Tc/40/As2 Quantification of Subsistence and Cultural

TC/40/AS2

QUANTIFICATION OF SUBSISTENCE AND CULTURAL NEED FOR BOWHEAD WHALES BY ALASKA ESKIMOS

Stephen R. Braund Sam W. Stoker John A. Kruse

May 1988

Stephen R. Braund & Associates P.O. Box 1480 Anchorage, Alaska 99510

907-276-8222

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... i

LIST OF TABLES. . . . iii

LIST OF FIGURES.. . . iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.... . iii

INTRODUCTION...... 1 Historical Context 3 Interim Report on Aboriginal/Subsistence Whaling of the Bowhead Whale by Alaskan Eskimos ...... 4 Subsistence Study of Alaska Eskimo Whaling Villages . . . . 4 Report on Nutritional, Subsistence, and Cultural Needs Relating to the Catch of Bowhead Whales hy Alaska Natives 6 Comments on the U.S. Government's 1983 Position Paper 8 Organization of Report . . . . 9

DAT A COLLECTION METHODS ..... 11 Data on Shore-Based Whaling . . 11 Repository, Library, and Archival Sources 12 Field Data Collection 12 Wainwright 18 Wales .. 19 Gambell .. 19 Savoonga 20 Summary..... 20 The Eskimo Population Model 20 Data Sources for the Model 21 Model Structure . . . . . 21 Wildlife Resource Data 27 Data Sources for the Resource Assessment 28 Conclusion ...... 29

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS ... 30 Whale Harvest Data ...... 30 Presentation of Whale Harvest Data in Appendix 1 30 Resolution of Whale Harvest Data Conflicts 32 Consolidation of Historic Sites 34 Kivalina ..... 36 Point Hope 38 Wainwright 38 Barrow .. 39 Selection of the Appropriate Base Period 40 Variability in Resource Populations 41 Economic Variability Over Time 43 Establishing the Beginning of the Base Period 44 Establishing the End of the Base Period 47 The Base Period: 1910 Through 1969 48 Estimation of Cultural and Subsistence Need Based on the Relationship Between Bow head Whales Landed and Eskimo Population . 49 Future Population Trends 57 Struck and Lost 59 Conclusion ...... 61 TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)

REFERENCES CITED ...... 62

APPENDIX 1: Data on Shore-Based Bowhead Whaling at Sites in Alaska (including bibliographies) by Stephen R. Braund, Willman M. Marquette, and John R. Bockstoce

APPENDIX 2: Whale Harvest and Eskimo Population Data for Alaska Eskimo Whaling Communities, 1910-1969 by Stephen R. Braund and John A. Kruse

ii LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Repositories, Libraries, and Archives Searched for Information on Alaska Shore-Based Whaling ...... 13

Table 2: Information Sources for the Eskimo Population Model 22

Table 3: List of Alaska Sites for Shore-Based Bowhead Whaling Data 35

Table 4: List of Consolidated Alaska Sites for Subsistence Whaling 37

Table 5: Example from Appendix 2, Whale Harvest and Eskimo Population Data for Barrow, Alaska, 1910-1969 ...... 54

Table 6: Alaska Eskimo Whaling Villages' Subsistence and Cultural Need For Landed Bowhead Whales, 1988 ...... 56

Table 7: Alaska Eskimo Whaling Villages' Eskimo Population Estimates 1983-1988 ...... 58

Table 8: Percent of Bowheads Landed Out of Total Struck 60

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Alaska Eskimo Bowhead Whaling Locations 2

Figure 2: Alaska Eskimo Population Living in Whaling Villages, 1900-2020 26

Figure 3: Excerpt From Appendix 1 - Data on Shore-Based Whaling Sites In Alaska ...... 31

Figure 4: Number of Bowhead Landed by Year by Alaska Eskimo, 1900-1987 45

Figure 5: Number of Bowhead Landed by the Barrow, Alaska Eskimo, 1910-1969 ...... 51

