Rethinking of Critical Regionalism in High-Rise Buildings

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Article Rethinking of Critical Regionalism in High-Rise Buildings

Nima Zahiri *, Omid Dezhdar and Manouchehr Foroutan Department of Architecture, Hamedan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Hamedan 65181-15743, Iran; [email protected] (O.D.); [email protected] (M.F.) * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +98-935-775-4896

Academic Editor: Kheir Al-Kodmany Received: 11 October 2016; Accepted: 26 December 2016; Published: 30 December 2016

Abstract: The character of height and density of newly high-rise cities, along with the force of globalization, have jeopardized the character of dwellings once entailing a regional ﬂavor. The critical regionalism which serves as a resistant medium against placelessness and lack of identity in the International Style has focused more on mid-rise or low-rise solutions rather than providing direct high-rise resolutions. Additionally, high-rise endeavors are not compatible with critical regionalism theories. This has happened partly due to critical regionalism theories multi-facet character inherent in its dialectic structure. Thus, to remedy the inadvertency of texts in the discourse of architectural regionalism, the present study seeks rethinking of critical regionalism by focusing on the pathology of high-rise buildings in the issues pertaining to place and identity. Finally, the architectonic articulation to place-making and identity-giving is discussed.

Keywords: critical regionalism; high-rise buildings; skyscrapers; architectonic; place; identity

1. Introduction Towers, skyscrapers, or high-rise buildings, have been surging in the last century as a way of using dense urban lands more efﬁciently, and representing the progress and modernization of those cities. From its very outset, due to cumbersome load-bearing masonry wall structures, the functionality of tall buildings were extremely limited. It was not until the technology of structural skeleton and curtain walls that this limitation was overcome, opening up the present state of skyscrapers. Earlier design approaches to some high-rise buildings were sheathed in the false traditional raiment of postmodernity; though, the evolution of modern architecture was more inclined toward modular repetitions and broad abstractions embedded in the International Style. Gradually, the dominant characters of this cityscape became homogenized uniform boxes strongly threatening social diversity and multiculturalism of the contemporary cities. “Though we have seen major advances in the technologies, efﬁciencies, and performance of tall buildings over the past couple of decades, arguably the urban expression of the typical skyscraper has not changed much from the predominant glass-and-steel aesthetic championed by modernism in the 1950s ... The rectilinear, air-conditioned, glass-skinned box is still the main template for the majority of tall buildings being developed around the world.” [1] (p. 91). “Tall buildings ... has made substantial progress in its design in recent years ... when examined more critically, it becomes apparent that much of the latest design work has not progressed so far after all.” [2] (p. 2). They are like isolated towers, cut off from streets and, therefore, not part of the community, and unable to address certain contemporary issues. Technology has provided controlled, pleasant, and delightful conditions within the interior of a house for its users. A house has become a Corbusian machine for living in, independent from its natural ecosystem. New mechanical, electrical, and plumping installations, and construction technologies

Buildings 2017, 7, 4; doi:10.3390/buildings7010004 www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings Buildings 2017, 7, 4 2 of 15 made skyscrapers physically achievable, but the urban globalized expression of the typical skyscrapers have not fit into the cities. Nevertheless, skyscrapers are now an increasingly common sight not just in American metropolises but also in other large cities around the world, and due to the scale and the impact of these universal edifices, and the volume of consumption of energy and materials, it is of the utmost importance to create a unique sense of place and identity in the design of high-rise buildings. These buildings are “associated directly with modern city, which often has made it the target for criticism of modern urban planning and design” [3] (p. 3). Ultimately, the intention is to inspire a regionalist approach, rather than an ecological one, where, for example, skyscrapers in Singapore function every bit as well as those in Sydney, but their local responses to cultural identity are very different. Whereas the physical and environmental aspects of the place are easier to define, the culture and heritages of a region are less tangible. Although numerous discussions on the conflict between vernacular architecture versus International Style indirectly address skyscraper dilemmas, dedicated studies that focus on high-rise architecture of regionalism are rarely found. Critical regionalism thinking seeks to reconcile the global civilization and the local architecture by providing solutions which are fundamentally more based on mid-rise or low-rise buildings. However, most importantly, in the case of high-rise buildings, theoretical promises of critical regionalism do not adequately address certain issues. Even exclusive examples of high-rise buildings with critical regionalism approaches are seldom enumerated. Critical regionalism has been theorized by Alexander Tzonis and Liane Lefaivre, Kenneth Frampton’s formulation, and many reiterations of the theory, and because of this very multi-facet character inherent to its dialectic structure, it does not stand as a singular theory or practice to be dominant. Indeed, “heterogeneity is intrinsic to regionalist theory, in which there is not one, but as many regionalisms as regions, each specific to its locale and historical circumstances. As such, it is a kind of meta-theory that has only local application and meaning” [4], (p. 16). Therefore, A holistic worldview approach is demonstrated in confronting with this meta-theory, as all theories in common resist placelessness and lack of identity existed in the International Style, tectonic ornamentation of postmodernism, and homogenizing forces of modern architecture. “In critical regionalism, under Kenneth Frampton, it is defined by a culture’s unique identity, manner of place-making, and architectonic strategies ... ”[4] (p. 19). These three notions of critical regionalism—place, identity, and architectonic—are set out to be explored in contemporary high-rise cities. In this regard a discourse is offered on high-rise architecture looking into the issues of place, cultural identity, and architectonic aesthetic through the lens of critical regionalism. The first three sections troubleshoot the issues related with place, identity, and architectonic. Lastly, it is discussed that architectonic articulation can retrieve the sense of place and identity. When considered endemic to local application and meaning, indispensably the region is specified to clarify the scope of discussion better.

2. Place With population growth and the development of urban centers, land has become a rapidly decreasing commodity, resulting in the intense vertical movement of buildings. The result has been stereotypical boxed detached from the reality of place (Figure1). Placelessness, the result of rapid constructions and global capitalism, have not only been fostered by International Style, but also the conception of place versus space has changed in its translation from low-rise to high-rise within its context. In fact, the conception of genius loci is reinterpreted in contemporary high-rise cities. The ﬁrst problem which critical regionalism approach puts ﬁnger on is the homogenization of International Style which it has totally diminished the sense, meaning, and identity of the place. Instead of providing a high-rise design solution in confronting with mere functionalist and progressive concerns of International Style, theorists have tried to beware architects of high-rise planning paradigms as a threat to social diversity and multiculturalism of the contemporary cities. Probably from this point of view, the best designs are made by architects from countries far from Buildings 2017, 7, 4 3 of 15 a universal bustle of major cities, in which people rarely would remember that these countries are an autonomous region. Nevertheless, high-rise constructions have been raising from American Buildings 2017, 7, 4 3 of 15 metropolises to Middle East to Far Asia, and with the growing trend of urbanization, it is only natural to build upwards.Nevertheless, high‐rise constructions have been raising from American metropolises to Middle East to Far Asia, and with the growing trend of urbanization, it is only natural to build upwards.

