Additional Resources

. Teaching Controversial Issues to Elementary Students . American Indian Logos, Mascots, and Images Background Information . American Indian Logos, Mascots, and Images Lesson . American Indian Perspectives on Thanksgiving . Culturally Responsive Teaching Matters! . CREDE - Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence Hawai’i Project . Ute History Timeline . The Southern Ute Indian Tribe Seal & Flag . Some Notable Leaders of the Capote and Mouache Ute Bands . Ute Indian Tribe of Uintah and Ouray Reservation Seal & Flag . Some Notable Leaders of the Ute Indian Tribe of Uintah and Ouray Reservation . Some Notable Leaders of the White River & Tabeguache Ute Bands . Ute Mountain Ute Indian Tribe Seal & Flag . Some Notable Leaders of the Weeminuche Ute Band . Print, Video, and Web Resources Teaching Controversial Issues to Elementary Students

Teaching controversial issues can be a great challenge for teachers. Some teachers worry that they do not have the right tools or background knowledge to adequately approach the topics, while others may fear repercussions for addressing these issues in such an unsettled climate. However, teaching about controversies, especially current events like those that took place in Charlottesville and St. Louis, are even more important for students in today’s classrooms. As we continue to grow as a diverse nation (and world), we must work to make sure all students experience school with a sense of dignity about who they are. This includes reaching those marginalized students and giving them the support they need to find classroom success and to also feel loved and accepted in this world. More importantly, as a nation, it is only through education that we can make ourselves better. Facing our shortcomings and finding solutions to breach our gaps is the key to guiding the next generations in the direction toward positive change. In K-5, especially in the younger of those grades, the thought of navigating a conversation of this magnitude can feel uncomfortable, inappropriate, or just plain wrong. However, elementary students can handle these conversations if they are handled in the right way. Here are some suggestions for ways to teach controversial issues to elementary students:

Make a Safe Space: Create a safe space for all students to share their ideas, opinions, and feelings about the ​ heavy topics they will be learning about. Build a strong classroom community that can work through tough topics together. Encourage risk-taking and divergent thinking in your classroom. Teach your students that unique responses are okay! Everyone needs to keep in mind that we all have had experiences where we were made to feel less than. Unfortunately some endure these experiences more frequently than others. Therefore, if someone has had negative experiences in life as a result of the color of their skin (or someone they care about has) it’s important to create a space where all are willing to listen and not deny that feeling. No matter who is sitting in front of you, these lessons are necessary, they are needed, and they can help shape a generation of compassionate, empathetic, and informed students as early as kindergarten.

Analyze Images: Find (age-appropriate) photos to project, or print, and display for your class to see. Give them ​ some background knowledge about the image you show them. Make sure to include facts only. It is not your job to tell them that something they are seeing is right or wrong — you are simply presenting the information to them. Specifically regarding Charlottesville, a “safe” image to use with your students could be any of the photos depicting the white supremacists holding torches. Ask your students the following questions: What do you see? How do you think they feel? ​

404 Teaching Controversial Issues to Elementary Students

Depending on the grade level you teach, give your students some background knowledge about why these men got together for a rally. How does that make you feel? Why? If you could talk to these men what would you say? What might ​ be a solution to this issue?

This is a great time to address early on in the year that people of color in America have never been treated as equal. There is still a lot of work for all of us to do. It is not enough to tell your students to be nice. We need to teach them why racism is a plague on society that harms us all. We need to teach them how to spot racism, how to think critically about it, and what to do when they see it happening.

Checking In: Check in with how your students are feeling throughout your lesson. In the lower grades, allow ​ students to draw a picture, circle a face, or draw a face that depicts how they are feeling before, during, and after a tough lesson. Older students can jot their feeling down anonymously on a Post-It note. You can group student responses by feelings so that students can see that others may or may not feel the same way as them. This can lead to more discussion about why some students feel a certain way.

Additional guidelines for discussing controversial issues include: 1. Make your classroom a safe place in which to ask questions and discuss ideas 2. Listen to concerns that students have 3. Correct misinformation 4. Reassure your students 5. Help them find answers to their questions 6. Don’t burden your students with adult concerns 7. Emphasize that conflicts are opportunities For more information about each of these guidelines, read this article: https://mhschool.com/resources/teaching_children_controversy.pdf

Finally, Susan Jones, a Boston elementary teacher, has developed a Ten-Point Model for Teaching Controversial Issues. To read more about her model: https://www.morningsidecenter.org/teachable-moment/lessons/10-point-model-teaching-controversial-is sues

405 American Indian Logos, Mascots, and Images Background Information American Indians have long challenged the use of stereotypical American Indian images by sports, entertainment, and educational institutions. Many contend that the use of such imagery is as demeaning as the imagery that denied the humanity of other racial groups in a not too distant past. Proponents for Indian mascots assert that these images honor Native peoples and promote native culture in highly visible forums, while opponents consider them as offensive as Amos & Andy, Frito Bandito or mammy (e.g. Aunt Jemima) would be portrayed today. While there is no denying that western colonization set in motion the demise of the traditional American Indian way of life, there remains profound resistance to letting go of Indian mascots or acknowledging the current impact these mascots and images have on Indian identity and cross-cultural relationships. For American Indian children, who are collectively denied positive media and educational models to counter these images the ramifications on self-identity are very real and documented. While they are the inheritors of strong and vibrant tribal communities, American Indian children share a legacy of poverty created by relocation and reservation systems. Too often rendered invisible by mainstream society, American Indian youth experience the dismissal of their progressions into the future as they are continually romanticized into the past. Often regarded as fierce warriors or noble savages the American Indian is expected to look, act, speak, and think in a manner predetermined by mainstream viewpoints, regardless of whether these perceptions are historically or currently accurate. In defining culture there is an inherent sense of entitlement to write one’s own record of history. To acknowledge the use of Indian mascots as hurtful or insulting would require reexamination of the accepted views of “new world discovery” and western expansion. Also, honest conversations would need to take place about the associated, economic benefit for professional sports organizations and educational institutions. These perspectives, among others, contribute to an inevitable conflict between those who support the continued use of cartoonish Indian mascots, those who find such images offensive and demeaning, and those that have documented real and actual harms that are caused by mascots to all students. Unlike the past, when mainstream viewpoints dictated cultural identification, American Indians today are expressing themselves through both contemporary and traditional mediums by insisting on their human right of self-determination. By educating all children to more accurately and positively reflect the contributions of all people, the use of American Indian mascots will no longer be an accepted reality, but an issue relegated to the footnotes of American history. Source: Report-Governor’s Commissions to Study American Indian Representations in Public Schools (2016). https://www.colorado.gov/pacific/sites/default/files/atoms/files/CSAIRPS-Report-2016.pdf

406 American Indian Logos, Mascots and Images Lesson

Lesson Overview: Time Frame: Most stereotypes and misconceptions of American Indians are generalizations that are over 60 minutes simplified and inaccurate. Students should be aware of misconceptions and stereotypes that modern culture has placed on American Indians and the potential harm they may cause to the American Indian people.

Inquiry Questions: 1. What stereotypes and misconceptions has modern culture placed on American Indians? 2. Can stereotypes and misconceptions cause harm to the American Indian people? 3. Why is it important to understand the impact that stereotypes and misconceptions can have on the American Indian people?

Colorado Academic Standards – Social Studies: ● CO State History Standard 1: GLE #2 ○ EO.c. - Describe both past and present interactions among the people and cultures in Colorado. For example: American Indians, Spanish explorers, trappers/traders, and settlers after westward expansion. Colorado Academic Standards – Reading, Writing, and Communicating: ​ ● RWC Standard 1.1 Oral Expression and Listening o E.O.a. - Engage effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and ​ ​ teacher-led) with diverse partners on grade 4 topics and texts, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly. (CCSS: SL.4.1) ○ E.Oc. - Identify the reasons and evidence a speaker provides to support particular points. (CCSS: SL.4.3)

Materials: Article: Should Utah Dump the “Ute” Nickname? http://dailyutahchronicle.com/2016/08/29/debate-utah-ditch-ute-nickname/ PowerPoint: What is a mascot?/Utah Ute discussion https://tinyurl.com/ybvf78s7 ​

Background Knowledge / Contextual Paragraph for Teachers: American Indians have been portrayed in a variety of ways in modern culture, not always in a positive manner. There are many organizations and grassroots movements in place that are working to raise awareness and cultural sensitivity to how

407 American Indian Logos, Mascots and Images Lesson

both the Ute People and American Indians alike are being portrayed. Examples of this include mascots for sports teams, community school mascots, and representations of American Indians in movies (both adult and children’s). “This is a human rights issue, we are being denied the most basic respect. As long as our people are perceived as cartoon characters or static beings locking in the past, our socio-economic problems will never be seriously addressed. Also, this issue of imagery has a direct correlation with violence against Indian people and the high suicide rate of our youth.” ~ Michael S. Haney (Seminole)

Building Background Knowledge for the Student: Students should be aware of the cultural diversity in Colorado. This cultural diversity reflects the history of the region. This understanding can lead to a respect for differences in cultural traditions, language, and physical characteristics.