Figure 6: Barrow, Alaska Eskimo Population, 1910-1969 52

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In addition to individuals listed on the title page, the following people assisted in the research and preparation of this report: Lisa Moorehead, David C. Burnham, Monica Glen, Robert B. Glen and Anne C. Sudkamp.

iii

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this report is to determine the level of present cultural and subsistence need for bowhead whales by Alaska Eskimos based on historic bowhead harvest levels and Eskimo populations in nine Alaska whaling villages. The report also contains an estimate of future need based on a projection of the Alaska Eskimo population in these communities to the year 2020. Communities included are Gambell, Savoonga, Wales, Kivalina, Point Hope, Wainwright, Barrow, Nuiqsut, and Kaktovik (Figure 1). The methodology used in this report is that of historic per capita harvests. This methodology was submitted to the International Whaling Commission (IWC) by the U.S. in 1983 and accepted by the IWC in 1986. The present report contains a calculation of cultural and subsistence need using an expanded data base designed to address the questions raised by IWC member nations preceding and during the 1986 meetings.

As used in this paper, cultural and subsistence need does not include nutritional need. Thus, this analysis does not address the amount of fat, protein and carbohydrates that Eskimos need to maintain their physical health. Rather, the need addressed here refers to the traditional need by Alaska Eskimos to maintain a healthy and viable culture. One of the primary ways contemporary Eskimos maintain their cultural identity is through the local harvest and consumption of subsistence foods and associated social activities. In the Alaska whaling communities, the most important traditional activity is bowhead whaling, including training, preparation for the hunt, hunting, harvesting, distri bu ti on and sharing of meat and muktuk, and associated ceremonies (see Alaska Consultants, Inc. and Stephen Braund & Associates 1984, International Whaling Commission 1979, Worl 1978, 1979, Lowenstein 1981). In order to maintain the cultural value of this activity, the Eskimos must continue to have the opportunity to hunt and harvest bowhead whales. Using historic per capita harvests by village as a measure, the authors of this report determine how many bowhead whales these Alaska Eskimo villages require in order to maintain their cultural identity. Because a determination of need based on cultural and subsistence factors is independent of the biological status of the species, the number of whales potentially available is not considered in this analysis.

- 1 - Figure I:

LEGEND 0 ALASKA ESKIMO VILLAGE Alaska Eskimo Bowhead @ TRADITIONAL WHALING SITE

* HISTORIC SEffiEMENT

SCALE IN MILES Whaling Locatipns

SfEPHEN R. BRAUND & ASSOC 1988 BEAUFORT SEA BarrON

CHUKCHI SEA

"" ~

S K A

KING ISLAND :f> Gambell ~ga

~NT~ BERING SEA LAWRENCE ISLAND HISTORICAL CONTEXT

Since its formation in 1947, the IWC has regulated the commercial hunting of whales. However, until 1977, an exemption for subsistence hunting enabled the Alaska Eskimos to continue their subsistence harvest of the western Arctic bowhead stock free of IWC regulation. In recent years, subsistence hunting has been regulated by the IWC to permit the Alaska Eskimos to continue their harvest during the IWC's moratorium on commercial whaling. The Alaska Eskimos have harvested bowhead whales for over 2,000 years as the large mammals migrate through nearshore leads that develop in the Bering, Chukchi, and Beaufort seas each spring.

Yankee whalers began to exploit this bowhead population commercially beginning in 1848. Analysis of historic commercial whaling records indicates that over 19,000 bowheads were killed from 1848 to 1915 in response to worldwide demands for whale oil and baleen (Bockstoce 1978). The establishment of the first shore-based whaling stations in 1885 marked the Eskimos' en try into the commercial whaling industry and their introduction to Yankee whaling technology. Following the collapse of the industry in 1909, Eskimo whalers continued their subsistence whaling, adopting the Yankee shoulder and darting guns for their subsistence hunts. Due to the excessive commercial harvests of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the IWC in the mid-l 970s determined that all bowhead stocks, including the western Arctic population upon which the Alaska Eskimos depend, should be considered seriously depleted (Tillman 1980). Hence, the IWC assumed jurisdiction over the Alaska Eskimos' subsistence bowhead whale hunting.

