7 November 2019

ISSN: 2560-1628

2019 No. 8

WORKING PAPER

Sino-Albanian Relations: 70 years of diplomatic ties in retrospect

Marsela Musabelliu

Kiadó: Kína-KKE Intézet Nonprofit Kft.

Szerkesztésért felelős személy: Chen Xin

Kiadásért felelős személy: Huang Ping

1052 Budapest Petőfi Sándor utca 11. +36 1 5858 690 office@-cee.eu china-cee.eu

Sino-Albanian Relations: 70 years of diplomatic ties in retrospect

Abstract People’s Republic of China and are two countries with a long history and unique cultures. Currently, the two nations have bilateral cooperation on politics, trade, investments, culture, people-to-people exchange and plenty other areas. The core principles to this cooperation are mutual respect, equality, reciprocity, and mutual benefit. There still persists a common desire and fundamental interests of two peoples to continuously deepen the traditional friendship and push ahead the cooperation on the grounds of mutual understanding. Yet, there exists plenty of untapped potential. This paper is an overview of Sino-Albanian cooperation aiming to illustrate the path of unified ideology and actions under the Marxist line at the height of the Cold War., and the good relations that continued in the aftermath of China’s opening-up policy to this day. Another channel of relations, which can be highly credited, is the Chinese economic assistance to Albania in the 1960s and 1970s and the impact it had on the entire Albanian society. It tries to trace the motifs of the political disruption of the cooperation between the two countries in the late 70s and describes the mutual “obliviousness” of almost two decades. The last part observes the bilateral attitude in the beginning of the 21st century with the revival of trade, the economic cooperation after the 2008 financial crisis, and the rekindled ties with the ‘17+1’ cooperation platform.

Key words: Sino-Albanian Relations, Peculiar Alliance, Political Cooperation.

Introduction People’s Republic of China and Albania established diplomatic relations on November 23rd, 1949. The Albanian government welcomed and applauded the victory of 1949 (October 1st) and they were among the first countries to recognize the new Chinese state and establish friendly relations.1 The first approach of an Albanian high level delegation in Chinese territory was in 1956, on which occasion headed a delegation at the Eighth Congress of the Communist Party of China. This Albanian delegation did not have any personal knowledge

1PRIFTI, PETER R. Socialist Albania since 1944: domestic and foreign developments. Vol. 23. Mit Press, 1978.

1 on China and Chinese politics, besides the ones given to them from the soviet comrades.2 After arriving in on September 13, 1956, Hoxha held his first (and only) meeting with Mao Zedong in between sessions of the Party's Congress. The relations between China and Albania, two countries that established a unique alliance during the Cold War, remain to this day somehow underexplored by scholars. However, in light of new documents in the past decades new attempts have been made to shed light on the dynamics of the relations between China and Albania, covering both the Cold War period, and more recent developments.3 Based on primary and secondary sources, the aim of this contribution is to have an historical overview of the relations between China and Albania on the occasion of the seventy years of the establishment of the diplomatic relations. Since the beginning of the relations between Beijing and , there have been drastic fluctuations of attitude, policies, cooperation agenda and diplomatic approach. Yet, both countries have managed to maintain friendly relations and mutually beneficial cooperation regardless of the political and economic changes that both China and Albania underwent throughout these seventy years. This paper is descriptive in nature and relies mainly on secondary sources (such as books, journal articles, and various other publications), and some primary sources (such as archival documentation, memoirs of main actors of the events), few interviews personally conducted, and public speeches. The fundamental works of Lisen Bashkurti, Elez Biberaj, Ylber Marku, Elidor Mëhilli, Ana Lalaj, Miranda Vickers, Peter Prifti and the memoirs of former Albanian leader Enver Hoxha constitute the basis literature of the historical part of this paper. For the more recent events on Sino-Albanian relations, given the lack of academic studies, the analysis is based on the survey of media platforms, news outlets, commentaries and governmental press releases.

1- Ideology that defeats geography

The political and ideological common backgrounds of China and Albania set the very startup of their close relations in the mid-50s. The origin and further strengthening of political relations between China and Albania are to be found in the common interests and understanding

2 HOXHA, ENVER. Reflections on China, vol. I: 1962–1972, Extracts from the Political Diary, (Tirana: 8 Nentori Publishing House, 1979). 3 For the Cold War period see Elez Biberaj, Albania and China. A Study of an Unequal Alliance (Boulder, Co, and London: Westview Press, 1986); Elidor Mëhilli, From Stalin to Mao. Albania and the Socialist World (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press), 211-225; Elidor Mëhilli, ‘Mao and the ’, in Mao’s Little Red Book. A Global History, Alexander C. Cook ed., (Berkeley, CA: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 165-184.