Figure 1. Mies van der Rohe Lakeshore Drive Apartment Building, 1955. The icon of International Style Figure 1. Mieswith van modular der repetitions Rohe Lakeshore and broad abstractions. Drive Apartment Building, 1955. The icon of International Style with modular repetitions and broad abstractions. The meaning of place has been changed in its translation into high‐rise buildings. Whether willingly or forcibly, people tend to own a piece of sky rather than land. So, the conception of place on the surface The meaningof topography of place is moved has toward been the changed space. This inresembles its translation astronauts exploring into high-rise the aerospace buildings. for more Whether willingly or forcibly,living space; people showing tend human’s to ownhunger a for piece buying of more sky ratherland even than on other land. planets. So, theIt seems conception what of place was called upon the place is completely changed through modern era. A single piece of land on the on the surfaceEarth of is topography clearly distinguishable is moved within toward its neighborhood, the space. but Thisa piece resembles of sky do not astronauts bring the same exploring the aerospace formeaning. more living The concept space; of many showing modern human’s buildings is hunger based on forusing buying windows more extensively land to even maximize on other planets. It seems whatthe was entry called of light upon into the the building place by is eliminating completely load‐bearing changed wall. through That is, the modern boundary era.of a unit A singleis piece of defined by glass curtain walls, resulting in the exterior plot to be as much a part of the home’s interior. land on the EarthThe is other clearly facet distinguishable of place is related withinwith accessibility its neighborhood, of front and back but or a pieceinner and of skyouter. do not bring the same meaning.In Mediterranean The concept or Roman of many archetype modern houses, buildingsrooms are usually is based arranged on using around windows one or more extensively to maximize thecentral entry courtyard of light providing into the light building through byopen eliminating doors into the load-bearing dark rooms. Although wall. these That houses is, the boundary are introverted, they are legible by degrees of access. The public outside has been dragged into a of a unit is deﬁnedmultifunctional by glass scenographic curtain courtyard walls, performing resulting as a in theater the exterioror a music hall plot for to all be people; as much in other a part of the home’s interior.words, a scene of emotions and excitements. On the contrary, “current tendency to reduce built form to The otherimage facet or scenography of place only is serves related to further with an imagistic accessibility reception of andfront perceptionand ofback the builtor form”inner and outer. [5] (p. 383). The concept of modern architecture is based on light; thus it is extroverted. While its front In Mediterraneanfaçade or or outer Roman part of archetypethe building is houses, the public roomsplaces, the are back usually or inner part arranged is the private around district one or more central courtyardwhere things providing really happen, light and through one has opento seek doorsfor what into is behind the the dark scene. rooms. Although these houses are introverted,Additionally, they are legible there is a by relationship degrees between of access. people The and publicthe place outsideof the built has form been which dragged is into a measured by degrees of participation, both mentally and physically. Despite the main task of high‐rise multifunctionalsolutions scenographic based on saving courtyard land, they mostly performing led to placelessness. as a theater Place or detachment, a music the hall further for allresult people; of in other words, a scenedetaching of emotions a building and from excitements.ground into the sky, On is theoften contrary, related with “current direct experience tendency and participation to reduce built form to image or scenographywhich is often more only highlighted serves when to furtherit is transformed an imagistic vertically, resulting reception in a spurious and perception relationship of the built with place, blurring the reality of a place and, thereby, diminishing one’s ability to engage and form” [5] (p.participate 383). The fully concept in the place. of modern architecture is based on light; thus it is extroverted. While its front façade or outer part of the building is the public places, the back or inner part is the private district where things really happen, and one has to seek for what is behind the scene. Additionally, there is a relationship between people and the place of the built form which is measured by degrees of participation, both mentally and physically. Despite the main task of high-rise solutions based on saving land, they mostly led to placelessness. Place detachment, the further result of detaching a building from ground into the sky, is often related with direct experience and participation which is often more highlighted when it is transformed vertically, resulting in a spurious relationship with place, blurring the reality of a place and, thereby, diminishing one’s ability to engage and participate fully in the place. Buildings 2017, 7, 4 4 of 15

More than any kinds of art, architecture and its context have complex interactive relations with eachBuildings other. The2017, 7 landscape, 4 and natural setting of low-rise buildings are characterized by undulating4 of 15 topography of hills and valleys which formulate the skyline of the city. High-rise buildings, however, More than any kinds of art, architecture and its context have complex interactive relations with haveeach a different other. The relationship landscape with and natural its context setting in which of low‐ theirrise buildings construction are characterized design could by not undulating be consistent withtopography the natural of topography hills and valleys of the which site, formulate leading to the designing skyline of the a flat city. landscape High‐rise orbuildings, artificial however, topography aroundhave the a high-rise different building.relationship It technicallywith its context ignores in thewhich topography their construction on the surface design of could the earth not be and try to defineconsistent its own with vertical the natural topography topography in theof the sky. site, Incorporating leading to designing green roofs a flat andlandscape vertical or artificial landscaping havetopography been more around common the high in the‐rise last building. decades. It technically Tall buildings, ignores the fundamentally topography on the due surface to their of the height, disconnectearth and dwellers try to define from its the own landscape vertical topography of the ground. in the This sky. Incorporating idea helps to green provide roofs a and nature-friendly vertical environment,landscaping and have it brings been more a new common idea of in context the last anddecades. landscape, Tall buildings, consequently. fundamentally due to their height, disconnect dwellers from the landscape of the ground. This idea helps to provide a nature‐ Context does not solely stand for topography of the site, but mostly refer to the environment friendly environment, and it brings a new idea of context and landscape, consequently. in the case of high-rise buildings. “Manmade synthetic ecological systems can never adequately Context does not solely stand for topography of the site, but mostly refer to the environment in the duplicatecase of the high complexity‐rise buildings. of natural“Manmade ecological synthetic systems.” ecological systems [6] (p. 21)can never (Figure adequately2). Contextual duplicate response the has alwayscomplexity been of challengingnatural ecological due systems.” to the dynamic [6] (p. 21) nature (Figure of 2). rapidly Contextual growing response cities has and always urban been fabric that shouldchallenging be continuously due to the dynamic adapted. nature Even of if rapidly the regionalism growing cities concept and isurban put intofabric practice that should contextually be appropriate,continuously what adapted. was suitable Even if the a few regionalism decades concept ago is is not put practicalinto practice in contextually the present appropriate, days anymore becausewhat its was environmental suitable a few context decades has ago undergone is not practical changes in through the present the years.days anymore For instance, because in the its past, vernacularenvironmental architecture context in has the undergone mountainous changes area through of the the Middle years. EastFor instance, did not in tend the past, to be vernacular cold and wet, nowadays,architecture the wind in the andmountainous rain are treatedarea of the as Middle useful East resources did not that tend contributes to be cold and to wet, a positive nowadays, regional the wind and rain are treated as useful resources that contributes to a positive regional architecture. architecture. Additionally, “open plans and courtyard concepts which were successful strategies to Additionally, “open plans and courtyard concepts which were successful strategies to maximize maximizeventilation ventilation and provide and providethermal comfort thermal in comfortearly Tropical in early architecture, Tropical do architecture, not function do similarly not function in similarlythe congested in the congested and space and deprived space cities deprived of today” cities [7] of (p. today” 2). [7] (p. 2).

