually created to be several degrees sweeter than sugar. HFCS does not tend to form crystals, as sucrose syrups do. Table (2.3) Carbohydrate Composition (Dry Basis) Fructose > 55%

Dextrose + Fructose > 95% Higher Saccharides < 5%

Table (2.4) Physical & Chemical Properties Dry Substance % 76.5 – 77.5

pH 3.3 - 4.3

Ash % Trace

SO ppm <10 2

Moisture % 22.5 – 23.5

Appearance Clear to light straw liquid

Odor No detectable foreign odors

Table (2.5) Viscosities (Centipoises') 80 °F 700

100 °F 250

120 °F 100

Table (2.6) Weight/Volume Factors (100°F g) Specific Gravity 1.372 Pounds/Gallon 11.45

Table (2.7) Microbiological Standards Total Plate Count <200 cfu/10g DSE

Yeast <10cfu/10g DSE Mold <10 cfu/10g DSE

Listeria Absent

Salmonella Absent/25g DSE= Dry Solids Equivalent

Table (2.8) Nutritional Data/100g Calories 308

Carbohydrates (g) 77 Sugars (g) 75

Other Carbohydrates (g) 2

There are no fat, protein, fiber, vitamins, or minerals (including sodium) of dietary significance 2.8 Fructose and Adverse Health Outcomes

Many of the concerns about HFCS are, in fact, concerns about the role of fructose in appetite and metabolism. Fructose is more quickly emptied from the stomach compared with other sugars and is absorbed in the intestines more slowly and less completely than glucose. Unlike glucose, fructose intake does not stimulate insulin secretion, which is likely due to the lack of fructose transporters (Glut-5) in the β cells of the pancreas. Insulin is believed to directly and indirectly (though effects on leptin secretion) inhibit food intake. The brain and central nervous system also lack Glut-5 transporters, further inhibiting the ability of fructose to provide satiety signals. In addition, fructose can be more easily incorporated into phospholipids and triacylglycerols than glucose, as fructose metabolism bypasses the key rate-limiting step in the liver that slows glucose metabolism. Thus, consumption of excess amounts of fructose, but not the same amount of glucose, has significantly increased rates of lipogenesis. In addition, fructose consumption does not increase leptin or decrease ghrelin levels, in contrast to the hormonal response after glucose ingestion. 2.9 Concern about relation between high fructose corn syrup, obesity, diabetes

At present, insufficient evidence exists that HFCS consumption has contributed to obesity more than sucrose, increased consumption of total calories (from any source), or decreased physical activity has. Obesity is a serious and complex public health issue facing our nation and the rest of the world, it caused by an imbalance between calories consumed from all foods and beverages if there is no balance, it is not uniquely caused by any single food or beverage. HFCS-sweetened beverages are not driving obesity, but play a small and declining role in the diet. Both beverages sweetened with HFCS and those sweetened with sucrose contribute to the overconsumption of calories compared with a diet beverage or no beverage. In addition, men and women may respond to the sweeteners differently, as one study found that men experienced significantly less hunger after consuming HFCS than sucrose, while women experienced less hunger after consuming sucrose-sweetened beverages. However, another study found increased hunger in women the day after consuming 30% of calories from sucrose as compared with HFCS. Diabetes is a complex disease with many underlying factors. It is highly unlikely that one component of the diet is uniquely related to diabetes. There are well-established links between obesity and diabetes. HFCS and sugar are nutritionally equivalent, there is broad scientific consensus that HFCS and cane sugar are nutritionally and metabolically equivalent, and the American Medical Association has concluded that HFCS is not a unique cause of obesity.

2.10 High fructose corn syrup: Production and uses

High fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is a liquid alternative sweetener to sucrose that is made from corn, the “king of crops” using chemicals (caustic soda, hydrochloric acid) and enzymes (-amylase and glucoamylase) to hydrolyze corn starch to corn syrup containing mostly glucose and a third enzyme (glucose isomerase) to isomerize glucose in corn syrup to fructose to yield HFCS products classified according to their fructose content: HFCS-90, HFCS-42, and HFCS-55. HFCS-90 is the major product of these chemical reactions and is blended with glucose syrup to obtain HFCS-42 and HFCS-55. HFCS has become a major sweetener and additive used extensively in a wide variety of processed foods and beverages ranging from soft and fruit drinks to yogurts and breads. HFCS has many advantages compared to sucrose that make it attractive to food manufacturers. These include its sweetness,solubility, acidity and its relative cheapness in the United States (US).

Nutritional values calculated per 100 g of HFCS. Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Data from USDA nutrient database (USDA.gov). Table (2.9) Nutritional values calculated per 100 g of HFCS Nutritional Items Value Energy 1,176 kJ (281 kcal) Carbohydrates 76 g Dietary fiber 0 g Fat 0 g Protein 0 g Water 24 g Riboflavin (Vitamin B 2) 0.019 mg (1%) Niacin (Vitamin B3) 0 mg (0%) Pantothenic acid (Vitamin B5) 0.011 mg (0%) Vitamin B6 0.024 mg (2%) Folic acid (Vitamin B9) 0 _g (0%) Vitamin C 0 mg (0%) Calcium 6 mg (1%) Iron 0.42 mg (3%) Magnesium 2 mg (1%) Phosphorus 4 mg (1%) Potassium 0 mg (0%) Sodium 2 mg (0%) Zinc 0.22 mg (2%)

2.11 PRODUCTION AND USES OF HFCS The corn grain undergoes several unit processes starting with steeping to soften the hard corn kernel followed by wet milling and physical separation into corn starch (from the endosperm); corn hull (bran) and protein and oil (from the germ). Corn starch composed of glucose molecules of infinite length, consists of amylose and amylopectin and requires heat, caustic soda and/or hydrochloric acid plus the activity of three different enzymes to break it down into the simple sugars glucose and fructose present in HFCS. An industrial enzyme, -amylase produced from Bacillus spp., hydrolyzes corn starch to short chain dextrin and oligosaccharides. A second enzyme, glucoamylase (also called amyloglucosidase), produced from fungi such as Apergillus, breaks dextrins and oligosaccharides to the simple sugar glucose. The product of these two enzymes is corn syrup also called glucose syrup. The third and relatively expensive enzyme used in the process is glucose isomerase (also called D-glucose ketoisomerase or D- xylose ketolisomerase), that converts glucose to fructose. While -amylase and glucoamylase are added directly to the processing slurry, pricey glucose isomerase is immobilized by package into columns where the glucose syrup is passed over in a liquid chromatography step that isomerizes glucose to a mixture of 90% fructose and 10% glucose (HFCS-90). Whereas inexpensive -amylase and glucoamylase are used only once, glucose isomerase is reused until it loses most of its enzymatic activity. The - amylase and glucoamylase used in HFCS processing have been genetically modified to improve their heat stability for the production of HFCS. In the US, four companies control 85% of the $2.6 billion HFCS business— Archer Daniels Midland, Cargill, Staley Manufacturing Co, and CPC International. With clarification and removal of impurities, HFCS-90 is blended with glucose syrup to produce HFCS- 55 (55% fructose) and HFCS-42 (42% fructose). Both HFCS-55 and HFCS-42 have several functional advantages in common, but each has unique properties that make them attractive to specific food manufacturers. Because of its higher fructose content, HFCS-55 is sweeter than sucrose and is thus used extensively as sweetener in soft, juice, and carbonated drinks. HFCS-42 has a mild sweetness and does not mask the natural flavors of food. Thus it is used extensively in canned fruits, sauces, soups, condiments, baked goods, and many other processed foods. It is also used heavily by the dairy industry in yogurt, eggnog, flavored milks, ice cream, and other frozen desserts. The use of HFCS has increased since its introduction as a sweetener. Although, its use peaked in 1999, it rivals sucrose as the major sweetener in processed foods. The US is the major user of HFCS in the world, but HFCS is manufactured and used in many countries around the world (Vuilleumier, 1993). HFCS has functional advantages relative to sucrose. These include HFCS’s relative cheapness (at 32 cents/lb versus 52 cents/lb for sucrose); greater sweetness with HFCS being sweeter than sucrose, better solubility than sucrose and ability to remain in solution and not crystallize as can sucrose under certain conditions. Moreover, HFCS is liquid and thus is easier to transport and use in soft drink formulations (Hanover and White, 1993). It is also acidic and thus has preservative ability that reduces the use of other preservatives. HFCS has little to no nutritional value other than calories from sugar. Analysis of food consumption patterns using USDA (2008) food consumption tables for the US from 1967 to 2000 (Bray et al., 2004) showed that HFCS consumption increased major source of dietary fructose.