2 of the two ruling parties in the respective countries, the Communist Party of China (CCP) and the Party of Labor of Albania (PLA). Following the death of the Soviet leader , in Moscow – the very center of the Communist world – winds of change was fleeing and cardinal political twists were taking place.4 Both the Chinese party and the Albanian party followed an independent policy from the Communist Party of the (CPSU). The causes of Albania’s estrangement from the Soviet Union and its quick orientation towards the People’s Republic of China, have been subject of important studies.5 The rise to power in Soviet Union of initiated the Albanian-Soviet split. Albania was the first country from the East European Moscow’s “Satellites” to openly challenge the leadership of the communist camp of the Soviet Union. This split from Moscow represented a real difficult struggle for Albania, since the country was small in territory, population and the size of economy. Albania’s estrangement from Moscow was difficult also because of the Albanian membership in the Warsaw Pact. Albanian leaders feared Soviet military intervention, though eventually the split with Moscow had no serious consequences on the stability of the country. Consequently from 1961, year of interruption of the diplomatic relations between Albania and the Soviet Union, China became Albania’s new strategic ally. Most definitively this curious occurrence attracted the attention of all communist camp as well as of NATO members. From a geostrategic point of view, the Albanian leadership was already prepared to aim at long-term priorities especially by having a strong international ally. Both parties, at a certain extent, needed one-another: the Chinese leadership wanted to demonstrate to its own people and to the International Communist Movement that Chinese socialism was sustained also from European countries; the Albanian leadership wanted to demonstrate its people that they were still on the right side of the Marxist movement, against Soviet , and still had a powerful ally to rely on. Furthermore, Albania would open a window to Chinese propaganda in European territory by encouraging the orientation towards Beijing for the Eastern European establishments and China would do the same in Asia by proclaiming Albania the only true country in Europe that beholds the communist principles. The Albanian orientation toward China had obviously also a pragmatic element. The complete interruption of all relations with the Soviet Union caused enormous difficulties to the

4 BYTYÇI, ENVER. Shqipëri-Kinë, Dështimi i një Bashkëjetese [China-Albania. The Failure of a Cohabitation]. ISB, Tiranë, 2014. 5 WILLIAM E. GRIFFITH, Albania and the Sino-Soviet Rift (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1963), 35-59; Lorenz Lüthi, ‘China and East Europe, 1956-1960’, Modern China Studies, Vol. 22, No. 1, (2015): 233-257, 255-256; Lorenz Lüthi, The Sino-Soviet Split. Cold War in the Communist World (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2008), 167-174, 201-205; Mehilli, From Stalin to Mao, 198-207.

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Albanian economy which was heavily dependent on the Soviet and Eastern European economic assistance. Hence China offered to replace Soviet assistance, with benefit for the Albanian leaders whom shared common political and ideological principles with the Chinese leaders. The other crucial point was the security dilemma: Albania needed a strong ally to face the Eastern Camp and Moscow. Formally Albania was still part of the Warsaw Pact but it had no more relations with the Soviet Union, the leading country of the communist camp in Europe; the presence in this organization was merely formal and the presence of the NATO forces in the Mediterranean were perceived as a threat. The antirevisionist/communist Albania was surrounded by antagonist powers in the East and the West. The cooperation for the Sino-Albanian relationship was sanctioned by two main documents: “The Sino-Albanian Declaration” of January 1964 and the “The Sino-Albanian Declaration” of May 1966.6 Both these documents expressed the determination of both countries to undertake a path of strong bilateral cooperation. Thereafter, both the PLA and the CCP made fruitful efforts to reach a high-level of collaboration. For the domestic policy and the internal propaganda, Albania was presented to Chinese people as a European communist country who supported Chairman Mao’s actions while PLA was introduced from the propaganda as one of the eldest in Europe and her leader, Enver Hoxha, as a world-class communist leader. On the international stage China needed as much support as possible from as many countries as possible, regardless of their size, for its efforts of trying to be a member of the United Nations (UN). To this aim, with direct supervision of Hoxha, the entire Albanian diplomacy was put at China’s disposal in order to promote Chinese admission in the UN. Albania condemned the policy of ‘two Chinas’ and opposed it by all propagandist and diplomatic means, on any international forum where Albania was present. In international relations, the role and the impact of smaller nations in relation to Great Powers sometimes gains incredible historical dimensions. This happens mainly because the small nations could have two important functions; first, serve as regulators, balancers and compensators of Great Powers in geopolitics and geostrategic intentions, second, they contribute with their vote as sovereign nations in the International Organizations. This second feature was used from the Albanian diplomacy in every meeting and session of the UN.7

6 LALAJ, AN, CHRISTIAN F. OSTERMANN, & RYAN GAGE. Albania is Not Cuba: Sino-Albanian Summits and the Sino-Soviet Split. Cold War International History Project Bulletin, No.16 7 BASHKURTI, LISIEN. Diplomacia e vetëizolimit: rasti i Shqipërisë 1961-1989. GEER 2004, p. 630

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It is in this context many agreements and protocols were signed for the cooperation of the two countries in economy, trade, culture, science, education, art, culture, and military and maritime transportation. During the second half of the 1960s the cooperation between China and Albania reached its peak. In this period Albania exported to China, among many others, chrome minerals, oil fuel, bitumen, copper, tobacco; meanwhile China was exporting to Albania machineries, tools, technology for the industry, energy, etc. 8 This stage of great cooperation and fruitful policies was not totally free from discrepancies; sometime also deep disagreements, especially in the international positions taken from each party. The main problematic in the beginning of the cooperation concerned Chinese foreign policy in the Balkan Peninsula. The Chinese foreign affairs at the time were characterized by dynamism, pragmatism, flexibility and long-term vision; meanwhile the Albanian foreign affairs were mainly characterized by ideological dogmatism.9 The first disagreements started when Chinese intentions towards the Balkans differed form Albania’s standing. In order to better face the Soviet Union’s hegemony in the communist camp, China saw as paramount the cooperation in the Balkans between countries that had promoted independent policies from Moscow, such as , Romania and Albania. The Chinese policy makers intended to create a strong regional fulcrum under Beijing influence for their future interest in Europe.10 This contrasted with Albania’s position which saw Yugoslavia as a great threat to its national security, therefore excluding any possible cooperation. Moreover, Albanian leaders wanted an exclusive privileged relation with China, which excluded such option for the other countries in Eastern Europe who were seen by Albanian leaders as revisionists of the communist line. The first step for the Balkan alliance between Rumania, Yugoslavia and Albania, was made by Prime Minister in 1968. Premier Zhou knew that would be hard to convince Albania to cooperate with the abovementioned countries. Given the past problematic relations between Tito and Hoxha, an alliance between Belgrade and Tirana was almost impossible. Premier Zhou tried to convince the Albanian leadership that a stabilization of relations with Yugoslavia and the involvement of Tirana in a larger cooperation with other Balkan countries such as Romania would increase Albania’s security. Albania on the other rather than increasing its security perceived such initiative as dangerous for the country.

