DOCSLIB.ORG

Determinants of Quantum Operators

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Determinants of Quantum Operators Determinants of Quantum Operators Nicholas Wheeler, Reed College Physics Department November 2009 Introduction. Justin Sumner has elected to attempt to develop a thesis from material that he encountered in a recent issue of AJP.1 The paper concerns the evaluation of the “functional determinants” that appear as “preexponential” factors when Feynman’s “sum-over-paths” formalism is used to construct quantum mechanical propagators, and that occur also in some other closely related contexts. The authors may be technically correct when they assert that “the prerequisites for this analysis involve only introductory courses in ordinary differential equations and complex variables,” but neglect to mention that the work is certain to seem entirely unmotivated to readers whose (quantum mechanical) experience happens not to have exposed them to certain fairly arcane issues/problems. Here my primary objective will be to motivate the subject, to place it in an intelligible physical/mathematical context. Initially I will be content to wander about on the periphery of the subject, reminding myself of issues/methods that seem to be of some remote relevance. Free particle propagator.2 The equation ∂ ψ = aD2ψ : D ∂ (1) ∂t ≡ ∂x becomes (i) the free particle Schroding¨ er equation if we set a = i ! 2m 1 Klaus Kirsten & Paul Loya, “Calculation of determinants using contour integrals,” AJP 76, 60–64 (2008). 2 Here I borrow from the opening paragraphs of my research notes: Theory and physical applications of the Appell transform (). That work was inspired by material I encountered in D. V. Widder’s The Heat Equation (). 2 Determinants of quantum operators and interpret ψ(x, t) to be a probability amplitude; (ii) the diffusion equation if we set a = diffusion coefficient and consider ψ to to provide a description of the relevant density; (iii) the Fourier heat equation if we set thermal conductivity a = (specific heat)(density) Formally, we expect—whatever the interpretation—to have at D 2 ψt(x) = e ψ0(x) (2) Familiarly, one has the Gaussian integral formula + ∞ (αx2+βx) β2/4α e− dx = π/α e : (α) > 0 (3.1) · " !−∞ " of which (send α 1/4a) #−→ + aβ2 1 ∞ 1 a–1x2 βx e = e− 4 − dx (3.2) √4πa !−∞ is a notational variant—of present interest because the expression on the right can be considered to provide an integral representation of the expression on the left. We proceed on the tentative assumption that it makes formal sense to write + at D 2 1 ∞ 1 ξ2 ξ D 1 e = e− 4at − dξ : ( > 0) (4) √4πat " 4at !−∞ —the point here being that the operator D, which appears squared on the left, appears unsquared on the right. By Taylor’s theorem we have (within some unstated radius of convergence) ξ D e− f(x) = f(x ξ) − so we expect to have + 1 ∞ 1 ξ2 ψt(x) = e− 4at ψ0(x ξ) dξ √4πat − !−∞ + ∞ = g (ξ) ψ (x ξ) dξ t 0 − !−∞ 1 1 x2 where gt(x) e− 4at (5) ≡ √4πat Free particle propagator 3 A final change of variables ξ y = x ξ gives #−→ − + ∞ ψ (x) = g (x y) ψ (y) dy (6) t t − 0 !−∞ The function ψt(x) thus produced satisfies (1) because each member of the y-parameterized family of functions g (x y) does: t − ∂ g (x y) = aD2g (x y) (7.1) ∂t t − t − And lim ψt(x) = g0(x) because lim gt(x y) = δ(x y) = δ(y x) (7.2) t 0 t 0 − − − ↓ ↓ The functions gt(x y) are the so-called “fundamental solutions” of the linear partial differential equation− (1). We might write gt t (x x0) = G(x, t; x0, t0) − 0 − to cast (6) into the form + ∞ ψt(x) = G(x, t; x0, t0) ψ0(x0) dx0 (8) !