Instructional Procedures and Strategies: 1. Bell Ringer/Hook Exercise- What is a mascot? https://tinyurl.com/ybvf78s7 (ppt. slide #2) ​ ​ 2. Discuss examples of both offensive and honorable depictions of American Indian mascots in slides from Bell Ringer/Hook Exercise using class discussion questions. 3. Show 3 minute video http://denver.cbslocal.com/2018/05/11/strasburg-native-american-northern-arapaho-indians/ about a ​ Colorado School debating whether they should change their mascot and whether it is honorable or not and the debate that continues to be discussed. You can also use the Governor’s Commission to Study American Indian Representations in Public Schools Report p. 8-23 to highlight both additional viewpoints of this debate found at: https://www.colorado.gov/pacific/sites/default/files/atoms/files/CSAIRPS-Report-2016.pdf 4. Show an article from two different points of view (found in the Resources section) on whether the Utah Ute Mascot needs to go or if it is honorable. Students will read through the two different points of view and look for main points that they can pick out. The teacher can facilitate main points from the articles two sides and students will write them down those points either individually or as a class. 5. Take a Stand Debate- Students will read through the Debate Statements and tell whether they will agree or disagree with the statements. They will then move to the side of the room that best corresponds to their belief and be prepared to defend their point of view.

Critical Content Key Skills ● The value of cultural diversity in Colorado ● Understand and respect for differences in cultural ● The human rights issues around the portrayal of traditions, language, and physical characteristics. American Indians ● Analysis of ideas

408 American Indian Logos, Mascots and Images Lesson

Critical Language (vocabulary) Human rights, diversity

Variations/Extensions: ● Variation - Students could participate in a Socratic Seminar discussion instead of a debate. ● Extension - Students can independently research and then present about other controversial mascots in Colorado. ● Extension - Students could redesign and/or rename a current logo and mascot to be culturally sensitive.

Formative Assessment Options: 1. Following the “Take a Stand Debate” students can write a persuasive essay. 2. Students can independently research other controversial mascots and prepare a presentation about why that mascot may be offensive.

Resources: High School Keeps Mascot, Collaborates with Native American Tribe http://denver.cbslocal.com/2018/05/11/strasburg-native-american-northern-arapaho-indians/ Adidas offers to help change Native American logos for Utah, other schools http://kutv.com/news/local/adidas-offers-to-help-change-native-american-logos-for-utah-other-schools Governor’s Commission to Study American Indian Representations in Public Schools Report https://www.colorado.gov/pacific/sites/default/files/atoms/files/CSAIRPS-Report-2016.pdf Change the Mascot.org http://www.changethemascot.org/history-of-progress/ ​ New Research Shows How Native American Mascots reinforce Stereotypes http://theconversation.com/new-research-shows-how-native-american-mascots-reinforce-stereotypes-63861

Texts for Independent Reading or for Class Read Aloud to Support the Content

Informational/Non-Fiction Fiction

Hirschfelder, A., Fairbanks Molin, P. & Wakim, Y. (1999). Fradin, J.B & Fradin, D.B. (2002). Who was Sacagawea? ​ American Indian Stereotypes in the World of Children: A Toronto, ON: Penguin Workshop. Reader and Bibliography. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press ​ Mihesuah, D.A. (2015). American Indians: Stereotypes ​ and Realities. Atlanta: Clarity Press. ​

409 Debate: Should Utah Ditch the “Ute” Mascot? 410 Bell Ringer/ Hook Exercise

1. What is a mascot? Can you give an example? 2. Why do schools have mascots? 3. What should mascots represent? 4. Can you think of a mascot that is offensive?

View YouTube ad- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T2sGN6dL8E4 411 American Indian Stereotypes in Mascots What common themes do you see? 412 Political Cartoons Do mascots reinforce stereotypes? 413

Darius L. Smith. Director Denver Anti-Discrimination Office. Adapted from American Indians as Mascots: Unintended Consequences and the Power of Negative Imagery Presentaton Honor or Insult? 414

Darius L. Smith. Director Denver Anti-Discrimination Office. Adapted from American Indians as Mascots: Unintended Consequences and the Power of Negative Imagery Presentation Are There Honorable Mascots?

What if some American Indian Groups feel honored by the school? 415 416

YouTube Debate in Colorado https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TBrKbyAtFNo Utah Utes Mascots 417 Read Current Events Article with your Teacher Identify key points from each side of the debate

Mascot Name Should Go Mascot Name Should Stay 418 Take a Stand Debate

Tell whether you agree or disagree and then move to that side of the room and be prepared to defend your stance.

● All Indian Mascots are offensive and should be abolished. ● Mascots are an important symbol of identity for people. ● Offensive mascots are similar to bullying in school. ● As long as an American Indian tribe approves the mascot, they can keep it. ● Naming mascots after people leads to stereotyping. ● You would be honored to have a mascot that represented your ethnicity.

419 ● Governments should not get involved because it is a form of free speech. American Indian Perspectives on Thanksgiving

Each November educators across the country teach their students about the First Thanksgiving, a quintessentially American holiday. They try to give students an accurate picture of what happened in Plymouth in 1621 and explain how that event fits into American history. Unfortunately, many teaching materials give an incomplete, if not inaccurate, portrayal of the first Thanksgiving, particularly of the event’s Native American participants. Most texts and supplementary materials portray Native Americans at the gathering as supporting players. They are depicted as nameless, faceless, generic “Indians” who merely shared a meal with the intrepid Pilgrims. The real story is much deeper, richer, and more nuanced. The Indians in attendance, the Wampanoag, played a lead role in this historic encounter, and they had been essential to the survival of the colonists during the newcomers’ first year. The Wampanoag were a people with a sophisticated society who had occupied the region for thousands of years. They had their own government, their own religious and philosophical beliefs, their own knowledge system, and their own culture. They were also a people for whom giving thanks was a part of daily life. Like the Wampanoag, thousands of Native American nations and communities across the continent had their own histories and cultures. Native peoples were and continue to be an integral part of the American story. It is our hope that this poster will encourage you to teach about Thanksgiving in a new way - one that recognizes the country’s original people and gives real meaning to November as American Indian Heritage Month. We thought that the agricultural practices and traditional foods of Native people would be a good starting point, since the ubiquitous Thanksgiving feast of turkey, cranberry sauce, and mashed potatoes would not exist if not for the knowledge and ingenuity of the Native peoples of the Americas. This narrative takes a look at just a few Native communities through the prism of three main themes that are central to understanding both American Indians and the deeper meaning of the Thanksgiving holiday. The themes are: • Environment: traditional knowledge about and understandings of the natural world. ​ ​ • Community: the role that group identity plays in Native cultures. ​ ​ • Encounters: how interactions between cultures have affected those cultures. ​ ​

The First Thanksgiving 1621 / J.L.G. Ferris.