Beginning in 1972, the IWC requested that the United States provide data regarding the status of the western Arctic bowhead population and the Alaska Eskimo hunt of this whale. As a result, the U.S., through the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) of the Department of Commerce, began to gather biological information on the bow head and to monitor the Alaska Eskimo subsistence hunt in 1973. The lack of data on the size and health of the bowhead population, combined with reported increases in the number of bowheads landed and whales struck but lost, as well as reported increases in the number of whaling crews in three major whaling communities during the early to mid-1970s (Tillman 1980) led to increasing concern among conservation groups

- 3 - and some IWC members over the effect of the Alaska Eskimo unregulated subsistence hunt on the endangered bowhead population. At that time, bowhead population estimates were so low that, in June 1977, the IWC banned the harvest of bowhead whales for subsistence.

At a special meeting in December 1977, the IWC's Scientific Committee determined that, based on the biological data available, the subsistence hunt of bow heads should not be allowed. However, cultural and subsistence dependence on the bowhead by the Alaska Eskimos prompted the IWC to remove the ban and to implement a 1978 quota of 12 whales landed or 18 struck, whichever occurred first. In addition, the IWC asked the U.S. for further research on the biology of the bowhead as well as on the cultural and subsistence needs of the Alaska Eskimos to hunt this species.

Interim Report on Aboriginal/Subsistence Whaling of the Bowhead Whale by Alaskan Eskimos

In 1980, at the 32nd Annual Meeting of the IWC, the U.S. submitted a report compiled by the U.S. Department of Interior (USDOI) entitled Interim Report on Aboriginal/Subsistence Whaling of the Bowhead Whale by Alaskan Eskimos (USDOI 1980). In this report, the US DOI addressed specific issues raised by the IWC in 1979 at its 31st Annual Meeting concerning the future of the bowhead whale and the Eskimo culture. Based on the information then available, the report examined the cultural and nutritional importance of the bowhead to the Eskimos and assessed historic bowhead harvests by community. The report also contained recommendations for estimating the Eskimo need for bowheads based on cultural requirements and historic catch. The IWC considered this report and concluded that additional data were necessary in order to assess adequately the cultural, subsistence, and nutritional need, since dependence on the limited data available at that time restricted the adequacy of the assessment of need. Consequently, the USDOI sponsored a more thorough investigation of this issue.

Subsistence Study of Alaska Eskimo Whaling Villages

In 1982-1983, Alaska Consultants, Inc. and Stephen R. Braund & Associates conducted a household survey in nine whaling communities with the following

- 4 - primary objectives:

(1) to examine and describe the present importance of bowhead whaling in Alaska Eskimo whaling villages; and (2) to determine whether the substitution of other subsistence and store-bought meats for bowhead whale was feasible.

Respondents from 370 households in the nine whaling villages were surveyed with a formal questionnaire. This sample represented 3 7 percent of the total 1980 Eskimo households in the nine villages. Whaling captains resided in 73 of the surveyed households and represented 60 percent of the Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission (AEWC) registered whaling captains. The results of this survey were presented in the Subsistence Study of Alaska Eskimo Whaling Villages. (Alaska Consultants, Inc. and Stephen Braund & Associates 1984) and presented to the IWC in 1984. This report found:

1) The importance of the bowhead whale in the Eskimo culture.

Interest in bow head whaling had increased in the ten years prior to the survey (60 percent of the respondents indicated increased interest; 33 percent stayed the same). Participation data showed that 93 percent of the 370 respondents were either on (or retired from) a whaling crew or participated in activities related to whale hunting.

Ninety-seven percent of the respondents shared bowhead whale meat and muktuk the last year they caught a whale, and the same percentage of respondents participated in feasts or ceremonies where bowhead whale meat and muktuk were shared. Kinship was the basis for 83 percent of whaling crew membership, indicating that whaling reinforces family ties.

2) Importance of the bowhead whale as an Eskimo subsistence food resource.

Eighty-seven percent of the survey respondents stated that most or all of the meat they ate came from hunting and fishing. Ninety-eight percent indicated they preferred subsistence meats over store-bought meats. Over 82 percent ate subsistence meats at least five days a week.