8BIBERAJ, ELEZ. Albania and China: A Study of an Unequal Alliance. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986, p. 113. 9 VICKERS, MIRANDA. The Albanians: a modern history. IB Tauris, 2011. 10 BORICI, KUJTIM. Jugosllavet ankese Hrushovit; Enveri eshte kunder paktit Ballkaniak, Gazeta Dita. Availble at: http://www.gazetadita.al/jugosllavet-ankese-hrushovit-enveri-eshte-kunder-paktit- ballkanik/

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Further, to strengthen the relationship between the countries, Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai visited Albania in January 1964. This visit attracted a lot of attention in the public opinion of both countries and not only. Western European countries, all Balkan countries and Moscow were somehow astonished from this move. It was the first time in Albanian history that a Chinese Prime minister was visiting Albania. Albania’s importance for China was demonstrated also by the lengthy visit of Zhou Enlai, who stayed in Albania for ten days and had many meetings with the Albanian leaders. These meetings were intended to further strengthen the relations between the two countries. This can be easily considered the stepping stone of what further would have been the Chinese promise to the people for a serious and determined commitment to help and guide Albania in all possible aspects. To some degree, this visit was the Sino-Albanian coordinated answer to Khrushchev for his demand to cease the controversies and polemics within the International Communist Movement. The intense talks between the delegation headed by Premier Zhou Enlai and Premier were concluded with a common declaration which contained respective points of view and intentions and expressed the common values of Marxism that both countries shared to the same extent. This Sino-Albanian cooperation was seen with high concern in Moscow. During the 22nd CPSU Congress the notes were openly and clearly against this new alliance within the socialist camp. In March 1965 Premier Zhou Enlai visited Albania again. This visit highlighted once more the high level of gratification that both governments had for each-other and the Chinese Premier expressed repeatedly the unsparing support of China to Albania. In the ideological and domestic affairs all declarations and points of view were on the same line but in the international issues some differences emerged. In this visit Premier Zhou met Chairman Hoxha and they both expressed their positions on the socio-political circumstances of the time. Again, the main enemy was the ‘American Imperialism’ but this time, the behavior towards the Soviet Union was of softer tones form the Chinese side. They both agreed in considering the American Imperialism as the principal threat to peace and both parties condemned every move of Moscow towards talks with Washington, since those were all considered as obvious attempts to separate the world in two main areas of influence. By stating so, China and Albania criticized the bipolar system of the Cold War. Even in the peak of good and healthy relationship between the two countries, there existed political and ideological differences between the two. However, even in the good spirit of communist loyalty and fruitful cooperation, China’s intentions regarding Southeastern Europe China’s were deeper and more forward-thinking. The Chinese government had a positive attitude towards Romania then ruled by Nicolae Ceausescu

6 who proclaimed himself anti-Soviet11, on the other hand, Yugoslavia had a favorable political position, since it was the leader of the so called ‘The Non-Aligned Movement’. 12 China expressed special interest toward these countries, in particular during the late 1960s. These were not easy years for the satellite countries of the Soviet Union since the events in Prague (January the 5th to August 21st, 1968) would shake the bases of the International Communist Movement. For the first time a country member of the Warsaw Pact was being attacked from the common armed forces of the same Pact. The reaction of Romania, Yugoslavia and Albania was the immediate: condemn of the aggression. The Chinese foreign policy decision makers in this time proposed a military alliance between these three countries so that the safeguard of their territory could be secured. Once again, the Albanians did not agree on this plan. According to some Albanian scholars, the Chinese intentions at the time were to extend their power in the countries where the main actors of the Cold War, the Soviet Union and USA, had no influence any more, or never had for different reasons. A few of them go even further by stating that Romania was the “favorite” one for these Chinese intentions. Although Romania, led in the 1970s by Nicolae Ceausescu, was formally an ally of the Soviet Union, Bucharest promoted both: independent policy towards other nations, even Western European, and autonomy from Moscow. The interchange of high rank delegation between Romania and China went intensifying in those years and culminated with the visit of Ceausescu in Beijing in 1971. Nevertheless, the agitation that Albanians had towards the Chinese approach to the Romanians was incomparable to the turbulence they had while China approached Yugoslavia. Albanian high rank officials asked that the relations between Beijing and Belgrade should pass through their channels. 13

2- People’s Republic of China supporting Albania

The period with more economic support was highly intense from 1954 to 1978. As Ylber Marku has argued, “China prioritized Albania as a recipient of foreign aid, and no other country in times of peace received from China such economic and military assistance, proportionate to population,

11 WATTS, LARRY. The Soviet-Romanian Clash over History, Identity and Dominion. Cold War International History Project, Working Papers Series 29,2010. 12 The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a group of states which are not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc. As of 2012, the movement has 120 members. The organization was founded in Belgrade in 1961. Info available at: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Non-Aligned-Movement 13 HOXHA, ENVER. Reflections on China, vol. I: 1962–1972, Extracts from the Political Diary, 1979.