Figure 2. Ville Radieuse (The Radiant City) by Le Corbusier, homogenized tall buildings which ignore Figure 2. Ville Radieuse (The Radiant City) by Le Corbusier, homogenized tall buildings which ignore the place. the place. Unfortunately, architectural researchers seek for technological solutions for skyscrapers more Unfortunately,than ever, leading architectural to mechanically researchers‐conditioned seek glass for technological skyscrapers, whose solutions glossy for skyscraperssurfaces have more than ever,adverse leading effects to on mechanically-conditioned climate. For instance, in major glass Arab skyscrapers, cities, each iconic whose tower glossy is striving surfaces for attention have adverse effectslacking on climate. any climatic For instance, response into sun, major heat, Arab and cities, humidity. each To iconic be equitable, tower is in striving some northern for attention countries, lacking any climaticthis large response reflective to glassy sun, heat, surface and optimizes humidity. daylight To be equitable,in relatively in cloudy some northernweather. Despite countries, all thisthis, large “If nature were allowed to take her course, regional differences, both social and artistic, would be far reflective glassy surface optimizes daylight in relatively cloudy weather. Despite all this, “If nature more pronounced than they are” [4] (p. 95). Another example, here not in Middle East, but in some weresuccessful allowed bioclimatic to take her skyscrapers course, regional of Yeang differences, in Southeast Asia, both do social not only and respond artistic, to would climate bematters far more pronouncedbut create than an efficient they are” ecosystems [4] (p. within 95). themselves Another example, that mitigate here heat not and in humidity Middle into East, the but human in some successfulcomfort bioclimatic zone to improve skyscrapers the environment of Yeang in of Southeastthe building’s Asia, inhabitants. do not only This respond approach, to climateintegrating matters but createclimate an and efficient cultural ecosystems strategies, withindefines themselves a right expression that mitigate for a tower heat in and hot humidity and humid into areas the humanto comfortconfront zone “the to improve relative failure the environment of the Modern of Movement the building’s to even inhabitants. consider appropriate This approach, environmental integrating climatesolutions and cultural to the problem strategies, of definesthe high a‐rise right in expression the tropics”[8] for a(p. tower 132). inSimilarly, hot and in humid Singapore, areas “Tay’s to confront Buildings 2017, 7, 4 5 of 15

“the relative failure of the Modern Movement to even consider appropriate environmental solutions to the problem of the high-rise in the tropics”[8] (p. 132). Similarly, in Singapore, “Tay’s interest in tropicality is driven by a clear-sighted avoidance of symbolic quotation and the need to adopt technologicalBuildings form 2017, 7, to 4 tropical climates” [8] (p. 132). “Regional planning, then, takes as its starting5 of 15 point the uniqueinterest mix in of tropicality resources is anddriven the by common a clear‐sighted background avoidance provided of symbolic by the quotation region. and Its the aim need is to to reshape the givenadopt state technological of nature form into to a humanizedtropical climates” landscape [8] (p. 132). that “Regional more completely planning, then, ﬁts thetakes physiological, as its aesthetic,starting emotional, point the social, unique and mix economic of resources needs and the of thecommon human background inhabitants provided of a givenby the area”[region. 4Its] (p. 352). Theaim sense is to reshape of place the in given critical state of regionalism nature into a ideashumanized goes landscape a step further that more into completely a broader fits the image of the cityphysiological, in which buildings aesthetic, emotional, and infrastructures social, and economic should needs not beof the seen human as statistic inhabitants assemblies, of a given but as area”[4] (p. 352). interactive, dynamic, and integrated systems that constantly improve themselves in response to The sense of place in critical regionalism ideas goes a step further into a broader image of the city contextualin which changing buildings parameters and infrastructures in their urban should fabrics. not be seen as statistic assemblies, but as interactive, It seemsdynamic, completely and integrated nonsensical systems thatthat constantly cities are makingimprove athemselves push for in ever-denser, response to ever-tallercontextual urban forms, butchanging allowing parameters only the in their ground urban plane fabrics. to be the sole physical means of connection between towers. Skybridges andIt seemsSkyplanes completely... have nonsensical the potential that cities to enrich are making both a tall push buildings for ever‐denser, and cities, ever‐taller allow urban the sharing of resourcesforms, between but allowing towers. only Therethe ground has hardlyplane to been be the a science-ﬁctionsole physical means city of of connection the future between created in the towers. Skybridges and Skyplanes ... have the potential to enrich both tall buildings and cities, allow past 100the years sharing that of has resources not embraced between towers. the idea There of the has multi-level hardly been citya science [1] (p.‐fiction 99). city of the future Ancreated early manifestoin the past 100 of Futurist years that Architecture, has not embraced which the idea is illustrated of the multi in‐level Figure city3 ,[1] for (p. instance, 99). describes a highly industrializedAn early manifesto and of mechanized Futurist Architecture, city of which the is future illustrated in in which Figure the 3, for city instance, does describes not consists a of individualhighly buildings industrialized but a and multi-level, mechanized interconnected, city of the future in and which integrated the city does urban not consists design of envelop individual the life of the city.buildings In this sense,but a multi modern‐level, interconnected, progress has and to beintegrated joined urban in groups design of envelop buildings the life that of the support, city. In rather this sense, modern progress has to be joined in groups of buildings that support, rather than recoil than recoil against, each other in their context. against, each other in their context.