Fig (2.3) block diagram of HFCS production

Chapter three

Material and methods

3.1 Process design and flow diagram

In order to produce HFCS, corn starch must first be broken down into glucose molecules. By adding glucose isomerase (also called D-glucose ketoisomerase or D-xylose ketolisomerase) to converts glucose to high fructose corn syrup (mixture of about 42% fructose and 50–52% glucose with some other sugars mixed in). 3.2 Production High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS):

Starch is the most common digestible polysaccharide found in foods, and is therefore a major source of energy in our diets. In its natural form starch exists as water-insoluble granules (3 - 60 mm), but in many processed foods the starch is no longer in this form because of the processing treatments involved (e.g., heating). It consists of a mixture of two glucose homopolysaccharides. Starch has become an important raw material for the sugar industry which, for centuries, relied exclusively on sugar beet and sugar cane for the production of natural sweeteners. HFCS is food syrup, made from the hydrolysis of starch, it obtained by controlled partial hydrolysis of starch, are purified aqueous solutions of nutritive saccharides. HFCS consists of 24% water, and the rest sugars. The most widely used varieties of high-fructose corn syrup are: HFCS 55 (mostly used in soft drinks), approximately 55% fructose and 42% glucose; and HFCS 42 (used in beverages, processed foods, cereals and baked goods), approximately 42% fructose and 53% glucose. HFCS-90, approximately 90% fructose and 10% glucose, is used in small quantities for specialty applications, but primarily is used to blend with HFCS 42 to make HFCS 55 HFCS produced by two ways as; 1. Enzymic hydrolysis. 2. Acidic hydrolysis followed by enzymic hydrolysis (dual conversion syrups). (IPEK ÇELEBİ, 2006). 3.2.1 Acidic Hydrolysis Followed by Enzymic Hydrolysis

Dual conversion syrups are manufactured by hydrolysis of the starch to a specific DE by acid and completing the hydrolysis by the use of one or more enzymes. Firstly, the hydrolysis of starch was achieved by boiling raw starch in H SO to give sweet syrup. 2 4 Hydrolysis of starch has commonly been carried out using hydrochloric acid at temperatures of 130- 170°C with subsequent partial neutralization. In this process, starch slurry is acidified with hydrochloric acid and pumped through a series of steam-heated pipes where the conversion of starch into sugars occurs. Temperature, acidity, and retention time are the major factors that govern the extent of the hydrolysis. Using acids in hydrolysis of starch has some disadvantages as inducing formation of coloring and flavoring substances as well as other contaminants such as furfural, levulinic acid and formic acid (which of all give in high refining cost), being lack of process control, being an unsafely process and also giving low yields. Glucose syrup from starch hydrolysis contains ash, color bodies and proteinaceous materials which produce an unacceptable color, taste or odor quality in the finished product and reduce isomerization enzyme performance. Whether the syrup will be evaporated and sold as a finished product or continue on in the refining process to isomerization, demineralization is required to remove objectionable soluble components. Color stability of some corn syrups is obtained through the addition of sulfur dioxide, but due to human sensitivity to sulfites, this practice has partly been replaced with ion exchange. The ash content of glucose syrups is typically 0.25-0.45% by weight of total syrup dry Solids and predominantly contains the following ions: • Sodium Na+ • Calcium Ca++ • Magnesium Mg++ • Chloride Cl-

• Sulfate SO4 These salts must be removed prior to final evaporation. The ash content of 42 HFCS is typically 0.15- 0.25% by weight of total syrup dry solids and consists primarily of: • Sodium Na+ • Magnesium Mg++

• Sulfate SO4

• Sulfite SO3 As the dextrose or fructose syrup solution passes through the resin bed, the sugars, ash, color bodies and proteins diffuse into the resin beads and can be exchanged or adsorbed onto the resin. In the strong acid cation bed, sodium, calcium, magnesium and other cations will replace the hydrogen ions on the resin due to their greater affnity for the resin than hydrogen ion. The hydrogen ions displaced from the resin by other cations cause a drop in the solution pH to a level of about 1.5-2.0 in the “primary” cation column and 3.0-3.5 in the “secondary” cation column. Thus, neutral salts are changed to their corresponding mineral acids. Proteinaceous compounds, at low pH, may be sorbed onto the cation resin either by ion exchange or adsorption on the resin matrix. The syrup then passes through a bed of weak base anion resin where the mineral acids, organic acids and color bodies diffuse into the resin beads and are adsorbed onto the tertiary amine functional groups. The chemical equations depicting the service ion exchanges are shown below: Strong Acid Cation Service Exchange Reaction

RSO3–H+ + Na + Cl– ➔ RSO3–Na+ + H +Cl– (Produces mineral acids) Weak Base Anion Service Exchange Reaction

RCH2 N (CH3)2 + H +Cl– ➔ RCH2NH+Cl–(CH3)2 (Acid absorber). (IPEK ÇELEBİ,2006).

