Food technology in the English secondary curriculum: its potential contribution to teaching and learning in technology, innovation, design and engineering (TIDE).

M arion Rutland, Roehampton University, England. E-mail: M .Rutland@ roehampton.ac.uk

Abstract The paper explores the elements of technology, innovation, design and engineering (TIDE) within the context of technology in the English secondary school curriculum. The paper focuses on the potential contribution of food technology to teaching and learning in TIDE. Initially, the paper reviews the roots of food technology in the traditional teaching of food in the secondary schools in England, considers the current perceived importance of the teaching of food in the school curriculum and the realities of practices in the classroom.

Key issues covered are the concept of designing in food technology based on a modified version of a model for design decisions that includes the dimensions of conceptual, technical, aesthetic, constructional and marketing design decisions. The nature of technology, or design and technology as it is know in the UK, is explored and the links between food technology and science highlighted. Opportunities for pupils to be creative and innovative in food technology are considered, and the ability of food technology to contribute to teaching and learning in engineering in the school curriculum.

The paper concludes that pupils are well motivated by teaching and learning in food and that it has a direct relevance to them in the future lives both at the personal and employment level. Food technology has the potential to make a good contribution to excellence in teaching and learning in TIDE. However, there is concern about the practicality of combining the twin aims of developing cooking or ”life‘ skills with the more cognitive aspects of food technology in England. It is acknowledged that skills in food preparation are necessary for effective food product development in food technology. However, it is suggested that there should be sufficient commitment from schools, and curriculum time available, for both aspects to be addressed in a coherent, well planned manner.

Key words: food technology; English school curriculum; secondary; technology, innovation, design and engineering (TIDE).

305 Teaching food in the English school curriculum. Food technology was introduced under the umbrella of National Curriculum Design and Technology in England in 1990 (DES). Essentially, food technology covers an understanding of the nutritional, physical, chemical and sensory, properties of food materials and how to apply this knowledge in developing food products. This was a fundamental change from the purely 'domestic cookery' low status image that has for so long influenced the teaching of food within schools, previously known as domestic science or home economics, to food product development for commercial production (DFE, 1992). For example for pupils aged 11-14 years, rather than preparing and cooking a family meal for vegetarians, the pupils might be required to explore a range of possible products based on a sauce and pasta product for the chill cabinet in a local supermarket for a target market.

Current classroom practice. The findings from school inspections (Toft, 2006) by the Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted) notes that standards are limited by a lack of understanding of , restricted cooking experiences and poorly understood product development. A fundamental tension is seen between food as a ”life skill‘ and as a ”medium for teaching design and technology‘. Ideally food technology should embrace an understanding the properties of food materials and be able to apply this to developing food products. The Annual Report of Her Majesty‘s Chief Inspector of Schools 2004/05 on Design and Technology in secondary schools (Ofsted, 2006, p6) comments that ”in many schools, pupils need more opportunities to learn the practical skills of buying, cooking and storing food. This should be linked to the underlying nutritional knowledge needed for them to be able to choose to eat healthily. Such learning needs to be well secured before pupils embark on more abstract and industrially oriented courses in food technology‘. Combining the twin goals of developing ”life skills‘ and ”designing and making in food‘ in food technology can be described as too ambitious and open to problems in the classroom.

A key point is that despite the reference in the school curriculum for the need for practical skills and healthy eating models, the current situation is that food technology is optional in design and technology for pupils aged 11-14 years. The curriculum should include resistant materials, systems and control and at least one of food or textiles product areas http://curriculum.qca.org.uk/subjects. An acknowledgement of this dilemma is the government‘s decision to include an ”entitlement to cook‘ in the curriculum. Essentially this means that every pupil aged 11-14 years (food technology is compulsory in the primary phases) can learn basic cooking skills through dedicated lessons in food preparation techniques, and nutrition, hygiene and safety and wise food shopping. How schools will approach this requirement is not yet clear as some schools do not have food teaching rooms or qualified food teachers. Though, a new national scheme known as ”Licence to cook‘ is being developed and will be introduced in all schools in September 2008 www.schoolsnetwork.org.uk/cooking. In this situation it is important that the focus and rationale for food technology in design and technology is clear and precise.