−∞ to emphasize that the fundamental solution is precisely the Green’s function of the differential equation in question. The prefactor 1 √4πat provides a trivial instance of the kind of object that the theory of functional determinants has been designed to evaluate. Higher-dimensional generalization. Let D2 be interpreted now to mean ∂1 ∂ 2 2 ∂ D = A where . with ∂i ∇· ∇ ∇ ≡ . ≡ ∂xi ∂n and where A is a real symmetric n n matrix (additional properties yet to be × specified). In the case A = I the second-order differential operator D2 reduces to the familiar Laplacian: 2 . Now, in straightforward generalization ∇·∇ of (3)—i.e., of ∇ ≡ ∇·∇ + 2 ∞ α x βx π 1 –1 e− ± dx = exp β α β α 4 !−∞ ) * + 4 Determinants of quantum operators —one has3 + n ∞ xiA xj b xi n π 1 b Aij b e− ij ± i d x = e 4 i j · · · ,det Aij !! !−∞ ) ) ij –1 where A Aij and summation on repeated indices is understood, and to assure) con) ≡vergence) ) we have had to assume that all the (necessarily real) eigenvalues of A are positive. More neatly, + ∞ πn 1 –1 x Ax b x n 4 b A b e− · ± · d x = e · (9) · · · det A !! !−∞ ) or again (send A 1 B –1) #−→ 4 + 1 –1 b B b 1 ∞ x B x b x n e · = e− 4 · ± · d x (4π)n det · · · B !! !−∞ " on which basis we expect to have (at least formally) + 1 –1 t A 1 ∞ ξ A ξ ξ n e ∇· ∇ = e− 4t · − ·∇ d ξ (10) (4π t)n det · · · A !! !−∞ " from which we recover (4) in the one-dimensional case. The multi-variable Taylor theorem provides (again within some unstated radius of convergence) ξ e− f(x) = f(x ξ) ·∇ − so we expect the solution of ∂tψ(x, t) = ( A )ψ(x, t) : ψ(x, 0) = ψ0(x) ∇· ∇ to be expressible t A ψ(x, t) = e ∇· ∇ψ(x, 0) + ∞ = g (ξ)ψ (x ξ) dξ dξ (12) · · · t 0 − 1 · · · n !! !−∞ 1 1 x A–1x where now gt(x) e− 4t · (13) ≡ (4π t)n det A " 3 See page 32 in my quantum mechanics (/), or (for example) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian integral Problems that arise when n is very large 5 If A were diagonal a 0 0 1 · · · 0 a2 0 A = . ·.· · . . .. 0 0 an · · · —which can in principle always be achieved by a rotational change of variables— then (13) assumes the especially transparent form n –1 g (x) = 1 e xi(4ait) xi t √4πa t − i=1 i - In such cases, the n-dimensional problem resolves into what are essentially n copies of the one-dimensional problem.4 Problems that arise when n is very large. When n is very large (and especially in the limit n ) and spectral information is absent, the use of (13) presents two closely related→ ∞ problems: 1) the definition of det A (which involves a sum over signed permutations) becomes unworkable, and 2) so also (for similar reason) does the matrix-theoretic construction of A. Looking first to the former problem, we if we were in position to write A = exp L then we would have det A = exp tr L (14) which, if one commands (say) L=RandomReal[. / 0,1 , 5,5 ] to construct a { } { } random 5 5 with random elements drawn from{ the}in{terval} 0, 1 , is readily verified by×calculation. The identity (14) presents this advantage:{ ev}aluation of tr L involves no permutational combinatorics—is straightforward whatever the dimension of L. If spectral information were available, one would have det A = ai i - whence log det A = log ai i 0 4 My “essentially” becomes “literally” when and only when the initial value of ψ(x, t) factors: n ψ(x, t) = fi(xi) i=1 - 6 Determinants of quantum operators Now the non-obvious step which Kirsten & Loya1 take in the introduction to their paper, and which appears to be entirely characteristic of work in this s s log a field: trivially a− = e− , so d s s log a a− = e− log a ds − ↓ = log a at s = 0 − and we have log det A = log ai − − i * 0 + d s = ds ai− − s=0 i 1 0 1 Enlarging upon the definition of the