3.2.2 Block diagram of production HFCS 55:

Fig (3.1) Block diagram of production HFCS 55

Corn Preparation Separation Milling Gelatinization

Glucose isomerase

Glucose Syrup Evaporation Clarification Acid hydrolysis

HFCS 90 HFCS 55

3.2.3 Process of produce HFCS:

3.2.3.1 Preparation The starch content of most foods cannot be determined directly because the starch is contained within a structurally and chemically complex food matrix. In particular, starch is often present in a semi-crystalline form (granular or retrograded starch) that is inaccessible to the chemical reagents used to determine its concentration. It is therefore necessary to isolate starch from the other components present in the food matrix prior to carrying out a starch analysis. Dry kernels are cleaned and then steeping for (30 to 40 hours to begin breaking the starch and Protein bonds) in a weak solution of sulfurous acid to soften the kernel before the protein, fiber and oil are separated from the starch by a series of grinding and screening steps. The raw starch is further refined by washing. 3.2.3.2 Separation The starch granules are water-insoluble and have a relatively high density (1500 kg/m3) so that they will tend to move to the bottom of a container during centrifugation, where they can be separated from the other water-soluble and less dense materials. Before conversion of starch to glucose can begin, the starch must be separated from the plant material. This includes removing fiber and protein (which can be valuable by-products), Protein produces off- flavors and colors due to the Millard reaction, and fiber is insoluble and has to be removed to allow the starch to become hydrated. 3.2.3.3 Milling The most common process is the “tempering-degerming.” in this process is to dry clean the corn, separating fines and broken from the whole corn. Occasionally wet cleaning follows to remove surface dirt, dust and other matter. The clean corn is tempered to 20 percent moisture. While moist, the majority of the outer bran or pericarp, germ, and tip cap are removed, leaving the endosperm. 3.2.3.4 Gelatinization Gelatinization is the process of breaking down the intermolecular bonds if starch molecules in the presence of water and heat. the intermolecular bonds of the starch molecules are broken down, allowing the hydrogen bonding sites to engage more water. This irreversibly dissolves the starch granule, so the chains begin to separate into an amorphous form. This prepares the starch for hydrolysis. (Sheri Miraglia, 1998). 3.2.3.5 Acid hydrolysis Glucose syrup produce by combining corn starch with dilute hydrochloric acid, and then heating the mixture at temperatures of 130-170°C under pressure, acidic condition (pH 4.5-5).the amount of HCL need is 35% from the amount of starch entered. (Barnali Bej, R.K. Basu and S.N. Ash, 2008 3.2.3.6 Clarification After hydrolysis, the dilute syrup can be passed through columns to remove impurities, improving its color and stability. 3.2.3.7 Evaporation The dilute glucose syrup is finally evaporated under vacuum to raise the solids concentration. 3.2.3.8 Glucose isomerase Glucose isomerase is enzyme which converts glucose to high fructose corn syrup 90 and the enzyme comes in solid form, because of the high cost of glucose isomerase (about $5.05 per gram in low quantities),the enzyme must be reused HFCS-90 blending with glucose syrup to produce HFCS-55 (55%fructose). (Daniel Finnie, et.al, 2008) It's preferred use of stirred tank reactors, continuous stirred reactors (CSTR) or a jet cooker. 3.2.4 Enzyme Hydrolysis

Since enzymes have efficiency, specific action, ability to work under mild conditions, increasing reaction rate, operation without contamination by microorganisms and having high purification and standardization, they are ideal catalysts for the food industry. Enzyme reactions, requiring simple equipment, are easily controlled and can be easily stopped when the desired degree of conversion is reached. 3.2.4.1 Step 1 - Starch Extraction The major components of the maize kernel (protein, germ oil, fibre and starch) are separated during starch extraction. The starch is further processed and the other components sold as by-products. Starch extraction begins with steeping the maize grains in a weak solution of sulfurous acid to soften the kernel and help break the chemical bonds between the proteins and the starch. The soluble solids are leached from the grain, concentrated through evaporation and sold to feed compounders and fertiliser companies as a high protein concentrate. Next, oil is expelled from the germ to produce a crude maize oil which is sold for further refining before being used in the food industry. The starch and gluten are then separated from the fiber and from each other. The fiber is used in the animal feeds industry and the gluten is sold as corn flour. The starch is washed and concentrated to 40 % solids. About half of it is sold as either unmodified or chemically modified starch, and the remainder is converted to sugar syrups. 3.2.4.2 Step 2 - Liquefaction Liquefaction is the hydrolysis of the starch to oligosaccharides: glucose polymers of up to ten glucose residues. This is done by holding the starch slurry at 105oC for seven minutes at pH 6.0 - 6.5 in the presence of a heat stable alpha amylase enzyme. Small quantites (ca. 50 ppm) of a calcium salt are also added to the jet cooker to help stabilize the enzyme. During the seven minutes the starch hydrates and is broken down both by the shearing forces in the jet cooker (Corn Starch and the enzyme α-amylase are fed into a stirred tank reactor) and by the action of the enzyme:

(C6H10O5) n +n H2O → nC6H12O6 Starch oligosaccharides (D-glucose)

After this initial liquefaction the mixture is cooled to 97°C and transferred to a multi chamber reactor, where the solution is held for 90 minutes to reach a dextrose equivalent of 10 – 12 units. As the name implies, liquefaction lowers the viscosity of the solution. By this means the more specialized reactions occurring in the next step can be more easily controlled. (Barnali Bej, R.K. Basu and S.N. Ash, 2008) 3.2.4.3 Step 3: Saccharification After liquefaction the pH is lowered to between 4 and 5 and the liquid is cooled to around 60°C. This inactivates the liquefaction enzyme and creates conditions suitable for the saccharification enzymes. A specialized enzyme or enzymes are then added. The enzymes added depend on the type of syrup that is to be produced, i.e. how much of the free sugar should be glucose, how much should be maltose etc. For example, if a high glucose syrup is required then an amyloglucosidase is added, but if a high maltose syrup is preferred then a fungal alpha amylase could be added. If a high sugar syrup including both these sugars is required then both enzymes will be added. The reaction occurring follows the equation below:

Oligosaccharides + H2O → glucose/maltose mixture 3.2.4.4 Step 4 - Refining The raw sugar syrup requires refining to remove impurities such as residual proteins and fats. This is done by passing the solution through a rotating vacuum filter coated with diatomaceous earth then decolourising it with activated carbon. The product is then concentrated to the desired solids level (typically 75 - 85 % solids) and packaged for sale. 3.2.2.5 Convert into HFCS The next step in the process is converting glucose into a mixture of fructose and glucose. This is done by suspending the enzyme glucose isomerase in a gel column and running the glucose through the enzyme. Glucose isomerase is suspended so that multiple batches of glucose can be run through the gel column. This is in contrast to the relatively inexpensive enzymes α-amylase and glucoamylase which are mixed with the reactants and then thrown out. Once the glucose is run through the gel column a mixture containing approximately 42% fructose and 52% glucose, known as HFCS-42, is produced. This happens because converting glucose into fructose is a reversible reaction; meaning that at a certain point fructose will begin to convert into glucose. At equilibrium, which occurs when 42% fructose is produced, fructose will convert into glucose and glucose will convert into fructose simultaneously. The problem is that HFCS-42 is not comparable to the taste of the sucrose that is has replaced. A mixture containing 55% fructose, known as HFCS-55, is considered to have the same taste as sucrose. To produce HFCS-55, some of the HFCS-42 is converted into HFCS-90 by liquid chromatography. Liquid chromatography separates the glucose and fructose molecules by distinguishing between their different structures. The separated glucose is discarded and the HFCS-90 is mixed with the remaining HFCS-42 to produce HFCS-55. Carbon Adsorption is then used to remove any impurities that may be left in the HFCS-55. These impurities can be anything ranging from left over enzymes to other sugars accidently produced in the process. 3.3 Summary – Basic Steps Here is a summary of the basic engineering steps used to produce HFCS:

- Mix corn starch and α-amylase to produce maltose and glucose - Separate α-amylase out of mixture using a filter - Add glucoamylase to the maltose and glucose mixture to produce pure glucose - Separate glucoamylase from glucose using a filter - Run glucose mixture through the enzyme glucose isomerase to produce HFCS-42 - Mix HFCS-42 and HFCS-90 to produce HFCS-55 - Use Carbon Adsorption to remove impurities

3.4 Chemical reactions:-

CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

O O O

OH OH OH O O

OH OH OH

CH2OH CH2OH

HCL O O

OH O H O

OH OH

CH2OH Glucoseisomarise

O CH2OH O H

H O

OH H H CH2OH OH

O H H Glucose Fructose

(İPEK ÇELEBİ, 2006)