Figure 3. The multi‐layered futurism Città Nuova (New City) proposed by Antonio Sant’Elia, 1914. Figure 3. The multi-layered futurism Città Nuova (New City) proposed by Antonio Sant’Elia, 1914. “Supertall buildings of enormous scale and mixed uses may be better understood as self‐contained “Supertallcities in a buildingsglobal context of enormousinstead of buildings scale and in an mixed urban uses context” may [9] be (p. better 820). Urban understood centers throughout as self-contained cities inthe a global world contextare influencing instead the of design buildings of the in supertall an urban buildings context” as “a [9 ]city (p. within 820). Urbana city” and centers “a city throughout in the sky” [3]. “Tall buildings have the versatility to accommodate uses other than the standard office, the world are influencing the design of the supertall buildings as “a city within a city” and “a city in the sky” [3]. “Tall buildings have the versatility to accommodate uses other than the standard office, Buildings 2017, 7, 4 6 of 15 residential and hotel functions that currently predominate” [1] (p. 96). Surprisingly, in the city of Whittier, located in Alaska, instead of providing a local solution to build sustainably in an extreme northern climate, all activities of the town take place in a single apartment. This unique concentration of activities and housing makes it the most important building of a small town, giving it the name of town under one roof. We need to replicate the existing facilities and essential elements of life at the ground plane up in the sky;Buildings this means 2017, 7, 4 that the ground plane needs to be treated as an essential uninterrupted6 of 15 and a duplicable layer at the same time. The duplicated layers, on the other hand, should be, in a supportive residential and hotel functions that currently predominate” [1] (p. 96). Surprisingly, in the city of way, ratherWhittier, than blockinglocated in Alaska, out light instead and of providing view and a local sucking solution out to lifebuild away sustainably from in the an extreme street. Variable conditionsnorthern in the climateclimate, all and activities environment of the town also take place will bein a neededsingle apartment. for a holistic This unique approach concentration to consider the urban setupof activities as a whole and housing and beyond makes it an the individual most important building. building of a small town, giving it the name of To sumtown up, under transforming one roof. the conception of place that was brought about by high-rise buildings We need to replicate the existing facilities and essential elements of life at the ground plane up catalyzedin the the disruption sky; this means and that loss the ground of place plane in needs modern to be treated architecture. as an essential The uninterrupted interpretation and ofa place in critical regionalismduplicable layer ideas at the is same more time. based The duplicated on classic layers, deception on the other of hand, the should place be, and, in a supportive thus, fail to cover the currentway, hybrid rather multi-layeredthan blocking out definition light and view of and place sucking versus out space.life away Today’s from the street. high-rise Variable architecture can be bestconditions understood in the climate only throughand environment pluralism. also will It be must needed be for asserted a holistic thatapproach due to to consider the massive the scale urban setup as a whole and beyond an individual building. of high-rise buildings,To sum up, they transforming often contributethe conception to of serious place that place-making was brought about problems by high‐rise which buildings require more advancedcatalyzed building the technology disruption and and loss of an place integrative in modern architecture. design in The which interpretation summon of place architects, in critical engineers, and constructors.regionalism ideas is more based on classic deception of the place and, thus, fail to cover the current hybrid multi‐layered definition of place versus space. Today’s high‐rise architecture can be best understood 3. Identityonly through pluralism. It must be asserted that due to the massive scale of high‐rise buildings, they often contribute to serious place‐making problems which require more advanced building technology In responseand an integrative to the nationalism design in which prevalent summon in architects, the world engineers, war eras, and constructors. the modernists tried to undercut the notion of regionalism in favor of a global peace. The dissemination of these universal assumption 3. Identity and also the great need for post-World War II reconstruction fertilized the seed of International Style In response to the nationalism prevalent in the world war eras, the modernists tried to undercut crawling out of any ornaments and identity of place [10]. As such, the blank façades of the buildings the notion of regionalism in favor of a global peace. The dissemination of these universal assumption lost any notionand also of the cultural great need memory for post‐World and War regional II reconstruction identity fertilized (Figure the4). seed “The of International International Style Style was intrinsicallycrawling linked out to of modernany ornaments art and and identity was therefore of place [10]. inadequate As such, the in blank relation façades to of thethe buildings regional cultural heritage” [lost4] (p.any 188). notion A of vast cultural variety memory of iconic and regional tall buildings identity (Figure have 4). been “The raised, International each exhibitingStyle was diverse intrinsically linked to modern art and was therefore inadequate in relation to the regional cultural forms and types without addressing the idea of place, and being specifically related to that city. They heritage” [4] (p. 188). A vast variety of iconic tall buildings have been raised, each exhibiting diverse resemble eachforms other and types in such without a way addressing that could the idea be of imaginedplace, and being in almost specifically any related global to citythat city. around They the world. Meanwhile,resemble critical each regionalism other in such ideas a way tried that could to balance be imagined between in almost International any global city Style around anonymity the world. and local identity, withoutMeanwhile, considering critical regionalism that the ideas parameter tried to balance of height between over International high-rise buildingsStyle anonymity could and potentially local identity, without considering that the parameter of height over high‐rise buildings could become a powerful tool for expressing the national identity. potentially become a powerful tool for expressing the national identity.

Figure 4. View of the high‐rise city project by Ludwig Hilberseimer, 1924 [11] (p. 176). Globalized Figure 4. Viewconcrete of façades the high-rise without any city notion project of cultural by Ludwig memory and Hilberseimer, regional identity. 1924 [11] (p. 176). Globalized concrete façades without any notion of cultural memory and regional identity. Buildings 2017, 7, 4 7 of 15