Riemann ζ-function1 ∞ s ζ (s) n− Riemann ≡ n=1 0 we define ∞ s ζ (s) a− (15) A ≡ i i=1 0 which gives back ζRiemann(s) in the special case ai = i: (i = 1, 2, 3, . .). In this notation d log det A = ds ζ A(s) − s=0 1 = ζ $ (0) 1 − A 1 , det A = exp ζ $ (0) (16) − A Comparison with (14) supplies ζ (0) =.tr log . /These equations are pretty, A$ A but become useful only if one is−in position to speak without knowledge of the A-spectrum about relevant properties of the function ζ A(s). The preceding remarks have nothing per se to do with quantum mechanics, but do have quantum mechanical applications, and it is in the latter context that—for the reason just stated—one acquires interest in the general theory of quantum ζ-functions.5 5 Richard Crandall, in “On the quantum zeta function,” J. Phys. A: Math. Gen. 29, 6795–6816 (1996), draws attention to the remarkable fact that s Z(s) = Ei− i 0 can sometimes be evaluated exactly even though not a single eigenvalue Ei is known. He himself concentrates on cases in which s assumes (not arbitrary complex, but) integral values. The quantum connection 7 Basic notions. The dynamical evolution of an arbitrary quantum state ψ) is accomplished by action | ψ) ψ) = U(t , t ) ψ) | t0 #−→ | t1 1 0 | t0 of a unitary operator of which these are fundamental properties: U(t0, t0) = I (17.1) U(t2, t0) = U(t2, t1)U(t1, t0) (17.2) t Differentiation of the unitarity condition U(t, t0)U (t, t0) = I establishes that necessarily U(t, t0) satisfies a differential equation of the form ∂ i! ∂t U = HU : H hermitian, with [H] = energy (18) of which the Schr¨odinger equation ∂ i! ψ)t = H ψ)t ∂t | | is an immediate corollary.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Functional Determinant of the Massive Laplace Operator and the Multiplicative Anomaly
    Functional Determinant of the Massive Laplace Operator and the Multiplicative Anomaly a,b c a,b Guido Cognola ∗, Emilio Elizalde †, and Sergio Zerbini ‡ (a) Dipartimento di Fisica, Universit`adi Trento via Sommarive 14, 38123 Trento, Italia (b) TIFPA (INFN), Trento, Italia (c) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientficas ICE (CSIC-IEEC), UAB Campus, 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain Abstract After a brief survey of zeta function regularization issues and of the related multiplica- tive anomaly, illustrated with a couple of basic examples, namely the harmonic oscillator and quantum field theory at finite temperature, an application of these methods to the computa- tion of functional determinants corresponding to massive Laplacians on spheres in arbitrary dimensions is presented. Explicit formulas are provided for the Laplace operator on spheres in N = 1, 2, 3, 4 dimensions and for ‘vector’ and ‘tensor’ Laplacians on the unitary sphere S4. 1 Introduction In quantum field theory (QFT), the Euclidean partition function plays a very important role. The full propagator and all other n point correlation functions can be computed by means of it. − Moreover, this tool can be extended without problem to curved space-time [1]. As a formalism this is extremely beautiful but it must be noticed that in relativistic quantum field theories an infinite number of degrees of freedom is involved and, as a consequence, ultraviolet divergences will be present, thus rendering regularization and renormalization compulsory. In the one-loop approximation, and in the external field approximation too, one may describe (scalar) quantum fields by means of a (Euclidean) path integral and express the Euclidean parti- tion function as a function of functional determinants associated with the differential operators involved.