306 Designing in food technology The concept of designing has varying interpretations for people in different contexts, for example the dictionary (Encarta, 2008) defines design as a verb to create a detailed plan, plan and make or invent something for a particular intention. As a noun it is a picture of the form, or way in which something is made, a decorative pattern or the process of designing. As a verb it involves to do something, as a noun it is a plan, scheme or a process. The essence of effective designing and making in design and technology requires an ability to make sound design decisions. In food technology there is a need to use designing skills, many of which are generic to other materials used in design and technology, together with the appropriate knowledge, understanding and making skills for creative problem solving to design and develop food products for a target market (Rutland, 1997). Figure 1 shows a model for making design decisions (Rutland et al, 2005) that has been modified specifically for food technology. The model shows the interconnection of the design decisions. A change of decisions within one area will affect some, if not all, of the design decisions that are made. For example, if wholemeal flour is used instead of white flour to increase the fibre content (a technical design decision) this will affect the appearance of the product, its flavour and texture and the quantity of liquid needed to be added when it is made.

Conceptual The sort of product A completely new sort of product is a ”blue sky‘ idea

M arketing Technical The consumer How the product will The point of sa le perform in terms of the The method of sale required physical, chemical and nutritional properties

Constructional Aesthetics How the product will be made How the product will perform in terms of flavour, odour, texture, colour Figure 1 Modified model for design d ecisions in food technology

The use of the model as a formative tool allows pupils to audit and evaluate their decision making during their designing and making. Pupils can be asked to evaluate the design decisions they have made at a regular intervals during the process of developing a food product so that they can modify and try out new ideas. For example, that the technical decisions made are limited and restricting the design. If they use a different raising agent to produce a better texture what will be the impact on the flavour, taste, method of making and keep qualities? Pupils can think about how what changes they could make to the design regarding how it will perform, make modification and improve the design. Designing in food technology requires a direct ”hands-on‘ approach that involves handling food and investigating its properties and characteristics to see how these will affect the final food product.

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Technology In England the term design and technology is used rather than technology, as in many other countries. The nature of design and technology in the National Curriculum ”is about inventing practical solutions to problems through imaginative thinking… .using a range of tools, materials, skills and techniques to explore, design and make products and systems that meet human needs. W orking in stimulating contexts… they learn to use today's technologies so they can participate in developing tomorrow's‘. On the other hand, yet unquestionably linked, the study of science is important because it ”fires pupils‘ curiosity about phenomena in the world around them and offers opportunities to find explanations… ..linking direct practical experience with scientific ideas … .. encourages critical and creative thought and they (pupils) discover how scientific ideas contribute to technological change… they learn to question and discuss issues that may affect their own lives, the directions of societies and the future of the world. http://curriculum.qca.org.uk/subjects/index.aspx

W ithin food technology rigor is demanded in knowledge and application of and nutrition and an understanding of the processes involved in product development. There is an emphasis on sensory food evaluation in a methodical, analytical manner and understanding how food can be used creatively to produce a variety of high quality products to suit the needs of consumers. It involves the ability to select and use the appropriate tools and materials to explore these properties for developing food products. To design and make food products effectively food science helps pupils to learn about and understand, for example, the structure of , including colloids, emulsions, gels and sols, sponge cakes as a ”solid‘ foam, thickening liquids through the process of the gelatinization of starch, the coagulation of and their physical and the effect of using a range of raising agents. Pupils learn that food science is about the way the materials react together through short focused practical tasks investigating specific factors so that designing and making in food is effective and successful. In nutrition the pupils learn that food is good to eat, functions of the nutrients, the influence of food choice on health, guidelines for a health diet and current health issues. Essentially, nutrition is all about what your body needs to be healthy and how it does, or does not, get this from the food they eat. Knowledge of nutrition supports ours, and our pupils‘, food choices and practical designing and making activities. http://www.secondarydandt.org/designing-at-ks3/resources/resource-tasks/