As in the middle-ages or the early days of Islam, high steeples or minarets exhibiting the pride and prestigeBuildings of 2017 their, 7, 4 dominants, in modern era, likewise, skyscrapers have become a means7 of 15 boasting power amongAs in countries the middle where,‐ages or due the toearly a competitive days of Islam, situation, high steeples some or minarets projects exhibiting evidence the that pride there are rivalriesand over prestige whose of skyscrapertheir dominants, is taller. in modern “An era, aggressive likewise, raceskyscrapers to earn have the become world’s a tallestmeans of building title continues”boasting power [12] (p. among 43). countries It actually where, equates due to a height competitive with situation, power and some pride. projects “The evidence current that urban core densificationthere are rivalries is reviving over whose the driveskyscraper for monumentalis taller. “An aggressive high-rise race construction. to earn the world’s Tall buildings tallest are paradigmaticbuilding of title the continues” representation [12] (p. of 43). power It actually in the equates city.” height [13] (p. with 28). power and pride. “The current urban core densification is reviving the drive for monumental high‐rise construction. Tall buildings In religious societies, especially, nationalist sentiments are aroused by impressive objects such are paradigmatic of the representation of power in the city.” [13] (p. 28). as skyscrapers.In religious Obviously, societies, the especially, symbolic nationalist statement sentiments of these are aroused edifices by can impressive induce objects a better such sense of nationalismas skyscrapers. than low-rise Obviously, or mid-rise the symbolic buildings statement (Figure of 5these). Major edifices Arab can cities induce are a makingbetter sense investments of in buildingnationalism skyscrapers, than low not‐rise as or amid result‐rise buildings of scarcity (Figure of deserted 5). Major Arab land, cities but are for making prestige. investments This problem in is due to clientsbuilding who skyscrapers, ask architects not as a result for icons of scarcity. Nowadays, of deserted skyscrapers land, but for have prestige. become This problem the decoration is due and prestigeto of clients these who cities ask once architects ornamented for icons by. Nowadays, domes and skyscrapers minarets, have and become oriented the thedecoration skyline and of Islamic prestige of these cities once ornamented by domes and minarets, and oriented the skyline of Islamic cities, trying to define the city’s identity. cities, trying to define the city’s identity.

Figure 5. No‐Stop City. (Veduta di cittàʹ) 1970 by the radical Italian architects Archizoom, Religious Figure 5. No-Stop City. (Veduta di città') 1970 by the radical Italian architects Archizoom, Religious high‐rise elements for boasting power among borders of regions. high-rise elements for boasting power among borders of regions. The most desirable characteristic of an authentic architecture of regionalism rooted in expressing Thevalues, most heritages, desirable and characteristic the culture of ofthat an region, authentic Allowing architecture one to present of regionalism his own interpretation rooted in while expressing communicating with the principles of belief, behavior, and aesthetic that define the lifestyle. The values, heritages, and the culture of that region, Allowing one to present his own interpretation designs also should employ traditional and historical features not as superficial attachments, but while communicatingintegrally in the concept with the and principles forms of buildings. of belief, “Here behavior, fake regionalism—with and aesthetic thata few define gingerbread the lifestyle. The designshistorical also attachments should employ over an traditional ill‐conceived and modern historical structural features box—was not as a superficial constant danger attachments, … A but integrallysounder in the approach concept lay and in the forms sort of of modern buildings. regionalism “Here mentioned fake regionalism—with … in which an attempt a few was gingerbreadmade historicalto attachmentsunearth fundamental over lessons an ill-conceived in local tradition modern and to blend structural them with box—was an already a evolved constant modern danger ... A sounderlanguage” approach [14] (p. lay 357). in theThere sort are of numerous modern false regionalism examples of mentioned the post‐modern... in approach which an in which attempt was made to unearth fundamental lessons in local tradition and to blend them with an already evolved modern language” [14] (p. 357). There are numerous false examples of the post-modern approach in which the tall building is ornamented in motifs that borrow some aspects of ancient architecture, Buildings 2017, 7, 4 8 of 15 or worse, the local forms are stretched vertically to reach the height of a tall building, and some parts do not simply fit into, like an awkward cupola or sloping roofs that are no longer convincing in modern designs of tall buildings. Current structures use form and shape to reference pagodas, minarets, domes, and many other forms. It shows that this current tendency has not fully moved beyond post-modernism. There is still attachment to symbolism, even though the symbols have changed. “There is much more to our current place in architectural history than symbol and iconography. Rather than symbol, the specifics and the tools and the methods we use to build should be the basis for a new kind of high-rise building that would inherently add value but also transform cities” [2] (p.2). In less developing countries even some firms consciously imitate post-modernist architecture by incorporating Western symbols or features. “They were designed by contemporary artists according to specific iconographic political programs written by poets-historians-diplomats to give to the events a reconstructed, antiquated character alluding to Roman or Greek mythology or history as universal models to justify the present and prescribe the future” [15] (p. 20). There is an ill-conceived belief that the glorious period of the ancient Greek should be taken as a valuable trophy to show the grandeur of the buildings. Most regions with the tallest buildings have shifted in recent decades from the United States to Asian and Middle Eastern countries. Among them some, as a boastful claim of world centrality, are built for expressing economic power, with no economic justification. Some examples are criticized for being lavish and extravagant, exhibiting the dreams of an emerging wealthy society. Their volume is monumental, and their exterior is prodigal. In order to democratize the nationalist face of the high-rise buildings, they should be no longer an expensive extravagance but “a crucial development vehicle engaging the middle classes. In this process of democratization the high-rise has exceeded its natural milieu as workspace and pervaded all aspects of urban life ... Because of its engagement with domestic protocols and specific climatic conditions, the vertical envelope is now producing culturally-specific, vernacular varieties” [13] (p. 28). In contrast to the idea that skyscrapers are merely functional outputs of globalization, it is sometimes argued that skyscrapers, even though they are not lucrative, grant identity to the cities through the skyline, an identifiable array of icons that provide orientation for walkers and drivers. Skyscrapers have obtained their own history and memoirs visualized in many movies, pictures, and postcards. This symbolic quality of skyscrapers are flourished in cultural or economical capitals to present the symbol of their nation. Signature skyscrapers of national identity are allocated the highest priority to be designed very unique and tailored to the national identity. Some countries have found mega-objects such as skyscraper with particular design to potentially become an iconic national significance so that they retain the heart and soul of the city. High-rise architecture could serve to overthrow national culture and vernacular characters, or if designed properly, it can role as an identifier for cities. Some remarkable high-rise projects have clearly attempted to embrace traditional forms. The architects look for motifs, symbols, or archetypes from artifact or natural sources to formulate the design based on them. Sometimes the reference is a mythical place, and the myths have separated from its factual history. Although these traditions might be an important part of folks’ culture, most ordinary viewers will not even be notified or are not interested in sophisticated philosophical metaphors that may only be concerned by intellectuals. It is very questionable whether these references actually signify any cultural identity or improve the sense of place, and do we really need to account for these references in the modern era? Why should we limit architecture to the culture that surrounds it? Why can we not bring and learn from other cultures and use materials not locally available? Indeed, religious belongings of sacred places, such as steeples, minarets, or pagodas, have nothing to do with profit-seeking secular modern skyscrapers that cater to human’s physiological needs other than spiritual religious ones. These symbolisms have the capacity to transform into various forms, but still there is no point to restrict ourselves with certain patterns. These symbolic commercial forms are indeed a pure reflection of the finance-oriented and image-obsessed of today’s global culture. Buildings 2017, 7, 4 9 of 15