    [Show full text]
  • Functional Determinants, Index Theorems, and Exact Quantum Black Hole Entropy
    Prepared for submission to JHEP Functional determinants, index theorems, and exact quantum black hole entropy Sameer Murthy1 and Valentin Reys2 1Department of Mathematics, King’s College London The Strand, London WC2R 2LS, U.K. 2Nikhef theory group, Science Park 105, 1098 XG Amsterdam, The Netherlands Abstract: The exact quantum entropy of BPS black holes can be evaluated us- ing localization in supergravity. An important ingredient in this program, that has been lacking so far, is the one-loop effect arising from the quadratic fluctuations of the exact deformation (the Q operator). We compute the fluctuation determinant for V vector multiplets and hyper multiplets around Q-invariant off-shell configurations in four-dimensional = 2 supergravity with AdS S2 boundary conditions, using the N 2 × Atiyah-Bott fixed-point index theorem and a subsequent zeta function regularization. Our results extend the large-charge on-shell entropy computations in the literature to a regime of finite charges. Based on our results, we present an exact formula for the quantum entropy of BPS black holes in = 2 supergravity. We explain cancel- 1 N lations concerning 8 -BPS black holes in = 8 supergravity that were observed in arXiv:1504.01400v3 [hep-th] 2 Dec 2015 N arXiv:1111.1161. We also make comments about the interpretation of a logarithmic term in the topological string partition function in the low energy supergravity theory. Keywords: Black hole entropy, Localization, Off-shell supergravity Contents 1 Introduction and summary: Quantum entropy of supersymmetric
    [Show full text]
  • On Functional Determinants of Matrix Differential Operators with Multiple
    On functional determinants of matrix differential operators with multiple zero modes G. M. Falco1, Andrei A. Fedorenko2 and Ilya A. Gruzberg3 1Amsterdam University of Applied Studies, Weesperzijde 190, 1097 DZ, Amsterdam, Netherlands 2 Laboratoire de Physique, ENS de Lyon, Univ Claude Bernard, Univ Lyon, CNRS, F-69342 Lyon, France 3 Ohio State University, Department of Physics, 191 W. Woodruff Ave, Columbus OH, 43210, USA E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] Abstract. We generalize the method of computing functional determinants with a single excluded zero eigenvalue developed by McKane and Tarlie to differential operators with multiple zero eigenvalues. We derive general formulas for such functional determinants of r r matrix second order differential operators O with 0 < n 6 2r linearly × independent zero modes. We separately discuss the cases of the homogeneous Dirichlet boundary conditions, when the number of zero modes cannot exceed r, and the case of twisted boundary conditions, including the periodic and anti-periodic ones, when the number of zero modes is bounded above by 2r. In all cases the determinants with excluded zero eigenvalues can be expressed only in terms of the n zero modes and other r n or 2r n (depending on the boundary conditions) solutions of the homogeneous − − equation Oh = 0, in the spirit of Gel’fand-Yaglom approach. In instanton calculations, the contribution of the zero modes is taken into account by introducing the so-called collective coordinates. We show that there is a remarkable cancellation of a factor (involving scalar products of zero modes) between the Jacobian of the transformation to the collective coordinates and the functional fluctuation determinant with excluded zero eigenvalues.
    [Show full text]
  • Heat Trace and Functional Determinant in One Dimension
    New Mexico Tech (June 5, 2014) Heat Trace and Functional Determinant in One Dimension Ivan G. Avramidi Department of Mathematics New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology Socorro, NM 87801, USA E-mail: [email protected] arXiv:1406.1499v2 [math-ph] 10 Nov 2014 We study the spectral properties of the Laplace type operator on the cir- cle. We discuss various approximations for the heat trace, the zeta function and the zeta-regularized determinant. We obtain a differential equation for the heat kernel diagonal and a recursive system for the diagonal heat ker- nel coefficients, which enables us to find closed approximate formulas for the heat trace and the functional determinant which become exact in the limit of infinite radius. The relation to the generalized KdV hierarchy is discussed as well. 1 Introduction The heat kernel of elliptic partial differential operators is one of the most powerful tools in mathematical physics (see, for example, [12, 13, 4, 5, 17, 22] and further references therein). Of special importance are the spectral functions such as the heat trace, the zeta function and the functional determinant that enable one to study the spectral properties of the corresponding operator. The one-dimensional case is a very special one which exhibits an underly- ing symmetry that has deep relations to such diverse areas as integrable systems, infinite-dimensional Hamiltonian systems, isospectrality etc (see [1, 20, 21, 9, 6, 10, 7, 14, 15, 16], for example). Moreover, it has been shown that one can ob- tain closed formulas which express the functional determinant in one dimension in terms of a solution to a particular initial value problem; see, e.g., [19, 11, 18].