- 5 - The authors analyzed the potential for using walrus, ringed seal, gray whale, caribou, and fish as substitutes for the bowhead whale. For each village, these species were considered on the basis of their annual, seasonal and spatial a vaila bili ty, sustainable yield potential, and harvest efficiency (catch per unit effort). Given the variability in population size and hunting conditions, the authors concluded that these resources are not possible substitutes. No one resource could be excluded without limiting the flexibility needed in a subsistence lifestyle. The potential for substitution on a regional basis was also examined, but proved impractical. Finally, the bowhead is the first major resource species to arrive at most villages in the spring. Since one cannot predict the returns from other resources in any given year, to bypass early opportunities such as the bow head hunt is to incur some risk. In conclusion, the problem with alternative resources was that no one species or combination of species was a practical substitute for the bowhead.

The authors concluded that the Alaska Eskimos continue to participate in and place high cultural value on both the bowhead hunt and its subsistence product. Whaling continues to serve as an important social unifier, reaffirming kinship ties, sharing practices, and cultural continuity. The residents of the nine whaling villages maintained their cultural identity through the continued harvest and consumption of subsistence foods. In these communities the bowhead whaling complex represented the most important aspect of the subsistence tradition. In addition, neither store-bought meats nor other wildlife resources were found to be practical substitutes for the bow head whale in any of these communities. However, while this study documented the importance of bowhead whaling to the Alaska Eskimo culture and subsistence economy, its scope of work did not include a quantification of the number of whales necessary to fulfill this cultural need.

Report on Nutritional. Subsistence. and Cultural Needs Relating to the Catch of Bowhead Whales by Alaskan Natives

In 1983, representatives of the Department of Interior asked Stephen R. Braund to prepare a position paper for the U. S. to present at the 35th Annual Meeting of the IWC. The purpose of this paper was to provide a quantifiable determination of cultural and subsistence need for bowhead whales in Alaska

- 6 - Eskimo populations. This project resulted in the Report on Nutritional. Subsistence. and Cultural Needs Relating to the Catch of Bowhead Whales by Alaskan Natives (U.S. Government 1983). This paper assessed cultural and subsistence need based on data collected in the 1982-83 survey as well as available historic human demographic and whale harvest data. In this 1983 paper, cultural and subsistence needs were assumed to be independent of the biological status of the species.

Factors considered most important in quantifying need were population, number of whaling crews, and hunting efficiency. Because effective whaling requires numerous crews, a relatively large Eskimo population is necessary for cooperative hunting. Prior to contact with commercial whalers, the Eskimo population in whaling villages was large enough to support effective subsistence whaling. However, these populations dropped severely between 1885 and the early 20th century due to disease and famine and are only now recovering from this dramatic decline. Because of this trend, the report concluded that the quantification of subsistence need should be based on present Eskimo population levels which represent the re-establishment of once larger populations. The number of whaling crews in a village was considered a measure of participation in the whale hunt. The report included a table of known whaling crews for the years 1960 through 1983. Hunting efficiency was measured by analysis of the struck and lost ratio for the period 1978 through 1983 (approximately 50 percent).

Using historic data related to the number of whales landed, the number of crews engaged in whaling, and Eskimo populations, Braund employed two methods to quantify Alaska Eskimo cultural and subsistence need for bowhead whales. The first method of quantifying subsistence need was based on historical catch per crew between 1960 and 1983 and yielded an estimated average need of 26 whales landed per year (data on the number of crews before 1960 was too incomplete to be considered in this analysis). This figure was considered a minimum for the following reasons: (1) the 1960s represented a period when some villages had just begun to re-establish whaling as independent communities; (2) many young males were away at boarding schools during the 1960s and therefore were not available for work in whaling crews; and (3) from 1978 to 1983 (when the report was written), whaling had been restricted by the IWC quota.

