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Marketing Fragment 6 X 10.5.T65 Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-70329-1 - To the Threshold of Power, 1922/33: Origins and Dynamics of the Fascist and Nationalist Socialist Dictatorships, Volume I MacGregor Knox Frontmatter More information To the Threshold of Power, 1922/33 Origins and Dynamics of the Fascist and Nationalist Socialist Dictatorships Volume 1 To the Threshold of Power is the first volume of a two-part work that seeks to explain the origins and dynamics of the Fascist and National Socialist dictatorships. It lays a foundation for understanding the Nazi and Fascist regimes – from their respective seizures of power in 1922 and 1933 to global war, genocide, and common ruin – through parallel inves- tigations of Italian and German society, institutions, and national myths; the supreme test of the First World War; and the post-1918 struggles from which the Fascist and National Socialist movements emerged. It emphasizes two principal sources of movement: the nationalist mythol- ogy of the intellectuals and the institutional culture and agendas of the two armies, especially the Imperial German Army and its Reichswehr successor. The book’s climax is the cataclysm of 1914–18 and the rise and triumph of militarily organized radical nationalist movements – Mussolini’s Fasci di combattimento and Hitler’s National Socialist Ger- man Workers’ Party – dedicated to the perpetuation of the war and the overthrow of the post-1918 world order. MacGregor Knox has served since 1994 as Stevenson Professor of International History at the London School of Economics and Polit- ical Science. He was educated at Harvard College (B.A., 1967) and Yale University (Ph.D., 1977), and has also taught at the University of Rochester (United States). His writings deal with the wars and dicta- torships of the savage first half of the twentieth century and with con- temporary international and strategic history. They include Mussolini Unleashed, 1939–1941 (1982); The Making of Strategy: Rulers, States, and War (edited with Williamson Murray and Alvin Bernstein) (1994); Common Destiny: Dictatorship, Foreign Policy, and War in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany (2000); Hitler’s Italian Allies: Royal Armed Forces, Fascist Regime, and the War of 1940–43 (2000); and The Dynamics of Military Revolution, 1300–2050 (edited with Williamson Murray) (2001). Between his undergraduate and graduate studies he spent three years in the U.S. Army, and served in the Republic of Vietnam (1969) as rifle platoon leader with the 173rd Airborne Brigade. © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-70329-1 - To the Threshold of Power, 1922/33: Origins and Dynamics of the Fascist and Nationalist Socialist Dictatorships, Volume I MacGregor Knox Frontmatter More information To the Threshold of Power, 1922/33 Origins and Dynamics of the Fascist and Nationalist Socialist Dictatorships Volume 1 MacGregor Knox The London School of Economics and Political Science © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-70329-1 - To the Threshold of Power, 1922/33: Origins and Dynamics of the Fascist and Nationalist Socialist Dictatorships, Volume I MacGregor Knox Frontmatter More information cambridge university press Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao˜ Paulo, Delhi Cambridge University Press 32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, ny 10013-2473, usa www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521878609 C MacGregor Knox 2007 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2007 Printed in the United States of America A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Knox, MacGregor. To the threshold of power, 1922/33 : origins and dynamics of the fascist and nationalist socialist dictatorships / MacGregor Knox. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. isbn-13: 978-0-521-87860-9 (hardback) isbn-13: 978-0-521-70329-1 (pbk.) 1. Totalitarianism. 2. Fascism – Italy – History. 