The aforementioned high-rise samples are very unique examples of traditional vertical architecture in a particular region and thus possible to emulate in contemporary high-rise architecture. Unlike ancientBuildings or historical 2017, 7, 4 cities, which at maximum contained only a few distinctive landmarks, the9 of 15 modern city is a collage of high-rise buildings that compete with each other. Another critical issue arises The aforementioned high‐rise samples are very unique examples of traditional vertical architecture when itin is a assumedparticular thatregion every and thus high-rise possible building to emulate in ain region contemporary should high follow‐rise a architecture. unique vertical Unlike notion, then theancient city’s or appearance historical cities, will which suffer at frommaximum sameness contained and only boredom, a few distinctive surprisingly, landmarks, this timethe modern not through homogenizationcity is a collage of International of high‐rise buildings Style, that but compete with the with monotony each other. of Another regionalism critical architecture. issue arises when High-riseit is assumed regional that every works high in‐rise some building regions in a may region be should more follow successful a unique than vertical other notion, regions then in terms of providingthe city’s visual appearance references will suffer to a particularfrom sameness archetype. and boredom, In some surprisingly, regions, this however, time not vertically-built through homogenization of International Style, but with the monotony of regionalism architecture. examples rarely exist that could inspire architects. In fact, there are not quite so many vertical elements High‐rise regional works in some regions may be more successful than other regions in terms of in a specificproviding region visual to references borrow from.to a particular Such regional archetype. references In some haveregions, been however, mainly vertically characterized‐built by low-riseexamples architecture, rarely andexist theythat containcould inspire limited architects. applicability In fact, to there be translated are not quite into so high-rise many vertical architecture. Itelements is often in asserted a specific thatregion high-rise to borrow structuresfrom. Such regional are not references comforted have withbeen mainly any local characterized low-rise by design traditionslow‐ inrise non-Western architecture, and societies. they contain Even limited researchers applicability sometimes to be translated surrender into to high the‐ factrise architecture. that non-western regions lackIt is any often skyscraper asserted that history, high‐rise and structures the precedents are not comforted of skyscrapers with any arelocal exclusive low‐rise design to Western societiestraditions which in should non‐Western be imported societies. from. Even researchers Skyscrapers sometimes impose surrender American to the cultural fact that hegemony non‐western all over regions lack any skyscraper history, and the precedents of skyscrapers are exclusive to Western societies the world. A monoculture universal template of North American design of so called Manhattanization which should be imported from. Skyscrapers impose American cultural hegemony all over the world. or ChicagoizationA monoculture, like theuniversal drawing template of Figure of North6, is characterized American design by windowsof so called running Manhattanization in horizontal or rows formingChicagoization a cube transplanted, like the drawing into non-Western of Figure 6, is countries characterized with by little windows or no running modifications. in horizontal “As rows a practical matter,forming the high-rise a cube transplanted building hadinto non to function‐Western countries within thewith fine-grained little or no modifications. checkerboard “As a patternpractical of the Americanmatter, city” the [ 3high] (p.‐rise 5). Thisbuilding high-rise had to precedent function within denies the local fine‐ identitygrained checkerboard through universal pattern applicationsof the of technology,American city” business [3] (p. formulas,5). This high‐ andrise precedent design standards. denies local identity Of course, through it universal is difficult applications to talk about indigenousnessof technology, in high-rise business buildingsformulas, and with design only 130standards. years ofOf history, course, whichit is difficult has now to talk spread about from its indigenousness in high‐rise buildings with only 130 years of history, which has now spread from its North American roots to encompass almost the entire world. North American roots to encompass almost the entire world.

Figure 6. New York City drawing from memory by Stefan Bleekrode, monoculture universal template Figure 6. New York City drawing from memory by Stefan Bleekrode, monoculture universal template of New York. of New York. Buildings 2017, 7, 4 10 of 15

Surprising though it may seem, many vernacular styles of high-rise buildings are imported productsBuildings from 2017, 7 the, 4 West. “Today, in the era of pluralism, cities in Asia and the Middle10 of 15 East try to establish global identities with large-scale tall buildings having unique forms designed by starchitects”Surprising [9] (p. though 820). it may seem, many vernacular styles of high‐rise buildings are imported products Experiencedfrom the West. foreign“Today, in architects the era of ofpluralism, repute cities are oftenin Asia invited and the byMiddle developers East try to and establish owners global in less developedidentities countries with large to‐scale provide tall buildings the design having of skyscrapers unique forms of designed special by significance, starchitects” such[9] (p. as 820). national landmarks.Experienced This matter foreign is of particulararchitects of importance repute are inoften cities invited that are by witnessingdevelopers and rapid owners growth. in Theless lack developed countries to provide the design of skyscrapers of special significance, such as national of experience of local professionals compels the owners and developers to take the attitude that landmarks. This matter is of particular importance in cities that are witnessing rapid growth. The lack name-brandof experience architectural of local professionals firms from compels outside the their owners own and countries developers are to take more the qualified attitude that to name do the‐ job. Theybrand do not architectural want to take firms a risk from with outside their their investment own countries on costly are more projects, qualified such to as do skyscrapers. the job. They In do many cases,not these want firms to take may a risk not with be attuned their investment to the local on costly culture, projects, whereas such localas skyscrapers. residents In may many cherish cases, their own culturesthese firms and may desire not be to attuned ensure itsto the continuity local culture, via the whereas built environmentlocal residents [ may12] (p. cherish 45). their own Developing,cultures and desire and even to ensure industrialized, its continuity societies via the arebuilt dealing environment with an[12] apparently (p. 45). contradictory crisis of identityDeveloping, which should and even be reconciled. industrialized, These societies societies, are dealing on one with hand, an apparently try to revive contradictory their regional identitiescrisis andof identity heritages; which on should the other be reconciled. hand, they These put societies, so much on effort one hand, to be try a to part revive of world their regional civilization with internationalidentities and heritages; standards on and the a other universal hand, subscriberthey put so identity.much effort These to be cities a part consist of world of juxtapositioncivilization of with international standards and a universal subscriber identity. These cities consist of juxtaposition buildings with reactionary attitudes that empower their past, and innovative tall buildings looking of buildings with reactionary attitudes that empower their past, and innovative tall buildings looking into theinto future the future (Figure (Figure7). 7).