O-H-CHO-(CHOH)2-(CH2)3-O- H-CHO-(CHOH)2-(CH2)3-O +HCL

Glucoseisomarise O-H-CHO-(CHOH)2-(CH2)3-

O-H-CHO-(CHOH)2-(CH2)3- Glucose +

O-(CHOH)2-CH2-CHO-CH3

Fructose

Fig (3.2) Production of High-Fructose Corn Syrup 3.5 Factors That Affect Enzymic Hydrolysis

The enzymatic hydrolysis of starch is mainly affected by botanic sources of starch including amylose/amylopectin ratio, crystallinity and size of granules. Not only botanic source has an importance on the hydrolysis but also operating conditions as starch concentration, temperature, pH, enzyme type, enzyme concentration. The effect of time on hydrolysis and enzyme stability was reported by Apar and Özbek, (2005). It was found that; when rice starch was hydrolyzed by α-amylase derived from B.subtilis with processing time (from 0 to 90 min), a decrease in the activity of α-amylase was observed with the time of exposure. The degree of hydrolysis reached a value of 84.51% and 81.82% the efficiency of α-amylase was lost after 90 min. Not only sole effect of these parameters but also interactions between them should also be taken into account on hydrolysis of starch. 3.6 Industrial Starch Hydrolysis

Conversion of starch into sugar syrups and dextrins forms the major part of the starch processing industry. Sugar syrups obtained by starch are sweet edible products that are widely used in confectionery and other food products, also solid glucose can be prepared by crystallization from completely hydrolyzed liquors. In United States these syrups are known as corn syrups since they are produced by acidic/enzymatic hydrolysis of corn starch. Other starches, such as those from wheat, potato and rice can, of course, be used to manufacture such products. In our country since wheat starch production is widespread, and it is produced as a by-product of gluten manufacture, production of them from wheat starch gains importance. The industrial hydrolysis of starch into glucose syrups is generally performed in two following steps as liquefaction and saccharification. After saccharification, fructose syrups are obtained from glucose syrups by isomerization if desired. Liquefaction is a process of dispersion of insoluble starch granules in an aqueous solution followed by partial hydrolysis using thermostable amylases. α-amylase behaves as a thinning agent which results in reduction in viscosity and partial hydrolysis of starch.

H2O H2SO4 H2O Corn Centrifugal

Ethanol Washing Tank Screening basin

H2O

DryerE -2 Mill Tank Glucose E-2 Pre-heater isomerase

HCL

E-4 Tank E-2 Reactor Pre-heater ColumE - 1 n

Storage tank

Fig (3.3) flow chart of HFCS

3.7 Material balance

Material balances are important first step when designing a new process or analyzing an existing one. They are almost always prerequisite to all other calculations in the solution of process engineering problems. Mathematically the mass balance for a system without a chemical reaction is as follows: Input = Output + Accumulation Particle material balance Input+ Generation = Output + Accumulation + Consumption (Per warfving) Typically, "sweet" corn is roughly 9-14% glucose and other sugars. The highest concentration of sugars in corn is in the "super sweet" hybrid that tops out around 44% concentrations of sugars. HFCS contain about 5-10% sugar by weight. 3.7.1 Molecular weight of starch

Starch is a polymer of glucose. The molecular formula of glucose in starch is C6H12O6 that mean the molecular weight of glucose is (C6H12O6) is (72.06+12.1+96) = 180.16 g/mole. To calculate the molecular mass of starch you need to know how many molecules of glucose (n) are linked together and multiply that by the molecular mass of each residue. (C6H12O6)*n = 180.16 * n (n is the number of residues in the polymer) However, some sources claim that the average molecular mass of starches is around 250000 g/mole. But it really depends on what the starch is from.( R.G. Gilbert et.al) Obviously, the amount of HFCS required to be produced by the HFCS production plant governs the amount of the corn in put into the HFCS production process. The objective of this planned HFCS production plant project is to meet 10000 Tones of HFCS from the need for HFCS in Sudan per year. kg of Glucose 0.1 ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ 1kg of corn contain Kg of glucose 106*.103 ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ X kg of corn contain X = 103*107 kg corn The amount of corn need is 103000 Tons of corn

Table (3.1) molecular weight of component

Component molecular weight Corn (starch) 250000

H2O 18

H2SO4 98 HCL 36.5 Ethanol 46 Glucose isomerase 171000 Glucose 180.16 HFCS 180.16

3.7.2 The amount of substance use in the process:

2.7.2.1 Gelatinization Amount of water need for Gelatinization process:- liter 218ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ1.2Kg of starch need X liter of waterــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــKg of starch need 107*1.03 The amount of water needed is 1.87*1011 liters 3.7.2.2 Acid hydrolysis Amount of HCL need is 35% from the amount of starch entered = 360500000Kg The Temperature need must be between (130-170°C) under pressure and acidic condition (pH 4.5-5). (Barnali Bej, R. K. Basu and S. N. Ash) 3.7.2.3 Amount of glucose isomerise need: kg of glucose 18000ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ 1kg of enzyme convert kg of glucose 107*103 ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ X of enzyme convert The amount of enzyme (glucose isomerise) convert 103*107 kg of glucose into fructose = 5722222.2 kg. (S H Bhosale, M B Rao, and V V Deshpande)

3.7.2.4 Amount of H2SO4 Amount of H2SO4 need is 0.04% from the amount of starch entered= 412000 liters 3.7.2.5 Amount of ethanol need Amount of ethanol need is 1.54% (K. Lorenz, and J.A. Johnson) from the amount of starch entered= 15.86*106 liters 3.7.2.6 Amount of HFCS produce Amount of HFCS produce is 97% from the amount of glucose add to the reactor and the other 1.5% is maltose, 0.5% iso maltose and 1% other oligosaccharides.

3.7.3 Material balance around equipment’s:

3.7.3.1 Material balance around washing basin: Feed contains corn, fibers, proteins and other wastes. The base is to obtain 10.000 ton of HFCS.

Table (3.2) S1

component Weight(Kg)

Feed 1.133*109

Table (3.3) S2

component Weight(Kg)

water 100*109

Table (3.4) S3

component Weight(Kg)

Corn 1.12167*109

Table (3.5) S4

component Weight(Kg)

water 100*109

Wastes 0.01133*109

Total 100.01133*109

Table (3.6) over all Material balance around the washing basin:

Weight(Kg)

Inputs 101.133*109

Outputs 101.133*109

3.7.3.2 Material balance around steeping steeping tank:

S3 S6

S5 S7

E-1

Table (3.7) S3

component Weight(Kg)

Corn 1.12167*109

Table (3.8) S5

component Weight(Kg) Water 0.0103*109

9 H2SO4 0.000412*10

Table (3.9) S6

component Weight(Kg)

Corn 1.097336*109

Table (3.10) S7

component Weight(Kg)

Fibers 0.024334*109

Water 0.0103*109

9 H2SO4 0.000412*10

Total 0.035046*109

Table (3.11) over all Material balance around the steeping tank: Weight(Kg)

Inputs 1132382*109

Outputs 1.132382*109

3.7.3.3 Material balance around Screening:

S8 S6

Table (3.12) S6

component Weight(Kg)

Corn 1.097336*109

Table (3.13) S8

component Weight(Kg)