Courtesy of the Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA. https://lccn.loc.gov/2001699850 ​

420 American Indian Perspectives on Thanksgiving

It is within these fundamental areas that we begin to see the innovations and contributions of American Indian peoples to the world at large. The combination of community systems and an understanding of the natural world enabled Native cultures to adapt and change over time - as all cultures do - both before and after encounters with newcomers. By acknowledging this, it is possible to bring a new perspective to the Thanksgiving holiday. This informational guide is a resource for teachers to use as a jumping-off point for more in-depth discussion. Discussion and other classroom ideas are included. Before you jump into the content of this poster, we recommend that you introduce your students to the “real Thanksgiving story.” Native American people who first encountered the “pilgrims” at what is now Plymouth, Massachusetts play a major role in the imagination of American people today. Contemporary celebrations of the Thanksgiving holiday focus on the idea that the “first Thanksgiving” was a friendly gathering of two disparate groups—or even neighbors—who shared a meal and lived harmoniously. In actuality, the assembly of these people had much more to do with political alliances, diplomacy, and an effort at rarely achieved, temporary peaceful coexistence. Although Native American people have always given thanks for the world around them, the Thanksgiving celebrated today is more a combination of Puritan religious practices and the European festival called Harvest Home, which then grew to encompass Native foods. ​ For more information about the Harvest Ceremony: Harvest Ceremony - Beyond the Thanksgiving Myth. ​ ​ https://nmai.si.edu/sites/1/files/pdf/education/NMAI_Harvest_Study_Guide.pdf

Environment: Understanding the Natural World The ability to live in harmony with the natural world beings with knowing how nature functions. After many generations of observation and experience, Native peoples were intimately familiar with weather patterns, animal behaviors, and cycles of plant life, water supply, and the seasons. They studied the stars, named the constellations, and knew when solstices and equinoxes occurred. This kind of knowledge enable Native peoples to flourish and to hunt, gather, or cultivate the foods they needed, even in the harshest environments.

421 American Indian Perspectives on Thanksgiving

“We are thankful for the clouds, rain, and snow that feed the springs, rivers, and ​ our people” ~ John Garcia (Santa Clara Pueblo), 2002 ​ Many Native American believe that as long as humans are respectful caretakers of the natural world, it will provide for us. In this kind of interconnected relationship, the plants and animals are also seen to recognize their own roles and responsibilities. Traditionally, being a responsible caretaker in this type of mutual relationship has meant respecting nature’s gifts by taking only what is necessary and making good use of everything that is harvested. This helps ensure that natural resources, including foods, will be sustainable for the future. “We are taught that when we gather herbs or food, we should only acquire what is ​ needed from the plant. To do otherwise would be wasteful...Our greed would jeopardize the future of the plants because some plants must remain to flower and go to seed. We would also compromise our own future because we may eliminate what we need for our ceremonies, as well as food for the following year.” ~ Lawrence Shorty (Navajo), 1999 ​ Giving daily thanks for nature’s gifts has always been an important way of living for traditional Native peoples. The six nations of the Haudenosaunee, or Iroquois (Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora), who live in New York State and parts of southeastern Canada, express their thanks in a recitation known as The Thanksgiving Address. Sometimes referred to as “the words that come before all else,” this address is spoken at community gatherings, ceremonies, and even at some schools to start the day. The words express thanks for fellow human beings, Mother Earth, the moon, stars, sun, water, air, winds, animals, and more. Here is an excerpt that offers thanks for the food plants: “With one mind, we turn to honor and thank all the Food Plants we harvest from the garden. Since the beginning of time, the grains, vegetables, beans, and berries have helped the people survive. Many other living things draw strength from them, too. We gather all the Plant Foods together as one and send them a greeting of thanks.” ​ ~ Haudenosaunee Thanksgiving Address Ultimately, American Indian peoples’ connection to place is about more than simply caring for the environment. That connection has been maintained through generations of observation, in which people developed environmental knowledge and philosophies. People took actions to ensure the long-term sustainability of their communities and the environment, with which they shared a reciprocal relationship. Today, Native knowledge can be a key to understanding and solving some of

422 American Indian Perspectives on Thanksgiving

our world’s most pressing problems. In their efforts to support sustainability for all humans, environmentalists are acknowledging the benefits of some traditional indigenous ways of knowing. Ideas for the Classroom Discuss with your students the examples provided of Native peoples’ connection to the world through their traditional knowledge and understanding of the environment. ● Use the excerpt from The Thanksgiving Address and the two other quotes to discuss with students the importance of place to Native peoples. Have them talk about how a reciprocal relationship is maintained by regular expressions of gratitude and practices that show respect for the natural world. Do these philosophies relate to the students’ own lives in any way? What about the wider world?

Community: Group Identity in Culture When the English established their colony at Plymouth, they encountered a group of people who lived in a communal way. The Wampanoag defined themselves by their environment and were bound into a strong community by a shared knowledge of their forested, coastal home, their cultural practices, and their language. This same sense of community is integral to Native cultures throughout the Western Hemisphere. Native communities traditionally place a high value on social relationships. The needs of community were met through the efforts of all, and all were expected to contribute. Communities that hunted bison included all members in the task. Communities that farmed had roles for men, women, and children. The skills needed to be part of the communal effort were passed down from generation to generation through example, storytelling, ceremony, and song. Native people understood that many people working together could accomplish much more than individuals, and their cultures reflected this understanding. Because everyone was seen as a relative, everyone was responsible for everyone else. According to many Native philosophies, humans were not the only members of the community. The animals and plants were treated not as resources to be exploited, but as family members to be cared for. This relationship to nature is expressed in many of the ceremonies, songs, dances, works of art, and stories that honor and thank game animals, crops, fish, berries, and roots. These cultural practices and celebrations not only

423 American Indian Perspectives on Thanksgiving

recognize the importance of the environment, but also reinforce the distinct identity of the group, which is necessary for the group to thrive. “These foods and the plants that surround us go way beyond just simply being ​ plants. They become part of the community.” ​ ~ Angelo Joaquin, Jr. (Tohono O’odham), 2003 Animals play a role in the cultures of many other Native people. The Lakota people, three distinct groups that historically lived in what is now South Dakota, North Dakota, Wyoming, Nebraska, and Montana, believe that the Earth is to be shared with their animal relatives, especially the bison, or buffalo. Because the bison provided nearly everything the Lakota needed, they believed that the bison was connected to the creation of life. Ceremonies and daily life revolved around honoring the bison. “Many, many generations ago, our relatives, the Pte-O-ya-te [Buffalo People] came up from Wind Cave in the Black Hills, the heart of Un-ci Ma-ka [Grandmother Earth], and prepared the way for our existence. From that time forward, they gave of themselves for our survival, as long as we respected their gift. They taught us how to live in an honorable and respectful way by example and through the teachings of the White Buffalo Calf Woman. She brought the sacred canupa [pipe] to remind us of our responsibilities and also provided us with the knowledge of the sacred rites that are necessary to discipline ourselves.” ~ Chief Arvol Looking Horse (Lakota), 2008. ​ The traditional culture of the Lakota was changed by the westward expansion of the United States and the decimation of the bison. The people could no longer engage in the communal work of hunting and preparing the different parts of the animal for food and other uses. Because they have a rich ceremonial and community life that has formed over thousands of years, the Lakota have been able to continue as a unified people. Lakota stories, prayers, songs, dances, and celebrations still honor the bison. Native communities have been able to survive and even thrive despite outside influences through traditional ceremonies and gatherings such as the Green Corn Ceremony. Communal preparation and sharing of traditional foods are a part of many of these events. They bind the community together and provide opportunities to pass down traditions and knowledge, just as a

424 American Indian Perspectives on Thanksgiving

shared Thanksgiving meal does. Today, most American Indian people shop in grocery stores, but knowledge of and reverence for traditional foods still thrive and are becoming increasingly important to tribal efforts to improve diet and health, and to restore a sense of community. Ideas for the classroom Present the information in this section to your students. Discuss how the ideas about community conveyed in these examples relate to previously discussed material on Native peoples’ connection to the environment. ● Have students talk (or write) about what it means for humans and plants and animals to have a reciprocal (or shared) relationship. Include the specific example of the buffalo and their role in Native communities as providers of both physical and cultural sustenance.