Figure 7. There are three subject matters that are juxtaposed into this one frame; the clock, the modern Figure 7. There are three subject matters that are juxtaposed into this one frame; the clock, the modern skyscraper, and the old chapel, taken in downtown Chicago. skyscraper, and the old chapel, taken in downtown Chicago. All of this goes to show that due to economic prosperity or scientific advancement, the policy of Allsome of countries this goes is to deliberately show that based due to on economic creating iconic prosperity skyscrapers or scientific to support advancement, place‐making. the As policy the of somehigh countries‐rise buildings is deliberately play a vital based role on on creating expressing iconic the skyscrapers values of a tonation, support they place-making.are an important As the high-risecontributing buildings factor play of urban a vital landscape role on homogeneity. expressing Eventually, the values political of a nation,leaders and they city are officials an important with contributingconsultation factor of architects of urban landscapeand urban designers homogeneity. will possibly Eventually, need politicalguidelines leaders that specifically and city officialsindicate with the priority and hierarchy of applying cultural references. These limitations warrant the overdose of consultation of architects and urban designers will possibly need guidelines that specifically indicate Buildings 2017, 7, 4 11 of 15 the priority and hierarchy of applying cultural references. These limitations warrant the overdose of cultural infusion. The crux of the problem lay in the lack of any specific mandated guidelines. If it is assumed that any buildings intimate the same pattern then the city will begin to lose its identity and turn into a placeless place. As a vertical city, high-rise architectural programing should be examined against cultural needs, values, and preferences. It must be understood what makes something truly memorable: it is important to put aside sentimentality and grab new contemporarily-identifying ideas.

4. Architectonic Gothic stone cathedrals, Persian brick minarets, Chinese wooden pagodas, limestone pyramids of Egypt, and Yemen’s mudbrick towers are manifest examples of traditional vertical architecture which have been evolving gradually over centuries. Their functions in response to particular needs, less or more, resemble to contemporary high-rise buildings’, but with differences established in their regional flavor. The aesthetic of these ancient structures comes along with authenticity often driven by architectonic strategies in necessity of using material and local practitioners followed certain patterns of design and construction methods. Critical regionalism ideas value upon “local economies, utilizing local labor and acknowledging local material and spatial associations”, which make the work of each region distinctive [4] (p. 110). Authenticity, the central concept of regionalism in modern architecture, “serves as a caution and a guide for those who wish to successfully build regionalist works ... It is not a property inherent to things or places but a measure of our connection to them ... [It is suggested] that the authentic object or environment must be of undisputed origin, its form should be connected to its process of creation; it must be genuine, things are what they appear to be or what one expects them to be” [4] (p. 26). For some time, however, architectonic and authenticity, two integral factors, went separate ways. In fact, a fitful fad of postmodernity and flashbacks to traditionalism were to encompass modern façades. “It fostered a superficial attachment to the symbolism, rather than the emancipatory possibilities, of technology, replacing the historical revivalist architecture that preceded it with an equally empty anti-humanist aesthetic based on those symbols.” [4] (p. 288) “It remained for Adler and Sullivan ... to express adequately the structural frame of the building in its external lines. This was achieved by giving the vertical members, which carry the main loads, dominance over the horizontal members”, then the loads of one floor will be carried upon a skeleton framework, with no need of masonry structures of wall-bearing types [16] (p. 94). In most cases, the floor-plate form assembled by columns is a consequence of economic and functional formulae, resulting in an indistinguishable architecture. Most high-rise buildings follow a standard design and construction principles that could be found almost anywhere in the world, a synonymous association rather than indigenous. This demonstration of “function versus form set a precedent that was to shape all subsequent skyscraper design”, without carrying specific meaning [16] (p. 94). “Modern Functionalism rejected tradition and ornament and therefore eliminated the primary traditional insignia of local origin. This set the stage for an international style that was radically new and could in principle receive equally relevant contributions from anywhere in the world” [13] (p. 384). For this very critical issue of modern homogenization, critical regionalism assertions do not provide a sensitive high-rise design solution. This, by itself, will lead to uniform homogenized tall boxes with glassy façade which initially stand in International Style, and architects sometimes only “attempts to regionalize the International Style.” [4] (p. 214). Moreover, many high-rise construction developments intrinsically cannot respect the local topography: peaks and valleys of the building site are often flattened to accommodate easier and faster construction methods [15]. These constructions are clearly antithetical to the natural topography, and contradict the idea that had gained in critical regionalism approach. It is sometimes argued that “technology and place should be understood as the suppressed core concepts that are contained within regionalist architectural production” [17] (p. 433). Adaption of a house in its context is something that has been addressed in numerous regional works, insofar as “sometimes regionalism is minimally Buildings 2017, 7, 4 12 of 15 interpreted as a response to the local climatic conditions or specific topography” [4] (p. 21). However, “High-rise constructions tend to become disjunctive in this regard” as admitted Kenneth Frampton in his remarkable essay on critical regionalism [5] (p. 382). This is despite the fact that every latitude and facet of a high-rise building experiences considerable different climate conditions. The industry is now realizing that climate varies significantly with height and, thus, some of the great heights being achieved with tall buildings today effectively means that we are designing single tall buildings that cut across multiple climate zones. So, climatically, the group levels of stories, or each side of the building, need to be treated with different types of openings, materials, etc. A tall building should, thus, be considered as a number of stacked communities according to the opportunities of each specific horizon, both climatically and physically in its relation to the city, rather than extruded as a single monolithic form from the ground floor. This could manifest in the manipulation of building mass as well as program, and there should also be variance in skin and texture throughout the building, depending on the responsibilities of each different horizon within the form [1] (p. 96). It is like the amount of structural material required within the lower levels which is much larger than the material required within higher levels. However, the problems posed in high-rise design are mostly engaged with balancing between economics, engineering, and construction, and, unfortunately, this variation of climatic design could be merely taken into account. This has obliged engineers to resort to technological solutions for high-rise buildings, leading to mechanically conditioned glass skyscrapers, whose glossy surfaces do not reflect any climatic justifications. Behind their faceless façade, high-tech facilities are concealed, extensively used for high-rise buildings worldwide. Frampton aptly explained this situation: Modern building is now so universally conditioned by optimized technology that the possibility of creating significant urban form has become extremely limited. The restrictions jointly imposed by automotive distribution and the volatile play of land speculation serve to limit the scope of urban design to such a degree that any intervention tends to be reduced either to the manipulation of elements predetermined by the imperatives of production, or to a kind of superficial masking which modern development requires for the facilitation of marketing and the maintenance of social control [18] (p. 17). Local practitioners serve as a key role of the architectonic pertinent to the reflective practice of a critically regional architecture in which local labors and craftsmen engage to create the product. Critical regionalism consciously efforts to unify local craft with modern design, a tradition that persists to the present day. This may be appreciated for small-scale buildings, but in large-scale planning so far, it has been demanded for a collaboration between architects and engineers worldwide. Given a tangible statistic, “the vernacular styles of Asian supertalls are the product of architects from the United States or other Western countries ... Among the 92 supertall buildings completed or topped-out in Asia or the Middle East, 48 buildings were designed by Western architects, predominantly U.S. architects, and 44 by local architects” [9] (p. 818). Another concern, however, is substituting human involvement with machines. “There is interest in all digital and robotic fabrication in architecture, but the construction process of tall buildings maintains aesthetic aspects that are inherently un-robotic.” This issue is resulted in “growing inequity, unemployment, and environmental degradation” [2] (p. 6). It should be borne in mind that critical regionalism works are not only the matter of construction but also a well-organized coordination between architects and engineers. Altogether, new materials, inventions, and systems of construction, further consequent of industrialization, have come to shape those insensitive rigid boxes into more flexible forms.