The importance of ”technical‘ and ”constructional‘ design decisions is illustrated in Figure 2 where pupils have used the design decisions model (Figure 1) to evaluate a Victoria Sponge cake. They appear to understand the marketing, concept and aesthetic design decisions that have been made but are confused by the technical and constructional decisions that have, and could be made. W eaknesses in the technical and constructional aspects of decision making will limit the pupils understanding of the physical, chemical and nutritional properties that can be developed and the different methods that can be used to make the product. http://www.secondarydandt.org/dt-world/reports/tools-for-change,180,SA.html

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Figure 2 Design decisions made when producing a Victoria sponge cake.

It is these two dimensions of designing, technical and constructional, that require pupils to have a sound knowledge of food science and nutrition. Food science helps pupils understand the scientific principles underlying the designing and practical making processes and to make informed choices on the ingredients they will use to achieve a particular aim and how they can be combined effectively. Hence food science is an essential component of food technology. Similarly, pupils can not design and make products that meet nutritional requirements unless they understand something about the function of foods and nutrition. It is important to remember that food technology is process based and does not solely mean pupils using a range of modern equipment or technologies in food preparation. It requires them to understand and be able to apply their technological and scientific knowledge and understanding to make technical decisions about their products. They need to understand how individual ingredients will perform when used in the making in terms of the required physical, chemical and nutritional properties.

Innovation It is not uncommon to find the terms creativity and innovation inter-linked and exchangeable and the psychologists Sternberg and Lubart (1999, p9) comment that 'different fields use different terms and focus on different aspects of what seems to be the same phenomenon'. Their view is that the world of business uses the term 'innovation' operating at the organisational level, whereas psychologists use the term 'creativity' as applied at the level of the individual. Hargreaves (2000, p 2) argues that 'you can have creativity without innovation but you cannot have innovation without creativity'.

In the design and technology classroom creativity is in the development of pupil's original, new and useful ideas and this may, or may not, lead to innovation. If the outcome is original, novel, useful, of value and accepted by the relevant community then it is creative and an invention. If the outcome then goes on to be commercially successful then the design is an innovation and an invention and will occur where a designer works

309 within a business or industrial setting (Barlex, 2004). The goal of Rolls-Royce, a world- leading provider of power systems and services for use on land, at sea and in the air who operates in four global markets: civil aerospace, defence aerospace, marine and energy is to be open minded, flexible and forward thinking http://www.rolls-royce.com. The company has a commitment to create a workforce able and willing to be creative and innovate. ”Innovation‘ is one of their three in a set of values and qualities, where excellence is a way of life and a thinking that relies on innovation and a belief that good can always be bettered (Rutland, 2003).

In the context of food technology classroom pupils‘ have the ability to be creativity very effectively. Pupils are able to quickly investigate, modify and produce a wide range of product ideas to suit a specified target market where they understand the implications of varying ingredients, methods of preparation and cooking and sensory factors. Batch production of a simple food product can be simulated in the classroom where teams of pupils develop a system for producing it in quantity. They plan a manufacturing process taking into account quality assurance procedures including risk assessment though Hazard Analysis of Critical Points (HACCP), quality control assurance checks for consistency of the product and feedback for future improvements in the production line. Innovation or a ”Blue sky‘ ideas occurs if the pupils‘ final idea, or prototype, is taken on by a company to manufacture as a large scale, or continuous production line. In this process preparation, assembly and cooking of the product is carried out by automated machines. In schools pupils would learn about, but do not actually complete, the commercial practices and process that occur in the . Though, there is equipment that emulates industrial practices and has been modified for classroom use. Pupils would learn how industry uses different ingredients, methods of making, and additives and consider their potential impact on the consumer.