- 7 - The second method for determining subsistence need was based on per. capita returns adjusted for level of participation (i.e., adjusted according to the number of whaling crews relative to the population in each community). Using the mean landed whales per person per year for four villages (the only ones for which pre-1970 data were available at the time), a need for 24 whales landed was established based on the 1980 Eskimo population of the nine comm uni ties included in the study.

The conclusions of the 1983 report were based upon the per capita method of determining need (i.e., the historic bowhead harvest divided by the historic Eskimo population multiplied by the 1980 Eskimo population) modified by the level of participation (number of crews relative to village population). This calculation resulted in a determination that the nine Alaska Eskimo whaling communities require an annual total of 26 landed bowheads. Because of incomplete and sporadic data, selection of a base period for quantifying subsistence need proved difficult. Thus, the need for 26 landed whales as determined from the historic harvest per capita was also considered a minimum figure because these data gaps in the historic landed record limited the selection of a base period.

Given the average historic struck and lost ratio of 50 percent, the es ti mated need of 26 whales landed would require approximately 52 strikes. In an effort to improve hunting efficiency from the historic 50 percent struck and lost ratio to 75 percent, the U.S. government and the AEWC adopted the position of requesting an allowance of 35 strikes.

Comments on the U.S. Government's 1983 Position Paper

During the winter of 1985/86, IWC member nations raised a number of concerns regarding the Report on Nutritional. Subsistence. and Cultural Needs Relating to the Catch of Bowhead Whales by Alaskan Natives (U.S. Government 1983) including:

o Questions about the base period used in the analysis (e.g., it included a period of substantially increased whaling activity in the 1970s);

o A suggestion that the pres en ta ti on of data appeared to be somewhat selective;

- 8 - o The comment that the estimation of historical need for villages that re-commenced whaling in the 1970s warranted careful consideration;

o The observation that if the need for whales is based on historical per capita catch, there is no ceiling on the number of whales that will be needed in the future as village populations increase;

o The observation that the number of whales per capita for four whaling· communities between 1940 and 1970 was adopted as the base figure to extrapolate to the other five communities. It was pointed out that there was no evidence that such an extrapolation could be applied.

In 1986, at the 38th Annual IWC meeting in Malmo, Sweden, the U.S. addressed all questions for which it had data. The IWC accepted the per capita method of quantifying the Alaska Eskimos' cultural and subsistence need for bowhead whales as being as good as any method of calculation that could be identified by the Aboriginal/Subsistence Subcommittee.

Although the IWC accepted the methodology of the 1983 report, a number of questions raised by member nations, primarily related to incomplete and missing data, remained unanswered. This present study was undertaken to respond to these questions. Hence, this report constitutes a refinement of the 1983 report in order to address questions raised by other IWC member nations. Significant additional research was performed in an attempt to fill data gaps. All relevant data were compiled and reviewed to ensure that the best base period was used, that selective use of data did not occur, and to review the data for accuracy. In performing these tasks, the study team gathered additional information, constructed a Eskimo population model, and refined the methodology that the IWC accepted in 1983 to reflect the more complete data base.

ORGANIZATION OF REPORT

This report is comprised of four parts: Introduction, Data Collection Methods, Results and Analysis, and appendices. Data Collection Methods identifies the three types of data collected (bowhead harvest, human population, and wildlife resources), describes the methods used in collecting each type of information, and explains how the reliability and validity of each type of data were assessed. Data Collection Methods also explains the Eskimo population model constructed for this study. Results and Analysis describes how the data were

- 9 - organized, and explains how the study team used the additional information collected for this study to select a broad base period for analysis. Results and Analysis concludes with a calculation of the cultural and subsistence need for bowhead whales by Alaska Eskimos. Appendix I contains the most thorough compilation to date of historic shore-based bowhead whaling data for Alaska Eskimos by location and year. Appendix 2 presents the bowhead landed data and Eskimo population data used in the calculation of cultural and subsistence need for bowhead whales by the Alaska Eskimos.