3. National socialism – Germany – History. I. Title. jc481.k527 2007 320.53 3–dc22 2007002272 isbn 978-0-521-87860-9 hardback isbn 978-0-521-70329-1 paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-70329-1 - To the Threshold of Power, 1922/33: Origins and Dynamics of the Fascist and Nationalist Socialist Dictatorships, Volume I MacGregor Knox Frontmatter More information Per Tina, come sempre Fur¨ Tina, wie immer © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-70329-1 - To the Threshold of Power, 1922/33: Origins and Dynamics of the Fascist and Nationalist Socialist Dictatorships, Volume I MacGregor Knox Frontmatter More information Contents List of Figures and Maps page ix Preface xi Abbreviations xiii Introduction: Dictatorship in the Age of Mass Politics 1 part i: the long nineteenth century, 1789–1914 1. Latecomers 19 1. Peculiarities of the Old Order 19 2. Revolutions from Above, 1789–1871: Politics, Society, Myths 32 2. Italy and Germany as Nation-States, 1871–1914 58 1. Economic Expansion, Social Ambition 58 2. The Politics of Stunted Parliamentarism 78 3. The Instruments of War 100 4. The National Myths 109 5. Fateful Peculiarities: The View from 1914 131 part ii: from war to dictatorship, 1914–1933 3. The Synthesis of Violence and Politics, 1914–1918 143 1. The Meaning of the War: The Inner Circle from Euphoria to Resentment 146 2. The Meaning of the War: “August Days” and “Radiant May” 169 3. The Meaning of the War: Fragmentation, Defeat, Denial, Wrath 182 4. Structural Transformations and the End of All Legitimacy 223 4. Kampfzeit: The Road to Radical Nationalist Victory, 1918–1933 232 1. Postwar Italy and Weimar Germany: Structures and Forces 233 2. The Perpetuation of the War: Ideas and Institutions 281 3. “Without Armistice or Quarter”: Fascism and National Socialism 300 vii © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-70329-1 - To the Threshold of Power, 1922/33: Origins and Dynamics of the Fascist and Nationalist Socialist Dictatorships, Volume I MacGregor Knox Frontmatter More information viii Contents 4. To Rome and Berlin, 1921–1922/1930–1933 361 5. Out of the National Pasts. 389 Conclusion: Into the Radical National Future: Inheritances and Prospects of the New Regimes 399 Frequently Cited Works 407 Index 421 © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-70329-1 - To the Threshold of Power, 1922/33: Origins and Dynamics of the Fascist and Nationalist Socialist Dictatorships, Volume I MacGregor Knox Frontmatter More information List of Figures and Maps figures 2.1 GDP of the Powers, 1870–1945 page 62 2.2 GDP of the European Powers and Japan, 1900–1945 63 2.3 The German Lead: Industrial Production as Percentage of GDP, 1850–1940 64 2.4 Percentage of the Workforce in Industry, 1849–1939 65 2.5 Per Capita GDP, 1900–1945: Germany, Northwest Italy, and the Powers 67 2.6 Stunted Parliamentarism: The Italian Franchise to 1913 82 2.7 The German “Five-Party System,” 1871–1918: Parties, Votes, and Reichstag Seats 92 2.8 The Unraveling of Bismarck’s System: The Popular Vote, 1871–1912 96 3.1 The Hammer of War: Armies and Peoples on Trial, 1914–1919 186 4.1 Economic and Political Trajectories: Italy and Germany from 1918 234 4.2 The Italian Civil War, 1919–1922: Strikes, Unemployment, Death 250 4.3 Rise, Decline, and Triumph of the “Anti-System” Vote 258 4.4 For or Against the Republic? The First Round, 29 March 1925 259 4.5 Against the Republic: The Election of Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg, 26 April 1925 260 4.6 The Caporetto of Liberalism: 16 November 1919 270 4.7 Fragmentation in Two Dimensions, 1913–1921 272 4.8 From PSI Local Power to Fascist Mass Movement, 1920–1921 312 ix © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-70329-1 - To the Threshold of Power, 1922/33: Origins and Dynamics of the Fascist and Nationalist Socialist Dictatorships, Volume I MacGregor Knox Frontmatter More information x List of Figures and Maps 4.9 At the Epicenter: Agricultural Strikes, PSI-PPI Political Control, and Fascist Civil War in Emilia-Romagna, 1920–1921 318 4.10 Liberal Italy’s Last Election, May 1921 327 4.11 The Final Elections, 1928–1932: Votes and Percentage of the Popular Vote 355 4.12 Catastrophe, 1929–1932 372 4.13 Last Victory of the “Lesser Evil,” March–April 1932 378 maps 1 The Western Front, 1918 (Adapted from maps by the Department of History, U.S. Military Academy, West Point, NY http://www.dean.usma.edu/history.) 156 2 The German Reich, 1914–1933 (Adapted from Andreas Kunz, Institut fur¨ Europaische¨ Geschichte – Mainz, “Deutschland nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg Ende 1921,” http://www.ieg- maps.uni-mainz.de.) 238 3 Italy: War and Civil War, 1915–1922 (Adapted, with thanks, from Adrian Lyttelton, The Seizure of Power: Fascism in Italy, 1919–1929 [New York, 1973], 436–37, and from maps by the Department of History, U.S. Military Academy, West Point, NY http://www.dean.usma.edu/history.) 308 © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-70329-1 - To the Threshold of Power, 1922/33: Origins and Dynamics of the Fascist and Nationalist Socialist Dictatorships, Volume I MacGregor Knox Frontmatter More information Preface This is an unfashionable book.
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