Corn 1.07538928*109

Table (3.14) S9

component Weight(Kg)

Fibers 0.02194672*109

Table (3.15) over all Material balance around the Screening:

Weight(Kg)

Inputs 1.097336*109

Outputs 1.097336*109

3.7.3.4 Material balance around Centrifugal:

S10 S8

S11

Table (3.16) S8

component Weight(Kg)

Corn 1.07538928*109

Table (3.17) S10

component Weight(Kg)

Corn 1.043127602*109

Table (3.18) S11

component Weight(Kg)

Fibers 0.322616784*109

Table (3.19) over all Material balance around the Centrifugal:

Weight(Kg)

Inputs 1.07538928*109

Outputs 1.07538928*109

3.7.3.5 Material balance around tank:

S10 S13

S12 S14

E-1

Table (3.20) S10

component Weight(Kg)

Corn 1.043127602*109

Table (3.21) S12

component Weight(Kg)

Ethanol 0.015862*109

Table (3.22) S13

component Weight(Kg)

Corn 1.02226505*109

Table (3.23) S14

component Weight(Kg)

Ethanol 0.015862*109

Proteins 0.02086255204*109

Total 0.03672455204*109

Table (3.24) over all Material balance around the tank:

Weight(Kg)

Inputs 1.058989602*109

Outputs 1.058989602*109

3.7.3.6 Material balance around dryer:

S17

S13 S16

E-2 S 15

Table (3.25) S13

component Weight(Kg)

Corn 1.02226505*109

Table (3.26) S15

component Weight(Kg)

Dry air 70.45*109

Table (3.27) S16

component Weight(Kg)

Corn 1.02226505*109

Table (3.28) S17

component Weight(Kg)

Humidity air 70.45*109

Table (3.29) over all Material balance around the dryer: Weight(Kg)

Inputs 71.472265505*109

Outputs 71.472265505*109

3.7.3.7 Material balance around mill:

S16 S18

Table (3.30) S16

component Weight(Kg)

Corn 1.02226505*109

Table (3.31) S18

component Weight(Kg)

Corn 1.02226505*109

Table (3.32) over all Material balance around the mill:

Weight(Kg)

Inputs 1.02226505*109

Outputs 1.02226505*109

3.7.3.8 Material balance around pre-heater:

S18

S20

S19

E-2

Table (3.33) S18

component Weight(Kg)

Corn 1.02226505*109

Table (3.34) S19

component Weight(Kg)

water 187*109

Table (3.35) S20

component Weight(Kg)

Corn slurry 188.0222651*109

Table (3.36) over all Material balance around the pre-heater:

Weight(Kg)

Inputs 188.0222651*109

Outputs 188.0222651*109

3.7.3.9 Material balance around hydrolyses tank:

S20 S22

S21 S23

E-1

Table (3.37) S20

component Weight(Kg)

Corn slurry 188.0222651*109

Table (3.38) S21

component Weight(Kg)

HCL 0.3605*109

Table (3.39) S22

component Weight(Kg)

Glucose syrup 187.1878478*109

Table (3.40) S23

component Weight(Kg)

HCL 0.270375*109

Oligosaccharides. 0.920038545*109

Total 1.190413545*109

Table (3.41) over all Material balance around the pre-heater:

Weight(Kg)

Inputs 188.3827651*109

Outputs 188.3827651*109

3.7.3.10 Material balance around Column:

S24

S22

S25

E-1

Table (3.42) S22

component Weight(Kg)

Glucose syrup 187.1878478*109

Table (3.43) S24

component Weight(Kg)

Glucose syrup 187.0977228*109

Table (3.44) S25

component Weight(Kg)

HCL 0.090125*109

Table (3.45) over all Material balance around the Column:

Weight(Kg)

Inputs 187.1878478*109

Outputs 187.1878478*109

3.7.3.11 Material balance around pre-heater:

S26 S24

S27

E-2

Table (3.46) S24

component Weight(Kg)

Glucose syrup 187.0977228*109

Table (3.47) S26

Component Weight(Kg)

Glucose syrup 0.102226505*109

Table (3.48) S27

component Weight(Kg)

Water 186.9954963*109

Table (3.49) over all Material balance around the pre-heater:

Weight(Kg)

Inputs 187.0977228*109

Outputs 187.0977228*109

3.7.3.12 Material balance around reactor

S27

S28

S26

S29

E-4

Table (3.50) S26

Component Weight(Kg)

Glucose syrup 0.102226505*109

Table (3.51) S27

Component Weight(Kg)

Glucose isomarise 0.0057222222*109

Table (3.52) S28

Component Weight(Kg)

HFCS 0.09915970985*109

Table (3.53) S29

Component Weight(Kg)

Glucose isomarise 0.0057222222*109

maltose 0.001533397575*109

isomaltose 0.000511132525*109

Other oligosaccharides. 0.00102226505*109

Total 0.00878901735*109

Table (3.54) over all Material balance around the reactor:

Weight(Kg)

Inputs 0.1079487272*109

Outputs 0.1079487272*109

3.7.3.13 over all material balance:

Corn

H2O

HFCS H2SO4 HCL

Ethanol Others

Glucose isomerase

Table (3.55) over all input streams:

Stream Weight(Kg)

Corn(starch) 11.33*108

10 H2O 18.7*10 7 H2SO4 00.04*10

HCL 36.05*107

Ethanol 01.59*107

Glucose isomerase 00.57*107

Total 18.85*1010

Table (3.56) overall output streams:

Stream Weight(Kg)

HFCS 09.92*1011

Oligomers 10.34*1010

10 H2O 18.70*10

7 H2SO4 00.04*10

HCL 36.05*107

Ethanol 01.59*107

Glucose isomerase 00.57*107

Total 18.85*1010

3.8 Energy balance

3.8.1 Introduction: Enthalpy is a measure of the total energy of a thermodynamic system. It includes the system's internal energy or thermodynamic potential The enthalpy is the preferred expression of system energy changes in many chemical, biological, and physical measurements, because it simplifies certain descriptions of energy transfer. Enthalpy change accounts for energy transferred to the environment at constant pressure through expansion or heating. The total enthalpy, H, of a system cannot be measured directly. The same situation exists in classical mechanics: only a change or difference in energy carries physical meaning. Enthalpy itself is a thermodynamic potential, so in order to measure the enthalpy of a system, we must refer to a defined reference point; therefore what we measure is the change in enthalpy, ΔH. The change ΔH is positive in endothermic reactions, and negative in heat-releasing exothermic processes. ΔH of a system is equal to the sum of non-mechanical work done on it and the heat supplied to it. Increasing cost of energy has caused the industries to examine means of reducing energy consumption in processing. Energy balances are used in the examination of the various stages of a process, over the whole process and even extending over the total production system from the raw material to the finished product. 3.8.2 General equation for energy balance:

Energy out = Energy in +generation – consumption – accumulation Heat enters and leave the system = the enthalpy of inlet and out let stream components. Steady state

Q = H out – H in

Q = Fin * Cpi Cp = a + bT + cT2 ΔH = [(aT) + (bT2) /2+ (cT3)/3 + (dT4)/4] Also Q = M*Cp* ΔT

3.8.3 Energy balance around equipment’s:

3.8.3.1 Energy balance around washing basin

Q washing basin = Q4 + Q3 – Q2 –Q1 S4

Q4 = M*Cp* ΔT ΔT = 0

And Q3, Q2 , Q1 =0 (there is no change in temperature in washing basin)