- IO - DAT A COLLECTION METHODS

This section describes how members of the study team gathered additional information on bowhead harvests, Eskimo population, and wildlife resources. Data on bowhead harvests and Eskimo population levels are relevant to the application of the method accepted by the IWC for the quantification of cultural and subsistence need for bowhead whales by Alaska Eskimos. Data on wildlife resources are relevant to the selection of the most appropriate base period for the quantification of cultural and subsistence need for bow head whales. The tabulation and analysis of data described in this section are presented in detail in the subsequent Results and Analysis section of this report.

DAT A ON SHORE-BASED WHALING

The starting point for this supplemental study of shore-based whaling data in Alaska was the 1980 report by Marquette and Bockstoce entitled Historical Shore-Based Catch of Bowhead Whales in the Bering. Chukchi and Beaufort Seas. To produce their report, Marquette and Bockstoce reviewed an extensive number of sources and compiled data on Alaska Eskimo shore-based bowhead whaling at all known sites in Alaska. However, Marquette and Bockstoce noted that while "the data presented are as complete as possible based upon information avail able to date, important gaps still exist" (Marquette and Bockstoce 1980: 9).

The purpose of this phase of the current project (i.e., Appendix 1) was to fill those data gaps. In order to do so, Marquette and Bockstoce were hired to supplement the data in their 1980 study with additional published and unpublished information they had located in the intervening seven years at libraries and archives throughout the United States, Canada, and Great Britain. In addition, Stephen R. Braund & Associates searched archives and libraries in Alaska for any published and unpublished data. Finally, Stephen R. Braund conducted fieldwork in four Eskimo whaling communities in search of any additional written and oral sources of information on shore-based whaling.

- 11 - Repository. Library. and Archival Sources

In gathering data for Appendix 1, Marquette and Bockstoce and Stephen R. Braund & Associates considered all possible sources of information (e.g., whaleship logs, teacher reports, diaries, magazines, newspapers, books, and reports). Ultimately, the researchers explored over 25 different repositories, libraries and archives, and culled the data presented in Appendix 1 from over 280 separate published and unpublished sources. Table 1 lists the libraries and archives searched in this endeavor. Detailed bibliographies of both published and unpublished data sources utilized are located at the end of Appendix 1.

Field Data Collection

To supplement the archival data base described above, Stephen Braund conducted fieldwork in the Alaska Eskimo whaling villages of Wainwright, Wales, Gambell, and Savoonga during November and December 1987. Braund only visited four of nine Alaska Eskimo whaling villages because the potential data base for landed whales in the other five communities was already nearly complete for the years Eskimos hunted bowhead whales from these locations. Based on the data collected in the repositories, libraries, and archives, the study team had landed whale data for most years for Barrow and Point Hope. In addition, because of their unique whaling histories, the study team believed they had adequate information on Nuiqsut, Kivalina and Kaktovik. However, significant data gaps existed for Saint Lawrence Island and Wainwright, and whalers from Wales requested the study team to visit their community to speak with elders regarding their whaling history. Hence only these four communities were visited.

The goal of this fieldwork was to locate any unpublished written sources existing in these villages that had not yet been utilized and also to gather any oral information not available through written sources. Braund collected information from written diaries as well as from key informant interviews with knowledgeable whalers and other elders. Arnold Brower, Jr. of the Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission (AEWC) accompanied Braund to these villages. Brower acted as a facilitator of the visits and, when necessary, as an interpreter.

- 12 - Table 1: Repositories, Libraries, and Archives Searched for Information On Alaska Shore-Based Whaling

Alaska State Library (Juneau, Alaska) Eskimo: 1916-3 7 (microfilm). Eskimo Bulletin: 1893-98 (microfilm). Mukluk Telegraph. Nome Nugget.

British Museum (London, England) George Peard: Journal...of H.MS. "Blossom" 1825-28.

Dartmouth College Library. Stefansson Collection (Hanover, New Hampshire) Charles David Brower: Manuscript autobiography. Henry W. Greist: Manuscript journal (especially Barrow and Wales). Diamond Jenness: Copy of manuscript journal and notes from northern Alaska. Ernest DeKoven Leffingwell: Papers, including diaries and correspondence. V ilhjalmur Stef ansson: Manuscripts, journals, notes and memoranda from northern Alaska and Canada, 1906-18.