Creativity in food technology can be promoted through the Young Foresight project that aims at giving secondary school students direct experience in all the skills needed to create a successful product or service from conceptualisation, to design, to adaptability in the market place. It does not focus on ”making‘ in the classroom and so releases pupils to ”think‘ more widely. An independent evaluation carried out by the Open University (Murphy, 2000) has shown that this activity enhances creativity and potentially innovation, and develops design ability. Teachers are provided with multimedia resources, supported in this work by ambassadors from industry and both receive dedicated training and follow up support. The food technology resources include developments in packaging and retail design, genetic modification, organic farming, food manufacturing, food labeling and dilemmas posed by advances in food technology. Pupils are prompted to think about the future and consider the advances brought about by applying innovative food technologies and issues related to sustainability in the food industry. http://www.secondarydandt.org/dt-world/other-dt-players/

Engineering Engineering is a discipline of acquiring and applying scientific and technical knowledge

310 to the design, analysis, and/or construction of works for practical purposes. The broad discipline of engineering encompasses a range of specialised subdisciplines that focus on the issues associated with developing a specific kind of product, or using a specific type of technology http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering. Harrison (2000, p9) views engineering education as a continuum from an early age where ”children develop understandings and capabilities that underpins their future learning‘. He considers that design and technology in schools is process based and integrates practical and academic learning and makes sense of other subjects. refers to the engineering aspects of food production and processing. It includes, but is not limited to, the application of agricultural engineering and chemical engineering principles to food materials. Genetic engineering of plants and animals is not normally the work of a food engineer. Among its domain of knowledge and action are the design of machinery and processes to produce foods, the design and implementation of and preservation measures in the production of foods; biotechnological processes of food production; choice and design of materials and quality control of food production. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_engineering.

The food industry is one the largest industries in the UK. In the food retailers, chefs, food technologists and food engineers work together to find new solutions for mass production. It is the engineer who will design and develop a specialist piece of machinery for large scale manufacturing of products, for example spring rolls, bulk, minced meat (Barlex, 1996) or Samosas. In manufacturing this is know as a continuous system that runs twenty four hours a day and makes products on a large scale. Again, pupils in schools can learn about how industry operates and the types of machinery that are used but the actual designing of the machinery would developed at a higher level in the education system on undergraduate or masters food engineering courses. Pupils would learn about how ingredients may have to be changed for the manufacturing stage. For example, the use of cornflour in a sauce will need to be changed to a modified starch version with a different thickening process more suited to the cooking vessels used in the processing factory. Pupils would learn about the implications of this for the consumer.

Conclusions The paper set an agenda to explore the potential contribution of food technology in the English curriculum to TIDE. Food has a direct relevance to young people and will gain their attention and maintain their motivation and interest in the classroom. It relates to their future lives outside school as adults and offers a wide range of career opportunities in catering and the food industry. It is a specific technology that draws on, and develops, pupils‘ technological and scientific understanding and informs their life choices related to food and health issues. Though, there is a word of warning in attempting to cover too wide a range of issues in the limited time presently available for food technology in the design and technology and school curriculum. The practical skills of ”cooking‘ or ”life skills‘ need to be well developed through adequate curriculum time if pupils are going to design and make efficiently and effectively in food technology. Schools may decide in England to combine the two aims taught by specialist food teachers in suitable accommodation. But thought is needed on the curriculum time available and the

311 management of the lessons, including staffing, accommodation and the costs involved in providing resources.

Pupils in the food technology experience practical ”hand-on‘ designing where they explore and learn about the properties and characteristics of materials and make sound design decisions. Pupils have opportunities to be creative and consider the issues involved in, and the impact on the consumer of new ”blue sky‘ ideas or innovations in an industrial setting. Food technology, as a process based subject, acts a precursor to engineering courses and pupils learn from paperœbased or electronic resources based on industrial based case studies. Teaching and learning in food technology is more in line with the cognitive requirements of TIDE and should be in addition to pupils developing ”cooking‘ skills. There needs to be sufficient time in the school curriculum, and commitment from head teachers, for pupils to cover both aspects. One solution would to make food technology compulsory for pupils aged 11-14 years so that schools have the opportunity to develop a coherent, well planned curriculum that includes developing ”cooking‘ skills through the ”Licence to cook‘ scheme alongside the more cognitive and reflective aspects of food technology. Otherwise one aspect could be achieved at the expense of the other.

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