    [Show full text]
  • Sharp Inequalities, the Functional Determinant, and the Complementary Series
    TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN MATHEMATICAL SOCIETY Volume 347, Number 10, October 1995 SHARP INEQUALITIES, THE FUNCTIONAL DETERMINANT, AND THE COMPLEMENTARY SERIES THOMAS P. BRANSON Abstract. Results in the spectral theory of differential operators, and recent results on conformally covariant differential operators and on sharp inequali- ties, are combined in a study of functional determinants of natural differential operators. The setting is that of compact Riemannian manifolds. We concen- trate especially on the conformally flat case, and obtain formulas in dimensions 2, 4, and 6 for the functional determinants of operators which are well be- haved under conformai change of metric. The two-dimensional formulas are due to Polyakov, and the four-dimensional formulas to Branson and Orsted; the method is sufficiently streamlined here that we are able to present the six- dimensional case for the first time. In particular, we solve the extremal problems for the functional determinants of the conformai Laplacian and of the square of the Dirac operator on S2 , and in the standard conformai classes on S4 and S6 . The S2 results are due to Onofri, and the S4 results to Branson, Chang, and Yang; the S6 results are presented for the first time here. Recent results of Graham, Jenne, Mason, and Sparling on conformally covariant dif- ferential operators, and of Beckner on sharp Sobolev and Moser-Trudinger type inequalities, are used in an essential way, as are a computation of the spectra of intertwining operators for the complementary series of SOo(m + 1, 1), and the precise dependence of all computations on the dimension. In the process of solving the extremal problem on S6 , we are forced to derive a new and delicate conformally covariant sharp inequality, essentially a covariant form of the Sobolev embedding L2(S6) «-» L3(S6) for section spaces of trace free symmetric two-tensors.
    [Show full text]
  • Functional Determinants in Quantum Field Theory
    Functional Determinants in Quantum Field Theory Gerald Dunne Department of Physics, University of Connecticut May 21, 2009 Abstract Lecture notes on Functional Determinants in Quantum Field Theory given by Gerald Dunne at the 14th WE Heraeus Saalburg summer school in Wolfersdorf, Thuringia, in September 2008. Lecture notes taken by Babette D¨obrich and exercises with solutions by Oliver Schlotterer. Contents 1 Introduction 3 1.1 Motivation . .3 1.2 Outline . .4 2 ζ-function Regularization 5 2.1 Riemann ζ-function . .6 2.2 Hurwitz ζ-function . .7 2.3 Epstein ζ-function . .8 3 Heat kernel and heat kernel expansion 10 3.1 Properties of the heat kernel and relation to the ζ-function . 10 3.2 Heat Kernel expansions . 11 3.3 Heat kernel expansion in gauge theories . 12 1 2 CONTENTS 4 Paradigm: The Euler-Heisenberg effective action 13 4.1 Borel summation of the EH perturbative series . 14 4.2 Non-alternating series . 17 4.3 Perturbative vs non-perturbative . 18 5 The Gel'fand-Yaglom formalism 19 5.1 Preliminaries . 19 5.2 One-dimensional Schr¨odingeroperators . 21 5.3 Sine-Gordon Solitons and zero modes of the determinant . 24 5.4 Gel'fand Yaglom with generalized boundary conditions . 26 6 Radial Gel'fand-Yaglom formalism in higher dimensions 27 6.1 d-dimensional radial operators . 27 6.2 Example: 2-dimensional Helmholtz problem on a disc . 29 6.3 Renormalization . 31 7 False vacuum decay 34 7.1 Preliminaries . 34 7.2 The classical bounce solution . 35 7.3 Computing the determinant factor with radial Gel'fand Yaglom .
    [Show full text]
  • Gelfand-Yaglom Formula for Functional Determinants in Higher Dimensions
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Repository@Nottingham Gelfand-Yaglom formula for functional determinants in higher dimensions A. Ossipov School of Mathematical Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, United Kingdom E-mail: [email protected] Abstract. The Gelfand-Yaglom formula relates functional determinants of the one- dimensional second order differential operators to the solutions of the corresponding initial value problem. In this work we generalise the Gelfand-Yaglom method by considering discrete and continuum partial second order differential operators in higher dimensions. To illustrate our main result we apply the generalised formula to the two- dimensional massive and massless discrete Laplace operators and calculate asymptotic expressions for their determinants. Gelfand-Yaglom formula for functional determinants in higher dimensions 2 1. Introduction Functional determinants of the second order differential operators appear naturally in many different fields ranging from quantum mechanics [1], to quantum field theories [2], to condensed matter physics [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8] and mathematics [9, 10]. Generally, computation of a functional determinant represents a very non-trivial problem and requires the knowledge of all eigenvalues of the differential operator. Even when all eigenvalues are known, calculation of their infinite product might be challenging. However in one-dimensional case, there is an elegant method developed by Gelfand and Yaglom (GY) [11], which allows one to calculate a functional determinant by solving an initial value problem for the corresponding differential operator. Consider a one- dimensional differential operator d2 H = − + V (x); (1) dx2 where V (x) is an arbitrary potential and the operator acts on functions (x) defined on the finite interval [0;L] and satisfying the Dirichlet boundary condition (0) = (L) = 0.