Q washing basin =0

3.8.3.2 Energy balance around steeping tank:

S3 S6

S5 S7

E-1

Q tank = Q6 + Q7– Q3 –Q5 No heating

Q tank = 0

3.8.3.3 Energy balance around centrifugal:

S10 S8

S11

Q centrifugal = Q10 + Q11 – Q8

Q = M*Cp* ΔT

M= 43015.6 Kmols

ΔT = (333-298)= 35

Specific heat of starch:

 Formula for calculating the specific heat of foods. Cp = 4.180 x.w + 1.711 x.p + 1.928 x f + 1.547 x c + 0.908 x a is the equation used for finding the specific heat of foods where "w" is the percentage of the food that is water, "p" is the percentage of the food that is protein, "f" is the percentage of the food that is fat, "c" is the percentage of the food that is carbohydrate, and "a" is the percentage of the food that is ash. This equation takes into account the mass fraction (x) of all the solids that make up the food. The specific heat calculation is expressed in kJ/(kg-K). http://www.chemteam.info/Thermochem/Determine-Specific- Heat.html)

For Corn:

Cp = 4.180 x w + 1.711 x p + 1.928 x f + 1.547 x c + 0.908 x a

Cp =349.68

Q10 = M*Cp* ΔT

Q centrifugal = (43015.6)*(349.68)*(35)

6 Q centrifugal = 15.04173*10 KJ

3.8.3.4 Energy balance around dryer:

S17

S13

S16

E-2 S15

The clean corn is tempered to 20 percent moisture For a (hot air) dryer, the heater duty for the inlet air heat exchanger is given by:

Q heater = Wg CP,g (Tg,in-Tg,a)

Q heater = Ws (Xin- Xout) ΔHv

Q heater = (Tg,in - Tg,a)/(Tg,in –Tg,out) {Ws (Xin- Xout) ΔHv} The clean corn is tempered to 20 percent moisture

Q heater = (298-423)/ (298-333)*{5 *0.5*(40890.6*349.68*90)}

9 Q heater = 114.9*10 KJ 3.8.3.5 Energy balance around pre-heater:

S18

S20

S19

E-2

Q pre-heater = Q20 + Q18– Q19 Q = M*Cp* ΔT

6 Q = 7.53*10 *349.68*(473-298)

9 Q pre-heater = 460.79*10 KJ

3.8.3.6 Energy balance around hydrolyses tank:

S20 S22

S21 S23

E-1

Q tank = Q23+ Q22– Q20 –Q21 Q = M*Cp* ΔT

6 Q = 7.53*10 *349.68*(473-298)

Q = 1.73*109*349.68*(443-373)

9 Q tank = 4234.6*10 KJ

3.8.3.7 Energy balance around pre-heater:

S26 S24

S27

E-2

Q pre-heater = Q27 + Q26– Q24 Q = M*Cp* ΔT

6 Q = 6.12*10 *349.68*(373-298)

9 Q pre-heater = 160.5*10 KJ

3.8.3.8 Material balance around reactor:

S27

S28

S26

S29

E-4

Glucoseisomarise O-H-CHO-(CHOH)2-(CH2)3-

2 O-H-CHO-(CHOH)2-(CH2)3- Glucose

+ O-(CHOH)2-CH2-CHO-CH3 ∆퐻r =∆퐻r˚+∆퐻product -∆퐻reactant Fructose

Where:-

∆퐻r, t= Heat of reaction at temperature r.

∆퐻r˚= Heat of reaction at 25 C °(298K)

∆퐻React = enthalpy change to bring products to reaction temperature, t.

∆퐻r°= ∑ ∆ 퐻°f, product - ∑ ∆퐻°f, reactants

= - (1*2337.2)-(2*4373323.5) = -8748984.2 KJ

∆퐻Reactent = (n Cp ∆푡)reactant

2*349.68*(338-298) =27974.4

∆퐻Product = (n Cp∆푡) product

1*0.74*(338-298) = 29.6 KJ Q = M*Cp* ΔT 4 Q = 55.03980*10 *0.74*(338-298)

∆퐻r =- 902929 KJ

QR =Q29-Q28-Q27 + ∆퐻r

6 Q reactor = 16.291780*10 KJ - 902929 KJ

6 Q reactor = 15.388851*10 KJ

Over all energy required is = 4.971*1012 KJ

Component Heat formation KJ/mol HFCS -2337.32 Total -2337.32

Total energy required is 4.3704*106 KJ/mol

ΔH of reaction=∑ΔH of (products) −∑ΔH of (Reactants) Energy balance: Steady state

Q = H out – H in

Q = Fin * Cpi Cp = a + bT + cT2 ΔH = [(aT) + (bT2) /2+ (cT3)/3 + (dT4)/4] Also Q = M*Cp* ΔT Energy balance around washing basin

S3 S1

Q washing basin = Q4 + Q3 – Q2 –Q1 Q4 = M*Cp* ΔT ΔT = 0

And Q3 , Q2 , Q1 =0 (there is no change in temperature in washing basin)

Q washing basin =0 Energy balance around steeping tank:

S3 S6

S5 S7

E-1

Q tank = Q6 + Q7– Q3 –Q5 No heating

Q tank = 0 Energy balance around centrifugal:

S10 S8

S11

Q centrifugal = Q10 + Q11 – Q8

Q = M*Cp* ΔT

M= 43015.6 Kmols

ΔT = (333-298)= 35

Specific heat of starch:

Cp = 4.180 x w + 1.711 x p + 1.928 x f + 1.547 x c + 0.908 x a

Cp =349.68

Q10 = M*Cp* ΔT

Q centrifugal = (43015.6)*(349.68)*(35)

Q centrifugal = 15041730 KJ

Energy balance around dryer: S 17

S13 S16

E-2 S 15

The clean corn is tempered to 20 percent moisture For a (hot air) dryer, the heater duty for the inlet air heat exchanger is given by:

Q heater = Wg CP,g (Tg,in-Tg,a)

Q heater = Ws (Xin- Xout) ΔHv

Q heater = (Tg,in - Tg,a)/(Tg,in –Tg,out) {Ws (Xin- Xout) ΔHv} The clean corn is tempered to 20 percent moisture

Q heater = (298-423)/ (298-333)*{5 *0.5*(40890.6*349.68*90)}

9 Q heater = 114.9*10 KJ

Material balance around pre-heater:

S18

S20

S19

E-2

Q pre-heater = Q20 + Q18– Q19 Q = M*Cp* ΔT

6 Q = 7.53*10 *349.68*(473-298)

9 Q pre-heater = 460.79*10 KJ

Energy balance around hydrolyses tank:

S20 S22

S21 S23

E-1

Q tank = Q23+ Q22– Q20 –Q21 Q = M*Cp* ΔT

6 Q = 7.53*10 *349.68*(473-298)

Q = 1.73*109*349.68*(443-373)

9 Q tank = 4234.6*10 KJ Energy balance around pre-heater: S26 S24

S27

E-2

Q pre-heater = Q27 + Q26– Q24 Q = M*Cp* ΔT

6 Q = 6.12*10 *349.68*(373-298)

9 Q pre-heater = 160.5*10 KJ

Material balance around reactor

S27

S28

S26

S29

E-4

Q reacter = Q23+ Q22– Q20 –Q21

∆퐻r =∆퐻r˚+∆퐻product -∆퐻reactant

Where:-

∆퐻r, t= Heat of reaction at temperature r.