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as did Albania. 14 During this period the Albanian Five Years Plans (FYP) on construction of industrial sites were entirely based on Chinese aid. For almost two decades the needs of the country and its’ entire development were based on this support. The total Chinese aid to Albania accounts for 132 different projects stretched in 24 years. 15 The Chinese leaders applied Chairman Mao’s instruction: everything the Albanian leaders would ask, it should be given. Such as:

- The investments for the construction of industrial sites and energy points - The financial support for the needs of basic food and items for the citizens - Meeting the request coming from Tirana on transport needs, telecommunication and technology - Supporting the qualification for specialist of different areas of expertise in Chinese territory - Financing the scientific research - Financing the Albanian Army

Three were the principles at the base of China’s economic aid to Albania. First, according to Premier Zhou Enlai, since Albania was far from Asia, in Southeast Europe, surrounded by enemies and not able to accept help from West European countries, it was vital for the country the need for protection and reinforcement of the state. Second, even though Albania was proclaiming itself as the nation that “wants to construct everything by their own strength”, the natural and financial resources were not enough at the time. Under these circumstances, the PRC would help Albania in order for the country to develop a modern industry and start an economic growth, without requiring any political dependence of Tirana on Beijing. The first Chinese loan granted to Albania is documented in 1956. Unlike Soviet Union, that had treated Albania as its satellite state in Southeastern Europe, China’s attitude was since the very beginning different, in that affirmed to seek an alliance with Albania based on the principle of equality and mutual benefit. PRC initially provided considerable shipments of primary goods such as corns, rice and oils, which Albania had requested. Subsequently, China’s economic assistance upgraded to accepting hundreds of Albanian specialists for training in the Chinese universities, factories, and various research centers - most of these groups of specialists were pursuing universities in China.

14 MARKU, YLBER. Sino-Albanian relations during the Cold War, 1949-1978: an Albanian perspective. Doctoral thesis, Lingnan University, Hong Kong, 2017; p. 4. Retrieved from: http://commons.ln.edu.hk/his_etd/11/ 15 Interview of Fan Chengzuo, 10th Ambassador of PRC to Albania. Let’s remember to not forget. Available at: http://albanian.cri.cn/1301/2014/12/24/302s137781.htm

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During the 1960s China’s support made possible the highest industrial development that Albania had ever experienced. Corresponding to the peak of the Sino-Albanian alliance, during the period from the early 1960s to mid-1970s, China’s aid enabled a great leap forward in the development of heavy industry, which for the first time in Albania’s history resulted in the building of huge industrial plants. The Albanian government asked and later was granted long- term loans for the construction of such sites and productions lines. Among these, the most important ones were the Metallurgical Plant in the city of Elbasan, the Tractors Plant in Tirana, the Textile Production Plant in Berat, the Oil Refining Plant in Ballsh, two out of three Hydropower Plants along the stream of Drini River, the Chemical Plant in Fier. But, the Chinese most serious undertakings and serious support started after Premier Zhou visited Albania. This was the milestone of the most intense cooperation between Beijing and Tirana. The Chinese side promised to finish within two years all the industrial plants that had already installed machineries and procured the specialists staff for one of the biggest plants to be built in the city of Elbasan. Beside the above-mentioned big deeds, other help came from the Chinese side in machineries for agricultural use, drilling probes, drilling turbines, tractors, combine harvesters, trucks, etc. In the timeframe under analysis Albania was a rural country and since 70% of the GDP was inputted from agriculture, the Chinese side came to help constructing a better infrastructure for agriculture while also investing for immense industrial plants, in this way the development of Albanian economy would be more diversified. It was custom that the Albanian authorities would send their plan of investments in Beijing and wait for their approval.16 The Chinese side was always giving recommendations and support according to their own experts and background. In 1970 an Albanian delegation headed by Abdyl Kellezi, visited Beijing in order to discuss the next Albania’s FYP, 1970-75. This delegation stayed in Beijing for more than two months. The longitude of this visit was due to the high demands of the Albanian side which pressed China to grant higher credits than it had done before. This required long negotiations during which the Albanian delegation insisted in using the Chinese economic assistance for investments in the heavy industry and the military, whereas China suggested that Albania should prioritize investments in agriculture and light industry. Eventually the negotiations resulted in the Sino-Albanian protocols for economic cooperation of 1970. 17 Most of the economic agreements between China and Albania consisted of barter agreements. This

16 HOXHA, ENVER. Vepra 37, Instituti I Studimeve Marksiste-Leniniste prane KQ te PPSH, 1968; p.415. 17 STAVROU, NIKOLAOS A. The Sino-Albanian Friendship. World Affairs 134, no. 3 1971: pp.234-242.

9 agreement included a loan of 1.8 billion Yuan for the finishing of the ongoing industrial plants and the construction of several other ones such as: a plant for nickel and cobalt extrusion with a capacity of 250 thousand tons a year, a factory for bricks production with capacity of 35 thousand tons a year, a plant of raw materials processing, a rubber production plant with the capacity of 200 thousand tons a year, the enlargement of the cement factory in Elbasan taking it from a capacity of 100 thousand to 400 thousand tons a year, the building of the TV center in Tirana and the construction of the televisual net for all the country. On the other side Albania would export in China 6 to 7% of the total value of the loan granted in goods like tobacco, fuel, nickel, chrome and other items. The total amount of the loan would start the payoff in 1986 and end by year 2000. Almost all the Albanian industry and the majority of its trade volume was totally dependent on the Chinese aid and loans - experts estimate that almost 80% of Albanian economy was supported form the Chinese government. Regardless of the marginal controversies on how to use the Chinese loans, during these five years (1970-1975), the political exchange atmosphere was fruitful and frequent. While the economic assistance from the Chinese side started earlier, the military support came some years after. This started in 1963, following Albania’s de facto expulsion from the Warsaw Pact, and the Soviet refusal to provide military assistance. After the Albanian authorities definitely got rid in 1961 of the last Soviet base in Vlore, the total focus for military support went to Beijing. , Albania’s Minister of Defense travelled several times to China to request Chinese military aid for Albania. Members of the delegation would recall that the Chinese hospitality was outstanding. As Edip Ohiri recalls: “Mr. Deng Xiaoping was present in the meeting among other high officials. After Chairman Mao joined our meeting, he was extraordinarily polite and friendly with us. He instructed all his officials to take special care of us and when the meeting was finished, he accompanied us to our car. And this was something that had never happened for none of the foreign delegation in Chinese territory.” 18 In 1968, Albania proclaimed the ousting from the Warsaw Pact. At this point with Chinese aid, Albania started a massive campaign of construction of military underground fortifications such as bunkers and various anti-bombing shelters