Encounters: Effects on Culture Before the Wampanoags met the English colonists, they had interacted with other Native people politically, socially, culturally, and economically. They had exchanged goods and materials, as well as foods, food technologies, and techniques for hunting, gathering, and food preparation. So when the Wampanoag came into contact with the English, they already had a long history of dealing with other cultures. At the first Wampanoag/English encounter in 1620, there was probably curiosity, suspicion, and fear on both sides because of their vastly different cultures, but they learned much from each other. For the English, interaction with the Wampanoags enabled their colony’s survival. Although the English were interlopers, the Wampanoags shared their land, food, and knowledge of the environment. Early cooperation and respect between the two groups were short-lived, however, as conflicting perspectives emerged. By 1675 the relationship had degenerated into one of conflict and war. This would be the history of most relationships between Natives and non-Natives for the next two hundred years. Even so, Native American contributions continued to be essential to the survival of Europeans. If not for the generosity and knowledge of the Native peoples who met the explorers Lewis and Clark during their travels in the Northwest from 1804 to 1806, their expedition probably would have ended in disaster. Ultimately, Native encounters with Europeans resulted in the loss of entire Native communities, traditional ways of life, indigenous knowledge, and access to foods that had sustained Native people for thousands of years. War, genocide, disease, dispossession of lands, and ill-conceived federal policies profoundly affected American Indian communities and their environments. The consequences are still felt today. Overharvesting, pollution, and reduction of

425 American Indian Perspectives on Thanksgiving

wilderness habitats have also had an effect on the ability of Native people to grow, gather, or hunt their traditional foods. As they look for ways to keep their cultures alive and to address modern economic and health issues, many Native communities are taking steps to revive their traditional food practices. As in many Native communities during the past sixty years, processed foods high in sugars began to replace locally grown foods, and a more sedentary lifestyle developed when traditional forms of exercise and work became unnecessary. This change in diet and lifestyle has led to a high incidence of diabetes and other health problems. In response to the health crisis, the O’odham (Native American peoples of the Sonoran desert) are working to grow and market their traditional foods through an organization called Tohono O’odham Community Action (TOCA). TOCA is dedicated to promoting better health, perpetuating cultural traditions, and creating economic opportunity through two farms that sell traditional O’odham foods. Returning to these traditional food practices supports the O’odham community and enables them to use their environment as their ancestors did. As diabetes and other health problems affect more and more people worldwide, many could benefit from traditional O’odham and other American Indian foods and diets. Not all Native communities are as easily able to return to traditional foods because some of those foods have nearly disappeared—an outcome of encounters between different worlds. But renewal efforts abound throughout Indian Country. During the 19th century, the United States government encouraged mass hunting of bison as a tactic in the war against tribes of the Great Plains. Wholesale slaughter of the Buffalo Nation ensued, and carcasses of the animals were left to rot as hunters shot them from railroad cars for pleasure or to collect their hides for sale. It is estimated that as many as 60 million bison were killed in approximately one hundred years. By the late 1800s, they were virtually extinct. As previously discussed, bison are more than just a food source to many American Indian peoples. The Lakota considered bison to be relatives who provided all that was needed to sustain the people—physically, culturally, and spiritually. With the loss of the bison, the Lakota people lost not only a crucial source of food, but also a way of life.

426 American Indian Perspectives on Thanksgiving

In recent years, many tribes that traditionally depended on the bison have been engaged in efforts to bring back the Buffalo Nation, renew and strengthen American Indian cultures, and reclaim an important part of their traditional diet. The InterTribal Bison Cooperative (ITBC) is a nonprofit tribal organization devoted to reintroducing bison to their former ranges. In its mission statement, the ITBC states, “The destruction of buffalo herds and the associated devastation to the ​ tribes disrupted the self-sufficient lifestyle of Indian people more than all other federal policies to date. To reestablish healthy buffalo populations on tribal lands is to reestablish hope for Indian people. Members of the InterTribal Bison Cooperative understand that reintroduction of the buffalo to tribal lands will help heal the spirit of both the Indian people and the buffalo.” ​ Native communities are working to renew and revitalize their original food resources by maintaining a connection with their traditional ways. For example, Indian peoples on the east and west coasts run fish hatcheries with the goal of supporting the fish populations with which they have a traditional relationship. All of these examples show how American Indian people work to combat the negative long-term results of encounters with Western philosophies. The effects of these encounters have lasted for centuries. Some encounters were positive and some were negative, but it is important to realize that all went in both directions: elements of American Indian cultures have influenced mainstream society as well, and are an enduring part of American identity. Ideas for the classroom Present the information to students and discuss some of the ways Native people have responded to encounters with European based cultures. ● Since we don’t often focus on how interactions between American Indians and outsiders affected the food sources of Native people, have students examine in more depth the traditional foods of Native peoples in the area where they live. Have the resources been affected by humans? How? What, if anything, is being done to promote the renewal of those foods? How could this be helpful to all people today?

Sharing New Perspectives Year-Round The English colonists could not have imagined how important their first encounter with Native people would be. The Wampanoags—with their intimate understanding of the environment and the high value they placed on social relationships—provided the colonists with the knowledge and skills they needed to survive, enabling them to produce the harvest that they celebrated with that first Thanksgiving feast. Certainly the Plymouth colonists were not the only Europeans or newcomers to

427 American Indian Perspectives on Thanksgiving

rely on the guidance and knowledge of American Indian peoples, whose innovative approaches to coexisting with the land still contribute to the daily lives of all people. Native philosophies have long taken into account the effects of human activities on the natural environment and the dependence of sustainability on human effort. The entire environmental movement is based upon that same philosophy. In looking at the first Thanksgiving feast from the point of view of its Native participants, it is possible to understand how integral the concept of giving thanks is to Native worldviews. This informational guide reveals new perspectives on Thanksgiving in two ways. First, it describes a strong reciprocal relationship among the human, plant, and animal communities. Second, it shows that the relationship was disrupted by encounters between American Indian tribes and the Western world. Native people have, however, found innovative approaches to the world around them, and they continue to adapt and change.

Influences of corn, an early innovation of Native Peoples: ● More corn is produced each year (by weight) worldwide than any other grain ● Corn is grown on every continent except Antarctica ● U.S. farmers planted 88 million acres of corn in 2018 ● The value of the 2017 U.S. corn crop was $47.5 billion ● More than 4,000 products contain corn - from cooking oils, crayons and baby powder, to ethanol, glues, and building materials

The contributions and innovations of Native Americans go far beyond food and agriculture, but this poster has focused on food because of its importance to the Thanksgiving holiday. Today, foods developed by American indigenous cultures—from potatoes to tomatoes to chili to chocolate—are fundamental to most of the world’s cuisines. Corn is a good example of a Native innovation that has become a worldwide staple. It was first cultivated by Native South American and Mesoamerican farmers about 7,500 years ago. They gradually transformed a wild grass into the versatile food we now know. Through scientific methods of cross-pollination they developed numerous varieties that could survive in a wide range of climates and growing conditions. Many of these types of corn—including popcorn—are still grown today. America’s first people understood that even plants can work better together than apart. Haudenosaunee and other Native peoples introduced Europeans to techniques of companion planting—growing plants that complement each other in the same plot of ground. Corn, beans, and squash are especially suited to the companion planting technique. Beans climb the tall, strong corn

428 American Indian Perspectives on Thanksgiving

stalks and replenish the soil with nitrogen. The corn’s leaves protect the beans from the sun. Squash planted between the corn plants holds moisture in the soil and discourages weed growth and insect infestations. Known by the Haudenosaunee as the Three Sisters, corn, beans, and squash form an important part of many Native peoples’ traditional diets. Non-Native farmers also learned from their interactions with American Indians how to clear their land for crops with controlled burning. They learned about crop rotation from Native farmers who understood that land could be depleted by planting it with the same crops year after year, a concept that was foreign to Europeans. Native people also developed certain methods of storing and preserving food. For example, by the 1500s indigenous Andean people of western South America had developed a method of freeze-drying the potatoes they grew. Sharing agricultural knowledge was one aspect of early American Indian efforts to live side by side with Europeans. As relationships with the newcomers grew into competitions for land and resources, the groups were not always successful in their efforts to coexist. So, the first Thanksgiving was just the beginning of a long history of interactions between American Indians and immigrants. It was not a single event that can easily be recreated. The meal that is ingrained in the American consciousness represents much more than a simple harvest celebration. It was a turning point in history. Ideas for the classroom To summarize everything that students have learned from what you presented to them, have a conversation about how their perceptions or understanding of American Indians and Thanksgiving have changed. What new things have they learned about American Indian relationships with the environment, communities, and encounters with outsiders? What have they learned about the agricultural contributions and innovations of Native peoples? How does the information about Native agricultural innovations give them new perspectives on Thanksgiving?

Final Thoughts This informational guide incorporates some fundamental concepts about Native cultures, which have too often been obscured by stereotypes and misconceptions. We have found it helpful to keep the following ideas at the forefront of any discussion of Native topics.

429 American Indian Perspectives on Thanksgiving

1. American Indians are still here, living modern lives. Even as contemporary people, many American Indians still retain strong connections to their specific traditions. 2. American Indian cultures and languages are intimately tied to the land. 3. Worldviews and perspectives of American Indians may be very different from those of non-Indian students. American Indians’ traditional worldviews are often grounded in a recognition of the interrelationship among humans, animals, plants, water, winds, sky, and earth. 4. Indigenous peoples of the Western Hemisphere are diverse in their languages, cultures, values, and beliefs. There is no such thing as one, single Native American culture. 5. American Indian cultures have always been dynamic— adapting and changing. 6. Many traditional Native values and practices are relevant to issues of worldwide importance today, such as care of the earth.