∆퐻r˚= Heat of reaction at 25 C °(298K)

∆퐻React = enthalpy change to bring products to reaction temperature, t. ∆퐻r°= ∑ ∆ 퐻°f, product - ∑ ∆퐻°f, reactants

∆퐻reacter =(nCp ∆푡)reactant

∆퐻product = (nCp∆푡)product

QR =Q29-Q28-Q27 + ∆퐻r

S25

Component Weight(Kg)

Glucose syrup 0.102226505*109

S27

Component Weight(Kg)

Glucose isomarise 0.0057222222*109

S28

Component Weight(Kg)

HFCS 0.09915970985*109

S29

Component Weight(Kg)

Glucose isomarise 0.0057222222*109

maltose 0.001533397575*109

isomaltose 0.000511132525*109

Other oligosaccharides. 0.00102226505*109

Total 0.00878901735*109

3.8 Economical Evaluation

3.8.1 Introduction: Cost estimating is one of the most important steps in project management. A cost estimate establishes the base line of the project cost at different stages of development of the project. A cost estimate at a given stage of project development represents a prediction provided by the cost engineer or estimator on the basis of available data. According to the American Association of Cost Engineers, cost engineering is defined as that area of engineering practice where engineering judgment and experience are utilized in the application of scientific principles and techniques to the problem of cost estimation, cost control and profitability. 3.8.2 Capital Investment:

The capital needed to supply the necessary manufacturing and plant facilities is called fixed capital investment, and the necessary for the operation is called working capital. The total of capital investment is the sum of the fixed and working capital. The fixed capital investment is divided into: Manufacturing fixed capital investment (direct cost). Non manufacturing fixed capital investment (indirect cost). 3.8.2.1 Fixed capital cost:

Direct cost: The direct cost determines the capital necessary for the installed process with all components that are needed for the complete process operation and include: Purchase equipment. Purchase equipment installs. Instrumentation and control. Piping. Services facilities. Land. Indirect cost: It is the capital required for construction overhead and for all plant components and are not directly related to the process operation, and includes: Engineering and supervision. Legal expenses. Construction. Contractor fee. Contingency. The fixed capital investment = Direct cost + Indirect cost 3.8.2.2 Working capital investment:

It is consisting of the total amount of money invested in: Raw material. Finished products and semi finished products in the process of being manufactured. Account receivable. Cash kept on hand for monthly payment of operating expenses, such as salaries, wages and raw material purchases. Total Capital = Fixed Capital Investment + Warking capital investment Account payable. Most of chemical plants use an initial working capital about 10 – 12 % of the total capital investment. 3.8.3 Production cost: The total production cost is the total of all costs of operating the plant, selling the products. Recovering the capital investment, and distribution the corporate functions such management and development. And it is divided into two categories: 3.8.4 Manufacturing costs: They are costs referred to as operating or production costs and are divided to: Variable cost: Raw material. Operating labor. Land. Direct supervisory. Patent and royalties. Utilities. Laboratory charges. Maintenance and repair. Operating supplies. 3.8.5 Fixed charges: This is include the Depreciation Local taxes Plant overhead: Genral plant up keep and overhead Payroll over head Packing Medical Safety and protection Restaurants Laboratories Storage facilities

3.8.6 General expenses: This is included the: Administrative cost Distribution and marketing Research and development Total production cost =Manufacturing cost+General cost Total profit = total income-total production cost 3.8.7 Pay pack period: It is the length of time necessary for the total return to equal the capital investiment. Pay pack period = fixed capital investiment / Annual profit 3.8.8 Calculation: Table (3.57) cost of the equipment:-

Equipment Cost per $ in 2010 Reacter 270*103 Dryer 240*103 Screan 18.7*103 Column 18.63*103 3 Tanks 146.7*103 Centrifugal 12.9*103 Washing base 2.568*103 2 Pre-heaters 59.88*103 Mill 8*103 Total 777.5*103

Total capital cost = work + fixed capital cost

PPC = PCE (1 + F1 + F2 ………. + Fa) PPC = 777.5*103*0.25 = 194.14*103$ (=420.1*103+ 777.5*103) *3.40 PPC = 3.87*106$ Fixed capital = PPC *1.45 = 5.6*106$ Working capital cost: The fixed capital cost = 80% of total capital investment cost Working capital investment cost 20% of total capital investment cost The working capital cost = fixed investment cost * 0.2/0.8 1.4*106$ Total capital cost = 7*106$

Table (3.58) Total capital investment:-

Fixed capital investment cost 5.6*106$ Work capital investment cost 1. 4*106$ Total capital investment cost 7*106$

Direct production cost:

Row material cost (corn waste, Ethanol,water, HCl and H2SO4) Starch cost: The cost of ton of corn waste = 10$= 1030000*10$ =10.03*106$

H2SO4 cost:

The cost of 1 ton of H2SO4 = 100$ 412*100 = 41.2 The amount of ethanol need 15.862*103 ton The cost of 1 ton of ethanol = 900$ 15.862*103*900=14.3*106 Water cost: The cost of 1 ton of water = 0.05 $ 2369 *103 ton* 0. 05 = 118.45*103$ HCl cost: The cost of 1 ton of HCl = 80$ 360500*80= 28.8*106 Glucose isomerise cost: The amount of glucose isomarise is 5.72*106/year But we buy 10% of the amount and we can make re-generative of the enzyme and re used it. The cost of enzyme is 10$/Kg 572*103 *10= 5.72*106

Table (3.59) row material cost Material Cost $/year Corn starch 10.03*106 3 H2SO4 41.2*10 HCl 28.8*106 Water 118.45*103 Ethanol 14.3*106 glucose isomarise 5.72*106 Total 58.72*106 Total row material cost = 58.72*106$

Table (3.60) operation labor cost Labor No. of labor/3shift Cost$/month Manager 1 3500 Senior Engineering 3 7500 Chemical Engineering 6 10500 Electrical Engineering 3 5250 Mechanical Engineering 4 7000 Electronic &Instrumentation 5 8750 Engineering

Technicians 20 18000 Operation and labor cost 42.5*103 $/month

Operation labor cost per year: 510*103 $/year Utilities = Energy = 4.3704*106 KJ/hr Utilities cost =88.9*103$/year Maintenance cost = fixed investment *0.02 = 112*103$/year Operation suplies cost = maintenance cost *0.15 =16.8*103$/year Direct supervision and clearical cost: = Operation labor cost*0.15 =76.5*103 $/year Labloratory charge cost Labloratory charge cost = Operating labor cost *0.15 = 76.5*103 $/year Fixed charge cost: Depreciation cost: Depreciation cost = fixed capital cost *0.05 = 280*103$/year Insurance cost: Insurance cost = fixed capital cost * 0.01 = 56*103$/year Plant overhead cost: Plant overhead cost = Operating labor cost *0.05 = 25.5*103$/year General cost: Administration cost Administration cost = Operating labor cost *0.02 = 10.2*103$/year Financing cost: Financing cost = total capital investment *0.01 = 70*103$/year Table (3.61) Total production cost Item $ cost Manufacturing cost

Direct production cost 6 Row material 58.72*10 510*103 Operation labor 3 Maintenance 112*10 88.9*103 Utilities 3 Operation supplies 16.8*10

76.5*103 Direct supervision and clerical labor

Laboratory charge 76.5*103 Total 43.88*106 Fixed charge cost 280.5*103 Depreciation 3 Insurance 56*10 Total 336.5*103 Plant overhead cost 25.5*103 General expense cost 10.2*103 Administration 3 Financing 70*10 Total 80.2*103 Total production cost 59.2*106

3.8.9 Income of production

-HFCS: One ton of HFCS is 500$ 10000*500 =5*106$/year

- Ethanol: The amount of ethanol produced is 61.8*103ton/year One ton of ethanol is 900$ 61.8*103ton *900= 55.6*106$/year 55.6*106 - Total income of production: 5*106$+55.6*106=60.6*106 3.812 Profit Profit = income – total production cost 60.6*106- 59.2*106= 1.4*106 $/year 3.8.14 Payback period (Payout time): = Fixed/ profit = (5.6*106$)/( 1.4*106) = 4 years.