3 - First conflicts and the end of an Era One of the main problems for the Albanian historiography during the communist regime was its politicization. As result of this politicization the truth of Sino-Albanian relations cannot be understood by only the documents of the time because those same documents, at least on the

18Interview of EDIP OHIRI. In 1964 I met Chairman Mao Zedong. Gazeta Shqiptare, March 2013. Available at: https://www.pressreader.com/gazetashqiptare-mars2013

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Albanian side, were many times changed, erased, reformulated for after reappear with totally different content and being interpreted as the political situation requested.19 When analyzing the documents from 1971-1975 it appears that relations were at their best shape in the ideological, economic, military and political aspects. But, when documents of latter years are consulted, regarding the same topic, different positions are displayed, often contradictory on the Sino-Albanian relations and reflections. According to these later documents the relations had never been excellent and totally functional. From 1971 to 1975 the figures of the trade exchange between the countries went decreasing, while the propaganda and the media of the time it was written that the relations had never been better and a glory future was ahead of this collaboration.20 According to Lisien Bashkurti, four were the points that deteriorated the political collaboration between the two governments. First, the Albanian establishment was embittered by the Chinese soft policy towards post-Khrushchev era and the advent of Brezhnev on power. Second, and most important, was the Chinese approach towards the USA and the normalization of the relations among the above. The historic visit of President Nixon in China and the start of the ‘Ping-Pong Diplomacy’ seriously shook the Albanian establishment. This strategic move of PRC was seen as outrageous by the Albanian leadership who saw it as a betrayal of the Marxist line. In fact, with a special letter from the Central Committee of PLA and the Albanian government, addressed to the Central Committee of CCP in 1970, the Albanian leadership severely contested the Chinese approach to the USA. The Chinese leadership did not react to this letter, preferring to ignore it. However, Beijing reacted by refusing to send any delegation at the next Albanian party congress. Third, Chinese leadership decided to improve the relations with Yugoslavia – a move which seriously undermined the privileged relation between China and Albania. Fourth, the next Chinese move that caused the Albanian discontent was the overrating of Romania within the Balkan region. It was very visible in the 1970s that China was prioritizing the Balkans and the political presence in the region beyond simply Albania. Romania, given its independence from Moscow in its initiatives in foreign affairs, and its position together with its average size, offered immense opportunities of cooperation for China. For this prioritization of Chinese foreign policy in the Balkans, the Albanian side did not react publicly; this was because the leadership was very careful on the statement towards her neighbors. The Albanian

19 BIBERAJ, ELEZ. Albania and China: A Study of an Unequal Alliance. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986, p. 99. 20 BAKI, GAZMEND. Sino-Albanian Friendship. Miqesia Shqiptaro-Kineze, Gazeta Shekulli, Editorial 2005. Available at: http://arkivi2.peshkupauje.com/2009/05/miqesia-shqiptaro- kineze.html

11 documents of the 1970s compiled in the high forums of the leadership were mainly reflective of the crises in the relations with China. From the most important we can highlight: the Second Plenum of Central Committee of PLA, on June 1977; the Third Plenum of Central Committee of PLA, on November 1977; the Fourth Plenum of Central Committee of PLA, on January 1978. These high political forums were all oriented on the instruction of Chairman Hoxha. Despite the fact that the materials of these Plenums were confidential and would have been used only to inform the high rank officials of the Party, the content of these meetings and ‘confidential’ Plenums became, through various channels, known to Chinese leaders. Subsequently, in July 1978, the Chinese government decided to interrupt the economic and military aid to Albania, though is reaffirmed China’s intention to continue normal cooperation. While the Chinese side was very silent in this breach of relations, Albanian leaders decided to go public. The Albanian side reacted negatively on the Chinese international moves, and in the beginning of the seventies Chairman Hoxha started a real hunt on the eventual ‘enemies of the regime’ by first eliminating the people that were master builders of the Sino-Albanian relations. Regarding the Chinese loans and the financial support, since ther were not placed at the best possible use, the outcome of this aid was not as it was expected. The fact that the loans were used in investing in heavy industry did not give the country’s economy what was predicted. In order to find an excuse for this misplace of the loans into almost useless areas it was necessary to address the defeat to some certain group of people. Albanian leadership used as an excuse for purges the many technical difficulties that the investments in the heavy industries encountered. This gave Hoxha the opportunity to interpret such difficulties as sabotages by key officials who had negotiated the Chinese loans. These were mainly the chief of the delegations that conducted the negotiation with Beijing. First the cultural officials, then the economic advisors and last the military officials, including here the Minister of Defense who was purged in 1974. The Chinese side too during the 1970s expressed discontent and acted in different line with Tirana. The most important issues that heated the most the negotiation rooms and declaration were mainly about the following issues: the aborted attempts of Premier Zhou Enlai for the re-establishment of relations between Albania and Soviet Union; the unsuccessful attempt of the Chinese intention of creation the Balkan alliance between Romania, Yugoslavia and Albania, the problematic negotiations on the Albanian military and strategic plans; the unconventional debates on the PLAs plan on the economic development of the country; the total ignoring from the Chinese side of the Sixth Congress of PLA; the non-consideration of any Albanian suggestion on the Chinese Foreign policy; the Chinese approach and acceptance of the USA policy; the precedence on Chinese Foreign affair to the other Balkan states and