5. Discussion It is discussed that various concerns of high-rise buildings touch upon the disconnection of quality of place and cultural identity with the effects and possibilities of modernity and technology. Buildings 2017, 7, 4 13 of 15

After explaining that high-rise standardized design and construction principles lead to faceless anonymous buildings through homogenization, it remains for architectural researchers to translate the strategies of regional responses that were applied in the past to be adapted to today’s high-rise buildings; in other words, make it critically regionalist. Adaptability, the very core of critical regionalism, in transferring the conception of place and identity to the high-rise definition deals with various parameters and variations. For this, a higher level of form complexity and tectonic articulation will give rise to alternate solutions for placelessness and lack of identity which is rooted in early modern designs. The earlier structural performance of so called passive designs had to meet the needs of structural regulations of high-rise buildings. Engineers’ contributions to architecture served as verification instruments, which means an architect’s design is controlled by civil engineers who verify the designed buildings to be complied with the required criteria. Unlike retroactive engineering oriented form-finding approaches, many of today’s sculpted complex-shaped tall buildings fundamentally follow a form-making approach. “For extremely tall buildings, structural systems cannot be configured independently without considering building forms” [9] (p. 830). Certain forms could still be quite difficult to achieve; complex forms, such as twisted, tapered, tilted, free forms, and their combinations, are generally more effective than prismatic regular forms. Brought about by computational technology, structural behavior of these complex-shaped forms could be simulated, analyzed and optimized. Herein both the possibilities and threats of technology should not be disregarded; overdosing the false complexity will produce a faceless architecture, further fueling the problems, as Curtis in his book Modern Architecture since 1900 quotes from Van Eyck: “I dislike a sentimental antiquarian towards the past as much as I dislike a sentimental technocratic one toward the future. Both are founded on a ... clockwork notion of time” [14] (p. 367). Sometimes, the designers do not mine the cultural, environmental, and economic potentials, but they simply manipulate form for form-making. In this regard, a groundwork should be established “on the fertile overlap of critical regionalism and digital process” as it is named the “digital regionalism” realm, to find potentially sophisticated and adaptive structural solutions for hyper-complex geometries in which these new complex surface geometries might be interpreted regionally, and how they might be translated in terms of conveying meanings [19] (p. 8). Now engineers are able to analyze many permutations and have the ability to analyze forces that are affected by local conditions, not simply the ones acting in a Newtonian straight line. This gives structure the potential for a specific and local response resulting in a much finer, and perhaps more irregular, grain [2] (p. 5). Although engineering solutions, with the advance of structural analysis techniques using computers, have provided ease of simulating in complex building forms, providing this groundwork is crucial for architects to be able to closely collaborate with engineering and craftsmanship to create articulation between spatial and structural qualities of architecture. An integrated design process for high-rise buildings is needed to unify them into a coherent design based on the contextual strategies and principles of regional design. “Regionalism in the context of the digital era is increasingly concerned with the integration and regeneration of physical information and virtual data through new technologies.” [20] (p. 93). Integrative regional design is more critical for high-rise buildings than any other building types, due to their enormous heights and scales, which require the most advanced building technologies and have a greater impact on urban and even global contexts. It seems totally sensible to develop the pre-rationalized rigid structures of high-rise buildings through a multi-dimension spatial-structural relationship which is based on adapting the critical regionalism approach with integrated customized tectonic articulation, digital construction, and material computation. Buildings 2017, 7, 4 14 of 15

The discourse of critical regionalism in the modern era arise broad social, cultural, and ethical criticism opened for further discussion and research. It is hoped that this pathology sheds more light on the required groundwork to implicate structural performance design method and techniques in order to foster place-making and identity-giving in high-rise constructions.

6. Conclusions As the global homogeneous epidemic of International Style skyscrapers transmitted over the world, a backlash against the lack of identity and placeless of the International Style emerged in the form of critical regionalism; a response to tectonically-vacuous, superficial postmodern architecture, and the homogenizing forces of modern technology. It is established that principles of critical regionalism of low-rise buildings that were creating successful regional architecture, cannot work in the same way at present in the wake of skyscrapers. It is explained that high-rise construction does not bring the necessary response to place and topography, a sense of reality to the cultural identity of architectural form, and the possibility of engaging local labor and skill in architectural production. These issues of high-rise buildings have been addressed by the aesthetic of the built form fed off architectonic articulation. The aesthetic of buildings is neither the only, nor the ultimate, objective of the architecture of regionalism. However, in the case of high-rise buildings, providing novel forms becomes more significant because they are visually more profound in relation with many places far and wide in the city, at differing horizons within its form. This visual dialogue with these distinct places can help inform a variance in form to further connect the building to its locale. Due to structural and installation requirements, the form of these edifices are still limited in embracing unconventional forms. Complex-shaped forms for high-rise buildings will definitely require more complicated technological systems of design and construction. It is important to moderately work with the knowledge that has already been acquired and start adapting the critical regionalism approach with the best technological achievements possible, rather than waiting for the perfect solution and do nothing until then. Structural, and other related performance issues should be considered holistically to produce a higher regional quality. Tectonic articulation between architecture, engineering, and craftsmanship can fill the gap between critical regionalism approaches and the technological responses, which permits regional differentiation, adaptions, and modifications. Whatever its pattern, it should help to stamp the architecture of a region as truly regional.

Acknowledgments: Special thanks to Abbas Bayat with editing of English grammar and style, Razgar Ghaderpour who gave insight and expertise in issues related to high-rise buildings, and also two anonymous reviewers and the academic editor for their precise comments. Author Contributions: Nima Zahiri conducted the research and wrote the manuscript. Omid Dezhdar contributed in the knowledge in critical regionalism, and Manouchehr Foroutan conceived the concept of the article. Conﬂicts of Interest: The authors declare no conﬂict of interest.

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