Ute scout party, mounted on horseback, as they cross the Los Pinos River, La Plata County, CO, 1899

Sources: The National Museum of the American Indian (NMAI). Excerpted from American Indian Perspectives on ​ Thanksgiving. Used with permission from NMAI. Retrieved ​ http://nmai.si.edu/sites/1/files/pdf/education/thanksgiving_poster.pdf The National Museum of the American Indian (NMAI). Thanksgiving Address - Harvest Ceremony - ​ Beyond the Thanksgiving Myth. Retrieved ​ https://nmai.si.edu/sites/1/files/pdf/education/NMAI_Harvest_Study_Guide.pdf

430 Culturally Responsive Teaching Matters!

What is Culturally Responsive Teaching?

In 2000, Professor Geneva Gay wrote that culturally responsive teaching connects students’ cultural knowledge, prior experiences, and performance styles to academic knowledge and intellectual tools in ways that legitimize what students already know. By embracing the sociocultural realities and histories of students through what is taught and how, culturally responsive teachers negotiate classrooms cultures with their students that reflect the communities where students develop and grow. This is no small matter because it requires that teachers transcend their own cultural biases and preferences to establish and develop patterns for learning and communicating that engage and sustain student participation and achievement. Part of the tradition of teaching is that teachers have the role of shepherding the next generation through a set of passages so that they can attain adulthood with a full complement of the knowledge, skills, and dispositions necessary to be contributing citizens. When the cultural heritages and assumptions about what is valued, expected, and taught compete with other compelling realities, teachers take on a facilitator role while they relinquish their status as knowledge brokers. Becoming culturally responsive means that teachers as well as students have to negotiate new standards and norms that acknowledge the differences and the similarities among and between individuals and groups. Teachers play a critical role in mediating the social and academic curriculum. While acknowledging what students already know, they connect it to frameworks and models for thinking and organizing knowledge that are embedded within disciplines such as literacy, mathematics, social studies, and the sciences. Culturally responsive teachers realize that mastering academic knowledge involves understanding that content maps can provide multiple avenues to understand and access information. History offers a particular example. U.S. students might study the expansion of the American West through the eyes of the pioneers and the politicians who supported the westward expansion. Yet, that same time frame could be studied through the perspectives of indigenous peoples who experienced a cataclysmic end to their ways of living that forced them off the lands that had belonged to their ancestors for centuries. Considering how to approach curriculum and incorporating multiple paradigms in the ways that curriculum are presented and experienced is an important part of culturally responsive teaching. Equally important is the way that instruction is facilitated. When classrooms are organized into communities that are designed to encourage academic and cultural excellence, students learn to facilitate their own learning as well as that of their fellow students. This kind of classroom requires careful planning and explicit teaching around social interactions so that students learn to assume leadership for learning, feel comfortable exploring differences of opinion, and accept that they may need help from their classmates in

431 Culturally Responsive Teaching Matters!

order to be successful. Along the way, students learn to see the classroom and their interactions from more than one perspective so that they can identify potential difficulties that come from assumptions of privilege, the distribution of power (who gets to make the rules), and the assessment of performance and competence.

Source: Kozleski, E. (2010, March). Culturally Responsive Teaching Matters! Retrieved from Equity Alliance at ​ ​ ASU website: http://ea.niusileadscape.org/lc/Record/67?search_query=Culturally%20responsive%20teaching%20matte rs. ​ Used with permission from the Equity Alliance http://www.equityallianceatasu.org/ ​ ​

432 Center for Research on Education, Diversity and Excellence (CREDE) Hawai’i Project The Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence (CREDE) Hawai‘i Project promotes educators’ use of research-based strategies of effective practice for culturally and linguistically diverse students. The original ​ ​ research on CREDE began in the State of Hawai‘i in the 1970s as the Kamehameha Early Education Program (KEEP). This research was adapted to other indigenous educational settings including Native American schools and later adapted for over 31 sites throughout the world. From this research, several principles emerged as consistent throughout the various cultures and were equally emphasized in educational literature as best practices for culturally and linguistically diverse children. These practices are derived from Vygotsky’s theory and over 40-years of research from the CREDE, now at University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa. ​ ​ These practices were recognized by the national What Works Clearinghouse and developed into the CREDE Standards for Effective Pedagogy. The standards do not endorse a specific curriculum but, rather, establish ideals for best teaching practices that can be used in any classroom environment for any grade level or group of students. Roland Tharp moved the national CREDE website and project from Berkeley to University of Hawai’i Manoa, so now there is little distinction between CREDE Hawai‘i and CREDE national. It is simpler to talk about CREDE as one project. The standards for Effective Pedagogy are: Joint Productive Activity (JPA) The teacher and children collaborating together on a joint product. · Collaboration between the teacher and a small group of children · Creation of a tangible or intangible product · Providing responsive assistance towards the creation of a product · Assisting children to collaborate with peers Language and Literacy Development (LLD) Developing children’s competence in the language and literacy of instruction in all content areas of the curriculum. · Providing opportunities for children’s language use and literacy development · Modeling the appropriate language for the academic content · Designing activities with a focus on language and literacy development · Assisting with language expression/literacy development and encouraging children discussion on the academic topic Contextualization (CTX) ​ Connecting the school curriculum to children’s prior knowledge and experiences from their home and community. · Integrating new academic knowledge with children’s home, school, and community knowledge · Assisting children in making connections between school and their personal experiences · Helping children to reach a deeper understanding of the academic material through the deeper personal connection

433 Center for Research on Education, Diversity and Excellence (CREDE) Hawai’i Project Complex Thinking (CT) Challenging children’s thinking toward cognitive complexity. · Designing activities that require complex thinking · Providing responsive assistance as children engage in complex thinking · Increasing children’s knowledge and use of complex thinking strategies · Focusing on concept development in order to uncover the why of the activity ​ ​ Instructional Conversation (IC) Teaching children through dialog. The two main features of an IC are identified in the name: Instructional & Conversational. · Working with a small group of children · Having a clear academic goal · Eliciting children talk with questioning, listening, rephrasing, or modeling · Assessing and assisting children in reaching the academic goal · Questioning children on their views, judgments, and rationales in reaching the academic goal Modeling (MD) Promoting children’s learning through observation. · Modeling behaviors, thinking processes, or procedures · Providing examples of a finished product for inspiration · Assisting children as they practice Child Directed Activity (CDA) Encouraging children’s decision-making and self-regulated learning. · Providing choice in classroom activities · Being responsive to activities generated by the children · Assisting children in generating, developing, or expanding on their ideas or creations within an activity.

Sources: Tharp, R. G. Tharp, R. G., Estrada, P., Dalton, S., & Yamauchi, L. A. (2000). Teaching transformed: Achieving excellence, ​ ​ fairness, inclusion, and harmony. Boulder, CO: Westview. ​ Yamauchi, L. A., Im, S., & Schonleber, N. (2012). Adapting strategies of effective instruction for culturally diverse ​ ​ preschoolers. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 33, 54—72. ​

434 Ute History Timeline

When Europeans first saw The Ute People present-day Colorado, most and the The seven Ute of it had been Ute territory New Mexico is Comanche bands hold well for centuries. In Spanish settled by the raid New defined territory. journals, the people were Spanish. Early Mexican In 1670, the called “Yutas” - the forever trade is established settlements Spanish and the armed ago people. However, the between the Ute Ute People enter with guns Utes call themselves “Nuu- People in NM and into the first peace from French ciu” meaning “the people” the Spanish agreement traders 1500s 1580 1598 1637 1670 1700 1730-1750

The Mouache Utes The first recorded Starting in the acquire horses from conflict occurs 1700’s, relations the Spanish. The between the Spanish between the Ute Ute People are the and the Ute People. People and the first American Eighty Ute People are Spanish continually 435 Indians introduced captured and taken to change from peace to the horse Santa Fe, NM to conflict Ute History Timeline

Several Spanish law Spanish and prohibits Spaniards Mexican Spanish-Ute and Christianized trading relations progress Indians from expeditions to allow Spanish trading with the Ute The first U.S. citizen to enter Ute lands trading in Ute People. The law did come in contact with the in the region territory as far not work as Spanish Ute People may have been that later north as the traders continue to James Purcell, a fur trapper becomes Gunnison River visit and trade from Kentucky Colorado 1760s 1776 1778 1789 1805 1806 1806-1826