12 many more. The political lines of the two governments, once very aligned in every position, were not only traveling on the same path, but totally in two different directions. Chinese behavior was visible only in the high ranks of international relations organizations and meeting of confidential nature. In reality the Chinese leadership did not ever make public for the Chinese people and never actually broadcasted the breach of relations with Albania. The collective memory though is different from the documents of the time, so is the thought of important Albanian scholars in their perception on China. As it is visible in the above analyzes, that the Sino-Albanian relations abruption was extremely complex but the substrate of this behavior was deeply ideological and political, and most of the time it was as a result of the dogmatic attitude of the Albanian leadership. With this kind of declaration, the Albanian leadership directly confronted the Chinese policy and its strategic interests. During the Seventh PLA Congress, held in November 1976, Hoxha indicated his opposition to the New Chinese leadership that had taken over with the death of Chairman Mao by refusing to mention Hua Guofeng and openly denouncing Deng Xiaoping.21 Deng Xiaoping marked a new era in China’s foreign and domestic policies. Based on pragmatic principles rather than only and strictly ideological considerations, Deng Xiaoping’s policies were aimed at the integration of China in the international community. Therefore, he promoted domestic policies centered on the economic development, and international cooperation that opened China to the world. Albania, by contrast, further isolated itself, promoted economic self-reliance, which had dramatic consequences on the economy and which eventually resulted in the fall of the regime in 1991. 22

4 - After the “winds of Change” - the legacy of the pasts and two decades of almost mutual obliviousness ‘Even though China and Albania are distant from each other, the friendship between our two peoples has been passed on from generation to generation. Albania was one of the first countries that recognized the People's Republic of China. Our two countries established diplomatic relations on November 23rd, 1949. Since then, we have witnessed fast development of exchanges and cooperation in all fields between our two countries. China rendered a great amount of assistance to Albania. We sent nearly 6000 experts to Albania and trained a large number of economic and technical experts for Albania. Albania also gave China precious

21 BIBERAJ, ELEZ. Albania and China: A Study of an Unequal Alliance. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986, pp.122-123. 22 BASHKURTI, LISIEN. Diplomacia e vetëizolimit: rasti i Shqipërisë 1961-1989. GEER 2004.

13 support and made important contribution to the restoration of the legitimate rights of the People's Republic of China in the United Nations, which the Chinese people will never forget.’23

The end to of the Cold War, signed a new era for Albanian history. After the fall of the communist regime, the reproach of the new government toward almost all the nations of the world came in a very short period of time. The normalisation of the relations with the great powers of the international arena was the first aim of the new government established in 1992. Since with PRC the diplomatic relations were never interrupted it was easier for the Albanian new government to re-establish the ties. The 1990s has been a harsh decade for Albania and Albanians. Transitional societies have difficulties re-adjusting the social, economic and political structures. The Albanian transition was accompanied by mass migration in the first half of the decade and by social conflicts in the second one. The investments in the country were few, and mainly by neighbouring countries like and Greece. Chinese presence in Albania during this decade and the first five years of the new millennium was almost inexistent. The only reminiscences Albanian people had were the “tales” of the elderly about the Chinese support and the propaganda of the seventies. The Albanian officials and specialists that visited China during the “Golden Age” of the Sino-Albanian relations could now speak freely and share their experience. And so they did - the books of history were re-written and the aspects of this peculiar international cooperation that attracted so much attention in the midst of the Cold War were made public on their real version.

5 –Old Allies, New Ties: cooperation in figures of the past decade The “17+1” cooperation mechanism has injected new impetus into the Sino-Albanian relations, this time with an ever-growing economic presence of trade and investments. In Albania the China-CEEC cooperation platform is mostly associated with investments and trade. The cases that attracted more attention in the public opinion and mass media were two: the acquisition for the controlling rights into two Albanian oilfields, from Geo Gade Petroleum (a Shanghai based company) specifically Patos-Marinza and Kucova, which in total produces around 13.000 barrels of crude oil per day. The total amount that the Chinese company declared

23 Interview of Chinese Ambassador to Albania Wang Junling on Sino-Albanian Relations, China's Regional and International Role. TiranaTimes, 2009. Available at: http://al.china- embassy.org/eng/zagx/kjwt/t628307.htm

14 from the purchase of the previous Bankers Petroleum is 438.17 million US$ 24; the second, was the taking over of the only Albanian airport, Mother Teresa, from a consortium of China Everbright (a Hong Kong based company) which will have management rights until 2025. According to the Albanian National Registration Data Center, the number of Chinese companies operating in Albania is 149, as of April, 2018.