    [Show full text]
  • Zeta Function and Regularized Determinant on a Disc and on a Cone
    Journal of Geometry and Physics 54 (2005) 355–371 Zeta function and regularized determinant on a disc and on a cone M. Spreafico∗ ICMC, Universidade S˜ao Paulo, 13560-970 S˜ao Carlos, SP, Brazil Received 20 September 2004; accepted 15 October 2004 Available online 24 November 2004 Abstract We give formulas for the analytic extension of the zeta function of the induced Laplacian L on a disc and on a cone. This allows the explicit computation of the value of the zeta function and of its derivative at the origin, and hence we get a formula for the regularized determinant of L. © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. MSC: 11M36; 58J52 Keywords: Zeta function; Elliptic operators; Regularization 1. Introduction The regularized determinant of an elliptic differential operator was originally introduced in geometric analysis to deal with the heat equation and the index theorem in [2] and with the analytic torsion in [27], and soon became object of strong interest and intensive study in differential geometry [12,22] and conformal geometry, where in particular it is studied as a function of the metric for suitable classes of operators (see e.g. [4,26], and also [5] where a formula is developed for the quotient of the determinant of two conformally related conformal operators), but also in mathematical physics, where it provides a regularization ∗ Tel.: +16 33719626; fax: +16 33719650. E-mail address: [email protected]. 0393-0440/$ – see front matter © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.geomphys.2004.10.005 356 M. Spreafico / Journal of Geometry and Physics 54 (2005) 355–371 of the functional integral [19,36].
    [Show full text]
  • Functional Determinants in Quantum Field Theory 2
    Functional Determinants in Quantum Field Theory ‡ Gerald V. Dunne Institut f¨ur Theoretische Physik, Universit¨at Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany Department of Physics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA Abstract. Functional determinants of differential operators play a prominent role in theoretical and mathematical physics, and in particular in quantum field theory. They are, however, difficult to compute in non-trivial cases. For one dimensional problems, a classical result of Gel’fand and Yaglom dramatically simplifies the problem so that the functional determinant can be computed without computing the spectrum of eigenvalues. Here I report recent progress in extending this approach to higher dimensions (i.e., functional determinants of partial differential operators), with applications in quantum field theory. 1. Introduction : why are determinants important in QFT? This talk considers the question: what is the determinant of a partial differential operator, and how might one compute it? The physical motivation for this question comes from several areas of physics: Effective actions, grand canonical potentials: These appear in relativistic and non- • relativistic many-body theory and quantum field theory (QFT), and are generically given by an expression of the form Ω = tr ln G = ln det G, where G is a Green’s function, and the trace is over an infinite set of quantum states. arXiv:0711.1178v1 [hep-th] 7 Nov 2007 Tunneling and semiclassical physics: tunneling and nucleation processes can be • analyzed in a semiclassical approach,
    [Show full text]
  • And Quantum Mechanical Behaviour Is a Subject Which Is Not a Rarefied and Moribund Field
    International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) www.ijmer.com Vol.2, Issue.4, July-Aug 2012 pp-1602-1731 ISSN: 2249-6645 Quantum Computer (Information) and Quantum Mechanical Behaviour - A Quid Pro Quo Model 1 2 3 Dr K N Prasanna Kumar, prof B S Kiranagi, Prof C S Bagewadi For (7), 36 ,37, 38,--39 Abstract: Perception may not be what you think it is. Perception is not just a collection of inputs from our sensory system. Instead, it is the brain's interpretation (positive, negative or neutral-no signature case) of stimuli which is based on an individual's genetics and past experiences. Perception is therefore produced by (e) brain‘s interpretation of stimuli .The universe actually a giant quantum computer? According to Seth Lloyd--professor of quantum-mechanical engineering at MIT and originator of the first technologically feasible design for a working quantum computer--the answer is yes. Interactions between particles in the universe, Lloyd explains, convey not only (- to+) energy but also information-- In brief, a quantum is the smallest unit of a physical quantity expressing (anagrammatic expression and representation) a property of matter having both a particle and wave nature. On the scale of atoms and molecules, matter (e&eb) behaves in a quantum manner. The idea that computation might be performed more efficiently by making clever use (e) of the fascinating properties of quantum mechanics is nothing other than the quantum computer. In actuality, everything that happens (either positive or negative e&eb) in our daily lives conforms (one that does not break the rules) (e (e)) to the principles of quantum mechanics if we were to observe them on a microscopic scale, that is, on the scale of atoms and molecules.