Chapter four Result and discussion

4.1 Possibility of the project: Fructose syrup is one of the essential components in the manufacturing of many different food products. It is used in the production of beverages, sweets and candies, ice creams, etc. Currently, all Sudan’s need for fructose syrup is met by importation from countries like the United States. There are no official or even reliable estimates for the amount of fructose syrup consumed in Sudan. The numbers vary in different sources from as little as 4000 to as high as 9000 tons. Importation of fructose syrup from the US is met with many obstacles. The lack of normal and direct diplomatic and commercial ties between Sudan and the US, as well as the economic sanctions against Sudan taken unilaterally by the US force importers to exert extra effort, cash, and time to finalize their deals. This definitely contributes to the net cost of the purchase and raises the prices significantly. Furthermore, the sharp and marked decline in the value of the Sudanese currency as a result of the economic collapse, and the disruption of the trade balance due to the loss of the oil revenue after the secession of South Sudan, and the total reliance on imported goods and the lack of local production have all led to the multiplication of prices and serious constraints to the importation business in general. Since these increases in the cost and therefore the prices are not accompanied by increases in the income of most people, this has affected the demand of many of the imported goods as their prices have, in some cases, tripled as is the case in beverages during this year alone. Unless the affordability of these goods is improved as by the localization of the production in a more fundamental way, this could end in the loss of competitiveness to local rivals despite their markedly lower quality. This economic model which relies completely on importation from abroad has proved its unsustainability as manifested by the current crises and puts a detrimental burden on the economy. Therefore whenever possible, production of raw materials – mostly agricultural – and completion of the manufacturing process in as many stages as possible should be performed within the country. Sudan has all the requirements for the production of high fructose corn syrup. The vast lands that can support the cultivation of the maize plants in many parts of the country allows the easy installation of the project. Sudan has vast resources of fresh surface and ground water and fertile soils which encourage agriculture and make it the obvious economic driver of the country. Therefore, the corn can be produced with low costs in a sustainable way, providing a constant supply for the production of high fructose corn syrup. Besides corn, the production of the fructose syrup requires hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, ethanol, as well as the recombinant glucose isomerase enzyme. Aside from the latter, these are all readily available mostly through local production. The recombinant enzyme is the only input material that can be obtained strictly through importation from abroad. In total, the establishment of this plant for the production of high fructose corn syrup costs 59.2*106 dollars. This plant produces 10.000 tons annually which is more than the largest estimates of Sudan’s need of corn syrup. The low cost of production, the lack of local competitors and the artificially high cost of importation due to the currency devaluation, the production of ethanol as a by-product, and the diverse uses of the syrup promise to make the project very profitable. In fact, according to my estimates, the project could probably pay back the investment capital in four years. This number may be overly optimistic, however, this project has all the requirements for success; and its low cost and its novelty coupled with the high demand for the product make it a safe investment. The net profit of this project exceeds 1.4 million dollars annually. Even if this project meets its expectations, the prospect for expansion and exportation to other countries in the region make it a potential contributor to development and a source of hard currency.

CHAPTER FIVE

Conclusion and Recommendations

5.1 Conclusion As a result of lifestyle change, speed and people need to juices and soft drinks, which need to corn sugar. In some products sweetened with sucrose, the covalent bond between the fructose and glucose molecules breaks down in low acid environments, such as those found in soft drinks, as well as at high temperatures, such as during storage in hot climates, the sucrose content of a cola beverage decreased from 36% of total sugars to only 10% of sugars 3 months after manufacture, and the free fructose content increased from 32% to 44% of total sugars. This creates variability in the taste profile of the product. In contrast, HFCS maintains its structural stability over a range of temperatures and acidic conditions. This project assessed the case for corn and HFCS production from the prospective benefits for each actor: the production of HFCS with less expensive feedstock for private enterprises, access to alternative sources for the table sugar, HFCS as an alternative income source for smallholder farmers, ethanol is by- products and is very valuable. It offers business possibility to agricultural enterprises and rural employment. 5.2 Recommendations

1- I recommend to take this study in the list of important in Sudan. 2- I propose government share with the private sectors in Sudan which manufacture of food products.

REFERENCES

1- Daniel finnie, Forrest Obnamia, Edward Tashjian, Patrick Nguyen, Creating the Perfect High Fructose Corn Syrup, 2008. 2- Kay Parker, Michelle Salas and Veronica C. Nwosu, High fructose corn syrup: Production, uses and public health concerns,2010. 3- R.G. Gilbert, M.J. Gidler, S. Hill, P.Kilz, A. Rolland-Sabate, D.G. Stevenson, R.A. Cave, Characterizing the size and molecular weight distributing of starch: why it is important and why it is hard, may- June 2010, vol. 55,No3. 4- K. Lorenz, and J.A. Johnson, Starch hydrolysis under high temperature and pressure, vol.49. 5- İPEK ÇELEBİ, Color formation in wheat starch based glucose syrups and use of activated carbons for sugar decolorization, 2006. 6- Marc J.E.C. van der Maarel, Bart van der Veen, Joost C.M. Uitdehaag, Hans Leemhuis, L. Dijkhuizen, Properties and applications of starch-converting enzymes of the α amylase family,2001. 7- J. W. Beishizen, Sugar syrups from maize. 8- Blaise W. Leblanc, Chemistry of high fructose corn syrup (HFCS), 2008. Barnali Bej, R.K. Basu and S.N. Ash, Kinetic on acid catalysed hydrolysis of starch, 2008. 9- Jurgens H, Haass W, Castaneda TR (2005). Consuming fructose sweetened beverages increases body adiposity in mice. Obesity Res. D. Eric Walters, High Fructose Corn Syrup. White JS. 1992. Fructose syrup: production, properties and applications. 10- RICHARD A. FORSHEE, MAUREEN L. STOREY, DAVID B. ALLISON, WALTER H. GLINSMANN, GAYLE L. HEIN, DAVID R. LINEBACK, SANFORD A. MILLER, THERESA A. NICKLAS, GARY A. WEAVER, and JOHN S. WHITE, A Critical Examination of the Evidence Relating High Fructose Corn Syrup and Weight Gain. 11- Sharpe, Peter "Sugar Cane: Past and Present" (1998). 12- Sheri Miraglia, Alpha Amylase and High Fructose Corn Syrup 13- S H Bhosale, M B Rao, and V V Deshpande, Molecular and industrial aspects of glucose isomerase(1996).

 1- http://www.chemteam.info/Thermochem/Determine-Specific-Heat.html