European Fighting to resist The first documented explorers Spanish expansion Anglo-American enters Dominguez and continues until a into Ute territory when Escalante explore peace treaty is Gen. Wilkinson orders Ute territory reached between Lt. Zebulon Pike to 436 the Spanish and Ute explore areas west and People south of the Louisiana Purchase Ute History Timeline

Settlements by former Feb. 2, 1848 - The Treaty Mexican citizens are The Old Spanish of Guadalupe-Hidalgo Trail opens from established in the San ends the Mexican- Luis Valley. Livestock Santa Fe to San Chief Ouray of the American War and Gabriel, CA, partly activities and farming Tabeguache band is expands U.S. territory to begins to disrupt the through Ute born near Taos, NM include Ute land territory Ute People’s way of life 1829 1833 1843 1848 1849 1851 - 1853

Bent’s Old Fort American explorer, Dec. 30, 1849 - The owned by Charles mapmaker and military Abiquiu Treaty: 28 chiefs Bent, William Bent officer, Lt. John C. from various Ute bands and Ceran St. Vrain Freemont, travels sign the first officially is established along through Ute lands in recognized peace treaty 437 the Santa Fe Trail Utah, leading the first between the Ute People for trading scientific exploration and the United States at of the area Abiquiu, NM. Ute History Timeline

Oct. 7, 1863 - The U.S. government Jan. 5, 1859 - With the February 28, 1861 - The the Tabegauche establishes Fort discovery of gold near Colorado Territory is Treaty is Massachusetts near Mount present-day Denver, the established signed at the Blanca (San Luis Valley) to trickle of pioneers becomes Ute agency in protect and control the Ute a flood. Within two years, Oct. 3, 1861 - The Conejos, CO, People. Six years later the as many as 30,000 have Uintah Valley Reservation giving up claim post is moved 6 miles and overrun much of the Ute is established by President to one-quarter becomes Fort Garland People’s homeland Lincoln in UT of Ute lands

1852 1853 1859 1859 1861 1862 1863 May 20, 1862 - The American frontiersman, Kit Carson, Beginning in 1859, for the next 20 years, the Homestead Act is signed is appointed as the Indian agent to opening up the western the Ute People. Carson reports war population of the Ute People falls from 8,000 to United States, allowing between Ute People and other any American to put in a Indians along the Arkansas River 2,000 due to disease and decreased hunting claim for up to 160 acres 438 caused by the scarcity of game. This of federal land for free conflict results in the U.S. grounds government distribution of food rations to the Mouache Ute and the Capote Ute in Northern NM Ute History Timeline

The 1868 Treaty with the Ute American People creates a journalist and reservation homesteader, consisting of Jan. 17, 1871 - Denver’s A treaty with the Nathan Meeker, approximately Indian Agency is Capote, Mouache, and named Indian the western one- established and Weeminuche Ute bands Agent at the third of CO. maintained for Ute People August 1, 1876 establish the Southern White River Ute Ouray is selected who continue to hunt - Colorado Ute and Ute Mountain Indian as the chief and buffalo on the plains becomes a state Ute Indian Reservations Reservation diplomat 1868 1871 1874 1876 1878 1878 1878

April 24, 1874 - President Grant The first Fort Lewis is signs the Brunot Agreement and established along the thousands of acres of Ute lands San Juan River near are taken by the U.S. government. The government grants hunting Pagosa Springs to rights to the Ute People as long as protect and control 439 they are at peace with the white the Southern Utes people Ute History Timeline

Nathan Meeker’s attempt to As a result of the change the lifestyle of the Sept. 29, 1879 - Before Meeker Incident, Chief Ouray Ute People fails. Meeker’s cavalry troops can arrive officials force travels to destruction of the Ute from Fort Steele, the Ute Colorado’s Ute People Washington D.C. People’s valued racetrack People attack the White River to sign an agreement for treaty and the killing of their Agency and kill Nathan which removes the negotiations. horses is the final injustice Meeker. Colorado newspapers Tabeguache Utes to that spurred an attack on label the incident the “Meeker Utah and results in the Aug. 24, 1880 - troops Massacre” loss of more acres of Chief Ouray dies

1879 1879 1879 1879 Ute1880 land 1880 1881

Sept. 29 - Oct. 5, 1879 - The Battle at Coloradans react to the Jan. 21, 1881 - Milk Creek. En route to the White violence at Milk Creek. Fort Lewis is River Agency, with approximately 200 Reports of the Milk Creek moved to the cavalry troops, Major Thornburgh Battle, calling for “The site near enters the Ute Reservation. Thirteen Utes Must Go!” Hesperus, CO, 440 cavalry and at least 19 Utes are killed on the Southern in the battle The Meeker incident Ute Indian results in cries from the Reservation public for the removal of all Ute People from CO Ute History Timeline

The Grand Junction Indian School, later named the The towns of Grand Teller Institute after U.S. Fort Lewis is The Denver and Junction, Montrose, and Senator Henry Teller of deactivated Rio Grande Delta are all founded; Colorado, opens as a military Railroad passes shortly after, the Ute 1886 - The Ignacio Indian post and through Southern People are forced to School opened but closed in becomes an Ute lands leave these areas 1890 Indian school

1881 1881 1882 1885 1886 1887 1891

During the first 50 years June 19, 1885 - The Beaver Feb. 8, 1887 - of reservation life, Creek Massacre. White Congress passes the Colorado’s Ute cattlemen kill 6 Ute Dawes Act, also known population falls from Mountain Utes at a camp on as the General 1,330 to 780 Beaver Creek, about 16 Allotment Act, dividing 441 miles north of Dolores. The tribal lands into White River Utes are massacre leads to new individual plots removed to the Uintah & restrictions on the Ouray Reservation in movement of the Ute People Utah

Ute History Timeline

Aug. 15, 1894 - Congress President Teddy is presented with the Ute The Indian Boarding Roosevelt 371 Mouache and Capote Allotment Act which School in Ignacio is designates 1.1 adults and minors receive restores and opens entry re-opened and million acres to allotments of land totaling to unallotted lands on the named the Southern create the Uinta 73,000 acres Tabeguache Reservation Ute Boarding School National Forest

1894 1895 1896 1898 1902 1905 1906

Chief Ignacio, leader Uintah & Ouray reservation March 4, 1905 - Buckskin of the Weeminuche land is allotted to non-Ute Charley and Antonio Buck band, leads a protest persons (son) travel to Washington, against the U.S. DC, to meet with President government’s land Roosevelt. Buckskin Charley 442 allotment policy and five other American Indian leaders participate in Theodore Roosevelt’s Inaugural Parade

Ute History Timeline

The Ute Mountain Ute June 29, 1906 - Mesa Mesa Verde land exchange Verde National Park is occurs. More than 52,000 White Mesa Ute established by President acres of land is added to Community Roosevelt. The park is the park in exchange for enrolled as part later designated as a acreage on the Ute Consolidated Ute of the Ute World Heritage Site in Mountain Ute Indian Indian Reservation Mountain Ute 1978 Reservation is established Indian Tribe

1906 1906 1911 1913 1918 1924 1925

The Day School Dec. 9, 1913 - June 24, 1924 - The opened at the Chief Ignacio dies Indian Citizenship Act Navajo Springs also known as the Agency, the first Snyder Act, grants full location of the Ute U.S. citizenship to 443 Mountain Indian American Indians Agency

Ute History Timeline

The The distribution of food Under the Indian Restoration rations from the federal May 8, 1936 - Reorganization Act, Act returns government to the Ute Buckskin Charley dies the Uintah and Ouray 30,000 acres People which had at the age of 96. He is Ute Tribal Business to the Ute occurred since the mid- succeeded by his son, Committee is Mountain Ute 1890s is stopped Antonio Buck established Indian Tribe 1931 1934 1936 1936 1937 1937 1938

June 18, 1934 - Passage of Nov. 4, 1936 - The Petitions from the Tribal the Indian Reorganization Southern Ute Indian Tribal Council to Washington Act by Congress, commonly Council, a governing body, D.C, leads the return of called the Wheeler-Howard is established in accordance 222,016 acres to the Act, decreases federal control with the Indian Southern Ute People 444 of American Indian affairs Reorganization Act of 1934 and increases self government and management of land Ute History Timeline