Figures of bilateral trade between China and Albania, in million US$

700 635 568 600 559 558 487 507 500 436 430 378 400 347 344 325 284 271 281 300 235 196 207 199 189 155 200 148 143 128 129 88 100 64

-

Total Total Total Total Total Total Total Total Total

Exports Exports Exports Exports Exports Exports Exports Exports Exports

Imports Imports Imports Imports Imports Imports Imports Imports Imports 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Source: China Statistical Yearbook, 2017

Bilateral trade between China and Albania has had a steady increase since the start of the global financial crisis, with a total value of 284 million US$ in 2008 going to 635 million in 2016. This is a threefold increase in less than one decade, which means that accelerated trade practices have been put in place and more and more Chinese commodities are present in the Albanian market.

Chinese FDI stock in Albania, in million US$

24Available at: https://www.forbes.com/sites/kenrapoza/2017/03/10/albania-china-ilir- meta-washington-reforms-politics/#46dea71517ed

15

8 7.27 7 7.03 7.03 6.95 6

5 4.35 4.43 4.43 4.43 4

3

2

1 0.51 0 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Source: China Bulletin of Outward Direct Investments, 2017

As seen from the above chart, Chinese investments in the country are almost inexistent. However, the trend of the past decade is increasing. Given the small market share of the country, it is normal that the attractiveness is quite opaque, but this didn’t stop Chinese investments to increase 14 folds in less than 10 years.

Conclusions If there is a country in Europe that better has experienced first-hand what People’s Republic of China is capable of accomplishing in a distant/foreign land, it’s Albania. Decades of ideological, economic, international and logistic supports from China to Albania can be taken into account for future research as a substantial pattern of China’s modus operandi abroad and can be a steady pillar of analysis for the present and future. The traditional Sino-Albania friendship is now rekindled via the “17+1” cooperation mechanism and the China-CEE high level Summits have witnessed intensified interaction form both sides with promising developments year by year. While in the heist of the Cold War it was ideology that brought the two countries close, after the regime change in Albania it was globalization and an ever-growing interdependent world economy. While politics has been reluctant and sometimes sluggish, the business and investment environment has built new bridges of cooperation between China and Albania in the 21st Century. The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) is now the main framework and platform of cooperation with which Beijing is approaching Tirana. Yet again, as in the past, it is China the proactive actor. Intensification of relations, deepening cooperation, enhanced synergy and more are promoted from Beijing at an exuberant pace. It is up to the Albanian leadership to find the common grounds of collaboration and not be estranged to global opportunity offered to them.

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The trajectory of bilateral exchange, in all fields of cooperation, between China and Albania has witnessed simple and smooth existence as well as vortexes of absurdness; however, the two peoples managed to cherish, appreciate and welcome each-other and the deeply-rooted, long-established bilateral ties.

Annex I

A timeline summary of high-level meetings 1956: the Albanian leader Enver Hoxha, First Secretary of PLA, headed a delegation including Mehmet Shehu, Prime Minister; members of the Politburo such as and Behar Shtylla; as well as the Delo Bilali, Ambassador of Albania to Beijing and Fiqiri Vogli, Vice Editor of the “Zeri i Popullit”. 25 The exact dates of these visits are not made public, however given the few documents of the meetings available it is estimated that it occurred form mid to end of September. 1959: visits PRC for almost one month and and met with Chairman Mao on May 13th. 26 1961: Abdyl Kellezi, Head of the State Planning Commission visits China and meets with Premier Zhou Enlai on decembre 23rd. 1962: Hysni Kapo, Member of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Albania stayed in PRC for 14th to June 29th. He in this time frame meets Chairman Mao on June 29th, with Premier Zhou Enlai on June 27th and many times with Deng Xiaoping. 27 1963: from December 31st to January 8th, Premier Zhou Enlai visits Albania for the first time. 28 1965: Premier Zhou visits Albania again, having meetings with Enver Hoxha on every single day of his stay 27, 28 and 29th of March. 29

25 National Central Archives of Albania; AQSH, F.14/AP, OU, V. 1956, D. 54; AQSH, F.14/AP, MPKK, V. 1954, D. 2. 26 Ibid. AQSH, F.14/AP, MPKK, V. 1959, D. 1, D. 2, D. 3, D. 4, D. 5. 27 Ibid. AQSH, F.14/AP, MPKK, V. 1962, D. 6, D. 7, D. 9. 28 Ibid. AQSH, F.14/AP, MPKK, V. 1964, D. 25-25/1. 29 Ibid. AQSH, F.14/AP, MPKK, V. 1965, D. 4.

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1966: The Albanian Prime Minister Mehmet Shehu, visits China form April 28th to May 5th and meets some of the most prominent political actors of China such as Zhou Enlai and Liu Shaoqi,30 and on his last day of visit meets with Chairman Mao.31 1966: Third and last visit of Premier Zhou to Albania from June 24th to 28th; in this occasion he meets Hoxha 4 times. 32 1967: Hysni Kapo and Beqir Balluku visit China meeting with Kang Sheng on 22, 26 and 29th of January33 and meet Chairman Mao on February 2nd. 34 1968: Beqir Balluku Minister of Defense visits China on the occasion of Chinese National Day and on October 5th met with Chairman Mao.35 1969: Li Xiannian visits Albania on the occasion of the Albanian Independence day and meets with Chairman Hoxha. 36 1970: , member of the Poltiburo (and one of the most mets with Zhou Enlai in Beijing on june 16th. 37 1970: Abdyl Kellezi, Chairman of the Assambly of the Republic of Albania heads an ecomic delegation in PRC and conduct talks on the next Five Year Plan 1971-1975. 38 His was quite a long visit considering the stay from August 14 to october 17th. 1972: The last visit of Beqir Balluku in China; in this occassion he meets with Premier Zhou Enlai.39 1974: Yao Wenyuan, CCP Politburo member visits Albania in November and meets with Enver Hoxha on the 28th and 29th, respectively the Independence and the Liberation Day.40 1975: Adil Carcani, Vice Prime Minister heads an economy delegation and stays in PRC for three weeks; on June 15th meet with Zhou Enlai.41 This is the last Albanian high-level delegation visiting China during the Cold War. Starting from 1963 until 1976, tens of other ranks delegations were visiting both China and Albania ranking in ranging in a multitude of spheres such as: culture, art, science, agriculture,