    [Show full text]
  • Al-Kashi Background Statistics
    Al-Kashi Background Statistics http://www.ar-php.org/stats/al-kashi/ PDF generated using the open source mwlib toolkit. See http://code.pediapress.com/ for more information. PDF generated at: Sat, 01 Feb 2014 07:11:01 UTC Contents Articles Summary Statistics 1 Mean 1 Median 6 Mode (statistics) 15 Variance 20 Standard deviation 32 Coefficient of variation 46 Skewness 49 Kurtosis 55 Ranking 61 Graphics 65 Box plot 65 Histogram 68 Q–Q plot 74 Ternary plot 79 Distributions 84 Normal distribution 84 Student's t-distribution 113 F-distribution 128 Feature scaling 131 Correlation and Regression 134 Covariance 134 Correlation and dependence 138 Regression analysis 144 Path analysis (statistics) 154 Analysis 156 Moving average 156 Student's t-test 162 Contingency table 171 Analysis of variance 174 Principal component analysis 189 Diversity index 205 Diversity index 205 Clustering 210 Hierarchical clustering 210 K-means clustering 215 Matrix 225 Matrix (mathematics) 225 Matrix addition 247 Matrix multiplication 249 Transpose 263 Determinant 266 Minor (linear algebra) 284 Adjugate matrix 287 Invertible matrix 291 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors 298 System of linear equations 316 References Article Sources and Contributors 326 Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 332 Article Licenses License 335 1 Summary Statistics Mean In mathematics, mean has several different definitions depending on the context. In probability and statistics, mean and expected value are used synonymously to refer to one measure of the central tendency either of a probability distribution or of the random variable characterized by that distribution. In the case of a discrete probability distribution of a random variable X, the mean is equal to the sum over every possible value weighted by the probability of that value; that is, it is computed by taking the product of each possible value x of X and its probability P(x), and then adding all these products together, giving .[1] An analogous formula applies to the case of a continuous probability distribution.
    [Show full text]
  • ZETA REGULARIZED PRODUCTS In
    transactions of the american mathematical society Volume 338, Number 1, July 1993 ZETA REGULARIZED PRODUCTS J. R. QUINE, S. H. HEYDARI AND R. Y. SONG Abstract. If Xk is a sequence of nonzero complex numbers, then we define the zeta regularized product of these numbers, fTjt ^-fc> t0 t>e exP(_Z'(0)) where Z(s) = Yï.kLo^kS ■ We assume that Z(s) has analytic continuation to a neigh- borhood of the origin. If Xk is the sequence of positive eigenvalues of the Laplacian on a manifold, then the zeta regularized product is known as det' A , the determinant of the Laplacian, and rifcA _ ^) is known as the functional determinant. The purpose of this paper is to discuss properties of the deter- minant and functional determinant for general sequences of complex numbers. We discuss asymptotic expansions of the functional determinant as X —>-oo and its relationship to the Weierstrass product. We give some applications to the theory of Barnes' multiple gamma functions and elliptic functions. A new proof is given for Kronecker's limit formula and the product expansion for Barnes' double Stirling modular constant. Introduction If Xk is a sequence of nonzero complex numbers, then we define the zeta reg- ularized product of these numbers, Y\zkXk, to be exp(-Z'(0)) where Z(s) - YlT=oKS • ^e assume that Z(s) has meromorphic continuation with at most simple poles, to a half-plane containing the origin, and is analytic at the origin. We call such a sequence zeta regularizable. If Xk is the sequence of positive eigenvalues of the Laplacian on a manifold, then the zeta regularized product is known as det' A, the determinant of the Laplacian.
    [Show full text]