Confederated Ute Tribes, consisting of the Ute Indian Tribe, Ute Mountain Ute Indian Antonio Buck, Tribe, and Southern Ute Sr., the last The Ute Mountain Indian Tribe are hereditary Ute Indian Tribe awarded $31,761,206 chief of the adopts a tribal A settlement with the for lands taken illegally Southern Ute constitution and is U.S. government is by the U.S. government Indian Tribe, federally recognized made for Ute lands dies 1940 1946 1950 1950 1953 1956 1961

Southern Ute Tribal Returning WWII veterans Ute Indian member and rancher assist in utilizing land Museum opens Raymond D. Farmer claim monies to establish in Montrose, CO provides land to build an economic plan for the the La Plata County social welfare of the 445 Municipal airport Southern Ute tribal membership Ute History Timeline

April 11, 1968 - Chief Jack House dies. Tribal Council Indian Civil Rights Act, He is the last declares education as also called the Indian traditional chief of a top priority of the Bill of Rights, is passed the Ute Mountain Ute Southern Ute Indian by President Johnson Indian Tribe Tribe

1968 1970 1971 1977 1984 1988

Chimney Rock (located Buckskin Charley stained The Ute Water Settlement within the Southern glass window is dedicated in Act solidifies the Ute Ute reservation) is Denver. The stained glass Water Rights settlement declared an depiction of Chief Buckskin and creates the McPhee archaeological area and Charley is displayed in the Reservoir which is 446 National Historic Site Capitol building along with Colorado's 2nd largest other notable figures in reservoir Colorado history Ute History Timeline

Nov. 16, 1990 - Native American Graves Protection In 1988, after 100 and Repatriation Act years with no water, (NAGPRA) creates an drinking water is piped inventory of human remains to the Ute Mountain and artifacts so that remains Southern Ute Alternative Energy is Ute Tribal reservation and artifacts can returned to established to manage alternative in Towaoc, CO the Ute people and renewable energy investments 1988 1990 1990 1993 2008 2009

Oct. 30, 1990 - Native Southern Ute Indian Tribe The First Annual Tri-Ute American Language Act - and Ute Mountain Ute Games is hosted by the Congress passed a policy to Indian Tribe sign gaming Southern Ute Indian Tribe “preserve, protect, and agreements with the State of Memorandum of promote the rights and Colorado to open casinos on

447 understanding (MOU) of freedom of American tribal reservations the 1874 Brunot Agreement Indians to use, practice and approves hunting and develop their languages” fishing in the off- reservation Brunot area Ute History Timeline

President Barack Obama declares Chimney Rock, the site of ancient Animas La-Plata Water Pueblo ruins, as a National Monument. Project is completed and Lake Nighthorse is The National Christmas Tree is established in Durango, harvested from the White River Dec. 28, 2016 - Bears CO which was the final National Forest. Elders from all three Ute Tribes travel to the Nation’s Ears National Monument step in the Ute Water in Utah is designated by Rights Settlement capital to witness first-hand Christmas tree dedication President Obama

2009 2011 2012 2013 2016 2017

New Southern Ute Ute Mountain Ute Indian Members of the three Cultural Center and Tribe approves hunting and Ute tribes celebrate the Museum opens fishing in the off-reservation expansion of the Ute Brunot Agreement area in Indian Museum in the San Juan Mountains to Montrose, CO 448 include rare game species Southern Ute Indian Tribe Official Seal and Flag

Tribal flag designed by Ben Watts and Stanley Reed Frost. Interpretation provided by Russell Box, Sr. Mountains and Forest represents the mountains north and on the reservation which are our ancestral and ​ present homeland. River represents the Piedra, Animas, La Plata, Pine, San Juan, Florida, and the Navajo rivers that cross our ​ reservation. Bear/Elk represents the big game that live on our reservations. ​ Sun represents the spirit that watches over our people. ​ Tractor, Cattle, Gas Well, Sheep represents the ranching, farming and industry that our tribal members and the ​ tribe are involved with to make a living. Indian Head represents the tribe as a person, a very “Colorful Man” with the colors of red, yellow, black and ​ white representing all of the colors of nature. It contains the colors of the rainbow. Peace Pipe represents us as a peaceful people. We try to live in peace with our neighbors and all persons we ​ work live and come in contact with during our day to day business. Two Feathers On Pipe represents our belief in a Great Spirit and the Tribal “Healing Power” as people. ​ Leaf/Branch represents our belief in peace. Lies along side of pipe. Represents the green of the earth and the ​ red willow which is used in the Sundance and sweat ceremonies. Colorado State Flag represents the State of Colorado our historical homeland. ​ Circle, the red and white border of the Tribal Seal represents the “Circle of Life”. Everything within this circle ​ represents our life.

449 Some Notable Leaders of the Capote and Mouache Ute Bands Southern Ute Indian Tribe

Leader Year Band Burrigon c1752 Chaguaguas Chiquito c1752 Mouache Chief Buckskin Charlie, ~ 1880-1900 Don Thomas c1752 Capote Cuerno Verde c1779 Comanche Pinto c1786 Mouache Moara c1786 Mouache Dientecito c1809 Mouache Ancha c1809 Mouache Cuerna c1809 Mouache Source: Image courtesy of the Denver Public Library. Coyote c1809 Mouache El Albo c1809 Mouache Chief Severo, 1894 Delgadito c1809 Mouache Mano Mocha c1809 Mouache (Major Chief) Lechat c1822 Ute (Mouache?) Montoya c1847 Capote/Mexican Coneache c1850 Mouache Aohkasach c1850 Capote Quiziachigiate c1850 Capote

Amparia c1850 Capote Source: Image courtesy of the Denver Public Library. Cuniache c1852 Mouache

450 Some Notable Leaders of the Capote and Mouache Ute Bands Southern Ute Indian Tribe

Leader Year Band Tamuche c1852 Capote Chairman Antonio Buck, Sr. Tachoaca c1853 Mouache Cany Attle (Coniachi?) c1856 Mouache Sobata (Sobotar) c1870 Capote Kaneache c1881 Mouache Severo c1870s Capote Buckskin Charlie c1880-1930 Mouache Piah c1888 Tabeguache, Mouache Source: Used with permission from the Southern Ute Indian Tribe. Antonio Buck, Sr. c1930 Southern Ute Julius N. Cloud c1940 Southern Ute Chairman Leonard C. Burch Samuel Burch c1950s Mouache John Baker, Sr. 1950s Southern Ute Leonard Burch 1960-2000s Southern Ute

Source: Used with permission from the Southern Ute Indian Tribe.

451 Southern Ute Indian Tribe of Uintah and Ouray Reservation Official Seal and Flag

Tribal flag designed by Ferdanan Manning, Jr. 1980; it was formally adopted by Tribal Council resolution. Northern Ute graphic artist Robert Colorow updated in 1991

On a white background, the flag features a centered seal enclosed by a red band with thin black partitions or rays. ​ ​ A dark brown eagle with gold-brown highlights on its outstretched wings dominates the seal. The powerful eagle is ​ the messenger of the Creator in Ute mythology, protective enclosing within its wingspan the Northern Utes. The three main Ute bands are represented by upper bodies of three figures silhouetted in white against the chest of the ​ ​ ​ ​ eagle. The center figure wears a neckerchief, faintly outlined in black; the others wear a feather on the back of the head. The eagle’s wings span a blue sky and a yellow sun, edged in black, shining over the Ute lands below, just as Sinawaf, ​ ​ the Creator, placed the Ute high in the mountains to be closer to him. The yellow legs of the eagle-tipped by black talons with white accents-grasp a peace pipe with red bowl and stem and ​ ​ an amber midsection with spice brown oval end-sections. Above the peace pipe is a typical Ute decorative design: two black triangles with a black-edged yellow border enclose a ​ blue middle portion. From a black arc that connects the end-sections hang twelve feathers, symbolizing the twelve original Ute bands. ​ ​ At the top, the feathers are separated by a five-sided design composed of an upper rectangular orange section and an ​ ​ irregular yellow pentagonal lower section. A dark brown elk-skin tepee, just inside the eagle’s wing on the left, has black framework pole, dark brown ventilation ​ and entrance flaps. Dominating the white background on either side of the central silhouettes stand two mountain peaks outlined in ​ brown, symbolizing the “Peak to Peak to Peak” definition of the original Uintah Valley reservation boundaries. ​