30 Ibid. AQSH, F.14/AP, MPKK, V. 1966, D.13. 31 Ibid. AQSH, F.14/AP, MPKK, V. 1966, D. 3. 32 Ibid. AQSH, F.14/AP, MPKK, V. 1966, D. 13. 33 Ibid. AQSH, F.14/AP, MPKK, V. 1967, D1-3. 34 Ibid. AQSH, F.14/AP, MPKK, V. 1967, D. 6. 35 National Central Archives of Albania: AQSH, F.14/AP, MPKK, V. 1968, D. 6. 36 Ibid. AQSH, F.14/AP, MPKK, V. 1969, D. 17. 37 Ibid. AQSH, F.14/AP, MPKK, V. 1970, D. 5. 38 Ibid. AQSH, F.14/AP, MPKK, V. 1970, D. 7. 39 Ibid. AQSH, F.14/AP, MPKK, V. 1972, D. 10, D. 11. 40 Ibid. AQSH, F.14/AP, MPKK, V. 1974, D. 14, D. 15. 41 Ibid. AQSH, F.14/AP, MPKK, V. 1975, D. 6.

18 industry, military etc. Very often the Chinese delegations were received by Chairman Hoxha himself and the Albanian ones were sometimes received by Chairman Mao.42 1989: Albanian foreign Minister Muhamet Kapllani and Foreign Trade First Deputy Minister Kostandin Hoxha, arrived in Beijing for a five-day visit. During this visit, they hold talks with officials from the Foreign Ministry and from the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations and Trade. 43 1999: Rexhep Meidani, President of Albania pays a two days visit in Beijing and meets with Jiang Zemin and other senior Chinese officials. His arrival in Beijing was two days after the visit of Boris Yeltsin and for many it is estimated that the main topics were the situation in Kosovo (as well as Chechenya). 44 2000: uppn invitation of Albanian Foreign Minister Paskal Milo,Tang Jiaxuan Foreign Minister of PRC payed a two days visit in Tirana. During the visit, President Rexhep Meidani, Prime Minister Ilir Meta and Speaker of the Parliament Skender Gjinushi, met with Minister Tang. 45 2002: Chinese State Councilor Wu Yi arrives in Tirana for a two days visit and met with President Rexhep Meidani to discuss bilateral relations and cooperation. 46 2004: Fatos Nano, Prime Minster of Albania meets with Chinese President Hu Jintao at the Great Hall of the People and discuss furterh deepening of bilateral relations in Bejing. In this stance the Albanian Prime Minster st indicated that with the concerted efforts by the two sides, the two governments and the two peoples have been deepening mutual understanding and have established and developed friendship and cooperation by taking stock of historical experience.. The Albanian government will resolutely adhere to the one-China policy and support China's lofty cause of reunification. 47 2009: Sali Berisha, Prime Minster of Albania visits China and meets with President Hu Jintao, on the 60th anniversary of Sino-Albanian diplomatic ties. President Hu in this stance

42 The archive files from Albania were kindly made available for the purpose of this paper from Research Fellow and Historian at Xiamen University, Dr. Ylber Marku. 43 First Albanian Delegation in Decade visits China. Associated Press AP. Available at: https://www.apn ews.com/72a54ad4d259099f9c4e1ff1747f68eb 44 Albaina President in Beijing. BBC. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/560933.stm 45 MFAPRC. Joint Communiqué between the People's Republic of China and the Republic of Albania. Available at: https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/2649_665393/t15781.shtml 46 Albanian President Meidani meets Chinese State Council. Available at: http://en.pe ople.cn/20 0207/1 2/eng2 0020 712_99589.shtml 47MFAPRC. Hu Jintao meets with Prime Minister of Albania.

19 noted that Sino-Albanian relations were at a new starting point, with a new opportunity for further development and pragmatic cooperation. 48 2011: Chinese Foreig Minister Yang Jiechi visits Tirana and meets with Prime Minister Sali Berisha, with the Speakerof teh Parliament Jozefina Topalli and President Bamir Topi. 49 2017: Zhang Gaoli, Vice Premier of PRC visits Albania for a two days visit and meets with President Bujar Nishani and Prime Minister Edi Rama. In this occasion Vice Premier Zhang highlighted the importance of Albania in being an integral part of the BRI and welcomed intensification of Albania’s participation in the “16+1” cooperation. 50 It is important to notice in this stance that Edi Rama is the only Albanian Prime Minister (or number one policy-maker of the country) that has never had a one-to-one meeting with a Chinese President. The only meetings he has held are within the framework of the “16+1” with Premier Li Keqiang, yet no official state visit to Beijing for Rama.

48MFAPRC. Chinese President meets with Prime Minister Berisha. Available at https://www.fmprc. gov.cn /mfa_eng/wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/xos_664404/gjlb_664408/3125_664410/3127_664414/t558569.shtml 49 Chinese Foreign Minister visits Albania. Available at: http://english.sina.com/china/p/2011/0804/385780.html 50MFAPRC. Zhang Gaoli visits Albania. Available at: https://www.fmp rc.gov.cn/ mfa_e ng//zx xx_6628 05/t1455159.shtml

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