452 Some Notable Leaders of the Uintah and Ouray Ute Indian Tribe of the Uintah and Ouray Reservation

Leader Year Band Wakara c1820s-1860s Tumpanawach Sowiette (Saweset) c1820s-1860s Tumpanawach Chuwoopah c1850 Paiute Wahka c1850 Timpanogo Insagrapouyah c1850 Sevarit Arapeen c1850s-1860s San Pitch Black Hawk (Autenquer) c1850s Tumpanawach Peteetneet c1850s Tumpanawach Tintic c1850s-1870 Tumpanawach John Duncan c1857-1900s Uintah Amoosh c1860s Cumumba Tetich c1860s Cumumoo To-tads (Little Soldier) c1860s Cumumoo Kanosh c1860s Pah Vant Mosquohop c1860s Pah Vant San pitch c1860s San Pitch Tabby-to-kwanah (Tabby) c1860s Uintah Nevava c1868 Uintah Red Ant c1870s San Pitch Captain Joe c1870s San Pitch Antero c1870s Uintah

453 Some Notable Leaders of the White River & Tabeguache Ute Bands Ute Indian Tribe of the Uintah and Ouray Reservation

Leader Year Band Augkapowerbran c1850 Tabeguache Chief Shavano c1860 Tabeguache Correcante c1860s Tabeguache Ouray c1860s-1880s Tabeguache Piah c1870 Tabeguache and Mouache Captain Jack (Nicaagat) c1870-1880s White River Johnson x c1870s White River Douglas (Quinkent) c1870s-1885 White River Wass (Wash) c1870s-1880s Tabeguache Colorow c1870s-1880s White River McCook c1870s-1990 Tabeguache Sapavanaro c1880s Tabeguache Captain Jack c1885 White River Red Cap c1895-1905 White River

454 Ute Mountain Ute Indian Tribe Official Seal and Flag

The tribal seal was designed in 1965 by the late Henry Joe Jacket Sr. (Gray Bird-Sige Wuchich). The tribal seal flag was adopted by a tribal council resolution in 1975.

The Chief represents the Ute Mountain Ute known as Weenuche Chief. ​ The mountain represents the Sleeping Ute Mountain. ​ The buffalo, horses, sheep, and cattle represent the livestock that grazed the lands. ​ The golden eagle represents the Sundance. ​ The tipis represent the homes of the Ute people. ​ The Four Corners represent the four states where they meet. The Ute Mountain Ute Indian Reservation is ​ located in Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah.

455 Some Notable Leaders of the Weenuche Ute Band Ute Mountain Ute Indian Tribe

Leader Year Band Tobatas c1869 Paiute or Weenuche Chiwaten c1869 Paiute or Weenuche Ignacio c1869-1900 Weenuche Piwood c1869 Paiute or Weenuche Sewormicha c1869 Paiute or Weenuche Cabegon c1869 Paiute or Weenuche Peersichopa (headmen) c1869 Paiute or Weenuche Cabeza Blanca c1870s Weenuche Mariano c1900 Weenuche John Miller c1910s Weenuche Jack House c1930s-1970s Weenuche

Chief Ignacio, 1904

Source: Library of Congress. Retrieved http://loc.gov/pictures/resource/cph.3c12572/ ​ ​

456 Print, Video, and Web Resources

Print Books Becker, C.S. & Smith, P.D. (2003). Chipeta: Queen of the Utes. Ouray, CO,: Western Reflections, Inc. ​ ​ Conetah, F. A. (1982). A History of the Northern Ute People. Published by the Uintah-Ouray Ute Tribe; Salt Lake City, UT.: ​ ​ ​ ​ University of Utah Printing Service.

Decker, P.R. (2004). “The Utes Must Go!” American Expansion and the Removal of a People. Golden, CO., Fulcrum Publishing. ​ ​ Delaney, R.W. (1989). The Ute Mountain Utes. Albuquerque, NM.: University of New Mexico Press. ​ ​ Erdoes, R. & Ortiz, A. (eds.) (1985). American Indian Myths and Legends. New York: Pantheon Books. ​ ​ Friggens, M. (2012). Tales, Trails, and Tommyknockers: Stories from Colorado’s Past. Boulder, CO.: Johnson Publishing. ​ ​ Marsh, C.S. (1982). People of the Shining Mountains. Boulder, CO.: Pruett Publishing Company. ​ ​ Osburn, K.M.B. (1998). Southern Ute Women: Autonomy and Assimilation on the Reservation, 1887-1934. Lincoln, NE.: ​ ​ University of Nebraska Press.

Peterson, E.Z. (1957). The Spell of the Tabequache. Denver, CO.: Sage Publishing. ​ ​ Pettit, J. (1990). Utes: The Mountain People. Boulder, CO.: Johnson Printing Company. ​ ​ Rockwell, W. (1998). The Utes: A Forgotten People. Ouray, CO,: Western Reflections, Inc. ​ ​ Simmons, V.M. (2000). The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico. Boulder, CO.: University of Colorado Press. ​ ​ Smith, A.M. & Hayes, A. (eds.). (1992). Ute Tales. Salt Lake City, UT.: University of Utah Press. ​ ​ Smith, P.D. (1990). Ouray: Chief of the Utes. The Fascinating Story of Colorado’s Most Famous and Controversial Indian Chief. ​ Ridgeway, CO.: Wayfinder Press.

Trimble, S. (1993). The People: Indians of the American Southwest. Santa Fe, NM.: SAR Press. ​ ​ Waldman, C. (2009). Atlas of the North American Indian. New York: Facts on File. ​ ​ Wroth, W. (ed.). (2000). Ute Indian Arts and Culture: From Prehistory to the New Millennium. Colorado Springs, CO.: Colorado ​ ​ Springs Fine Arts Center.

Young, R.K. (1997). The Ute Indians of Colorado in the Twentieth Century. Norman, OK.: University of Oklahoma Press. ​ ​

457 Print, Video, and Web Resources

Museums History Colorado http://www.historycolorado.org/ ​ Ute Indian Museum, Montrose, CO. http://www.historycolorado.org/museums/ute-indian-museum-0 ​ Colorado Springs Pioneer Museum, Colorado Springs, CO. http://www.cspm.org/ ​ Websites The Southern Ute Tribe: https://www.southernute-nsn.gov/ This is the official site of the Southern Ute. ​ ​ The Ute Mountain Ute http://www.utemountainutetribe.com/index.html This is the official site of the Ute Mountain Ute. ​ ​ Colorado Encyclopedia: Ute History and the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/ute-history-and-ute-mountain-ute-tribe

Colorado Encyclopedia: Chief Buckskin Charley, Chief Ouray & Chipeta, Chief Ignacio ​ ​ ​ ​ Crow Canyon Archaeological Center: http://www.crowcanyon.org/educationproducts/peoples_mesa_verde/historic_ute.asp ​ Provides a brief historical overview of the Ute Tribes.

Denver Public Library Digital Photograph Collections http://digital.denverlibrary.org/cdm/photographs/ Keyword searches of ​ ​ “Ute” and “Ute Indian” will pull up 700-1300 historic and contemporary photographs

History Colorado – Tribal Paths http://exhibits.historycolorado.org/utes/utes_home.html An online exhibit ​ ​ Native Languages of the Americas: Ute Legends, Myths & Stories: http://www.native-languages.org/ute-legends.htm This site ​ ​ has basic overviews, legends, and links to other information on the Ute.

Utah Ute Indians: https://utahindians.org/archives/ute/earlyPeoples.html Although a Utah site, it contains some basic Ute ​ ​ Background. Videos How the West Was Lost: The Utes Must Go! - Discovery Channel Series (50 min) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=it34k9EJZfE

“Spirit of the Nuche” - A Ute History documentary https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wPaeDxp5Ti8 (54 min) ​ ​ The Original Coloradans - The Colorado Experience: Rocky Mountain PBS (26 min) http://www.rmpbs.org/coloradoexperience/early-colorado/original-coloradans/

Ute Indian Prayer Trees - Fox Run Regional Park, Colorado Springs https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3LkYQbcnlkE (16 min) ​ ​ We Shall Remain – PBS (KUED) University of Utah (90 min) http://video.kued.org/video/2365179720/ ​

458 Nuu-ciu Strong A Colorado Fourth Grade Resource Guide Lessons on the Ute People

A young dancer performs at the Ute Indian Museum in 2006.

Source: Used with permission from History Colorado.