Denver Museum of Natural History (Denver, Colorado) Alfred M Bailey Collection: Wainwright to Wales, 1912-22.

Episcopal Church. Archives and Historical Collections. Episcopal Seminary of the Southwest (Austin, Texas) Mission records from Point Hope and the Koyukuk Valley.

Federal Records Center. National Archives and Record Service. Region 10 (Seattle, Washington) Records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs Schools and the reindeer service in Alaska. Record Group 25.

Huntington Library (San Marino, California) Michael A. Healy Collection.

Hydrographic Department Archives. Ministry of Defense (Taunton, Somerset, England) Notes and journals from Beechey's Expedition ( 1826 and 182 7) and Franklin Search Expeditions ( 1848-54)

National Library of Ireland (Dublin, Ireland) Rochfort Maguire: Journal, 1852-54.

National Maritime Museum (Greenwich, England) Logbooks of the Franklin Search Expeditions, 1848-54.

National Marine Mammal Laboratory Library (Seattle, Washington) Books, periodicals, theses, records, correspondence, unpublished manuscripts, and reports.

- 13 - Table 1: Repositories, Libraries, and Archives Searched For Information On Alaska Shore-Based Whaling (Cont.)

Naval Arctic Research Laboratory Library (Barrow, Alaska) C.D. Brower: Diary 1886-1945, unpublished autobiography. Molly Griest: Nursing Under the North Star, 1968. privately published. National Arctic Research Laboratory Logbook. National Arctic Research Laboratory Staff: Eskimo Whaling at Barrow, Alaska, 1968. Unpublished manuscript. R.K. Nelson: North Alaska Eskimo Exploitation of the Sea Ice Environment, 1965. Unpublished manuscript. J. Sonnenfeld: Changes in Subsistence among Barrow Eskimos, 1956. Unpublished manuscript. United States Department of Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs: Annual report of the Barrow School, 1916-20.

New Bedford Free Public Library (New Bedford, Massachusetts) Logs and manuscripts from whaling vessels in Alaska.

Presbyterian Historical Society (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) Sheldon Jackson: Scrapbooks and correspondence.

Public Archives of Canada (Ottawa, Ontario) Records of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Record Group 18. Miscellaneous reports on Alaskan Eskimos in Northwestern Canada. Records of the Northern Administrative Branch. Record Group 85. Miscellaneous reports on Alaskan Eskimos in Northwestern Canada. Includes records of the Northern Whaling and Trading Co. (C.T. Pederson), 1924-35.

Public Records Office (Kew, England) Logbooks from the Franklin search expeditions, ca. 1848-54. H.M.S. "Plover", 1848-53.

Public Record Office of Northern Ireland (Belfast, Northern Ireland) Richard Beechey: "Remarks on a Voyage of Discovery... on board H.M.S. "Blossom" .... 1826. Manuscript. Frederick W. Beechey: Ship's logs, "Blossom" 1826-27. James Wolfe: Journal kept on board H.M.S. "Blossom", 1826-27. William Smyth: Journal of H.M.S. "Blossom", 1826.

Royal Geographic Society (London, England) Journals, logs, and correspondence from the Franklin Search Expeditions, 1847-55. (a) Henry Kellett: Ship's and captain's logs of H.M.S. "Herald", 1849-50. (b) John Matthews: Journal, 1850-55. (c) W.J.S. Pullen: Letter, 1850. (d) John Simpson: Letter, 1852.

- 14 - Table 1: Repositories, Libraries, and Archives Searched For Information On Alaska Shore-Based Whaling (Cont.)

Saint Thomas Episcopal Mission (Point Hope, Alaska) Unpublished church records.

Scott Polar Research Institute (Cambridge, England) Edward Adams: Journal and watercolor sketches made aboard H.M.S. "Enterprise", 1850-1851. Manuscript No. 1115. John H. Bus bridge: An abstract journal of a voyage in search of Sir John Franklin. Manuscript No. 692.

Sheldon Jackson College. Stratton Library (Sitka, Alaska) Michael A. Healy Papers, ca. 1839-58, 1862-1927. Harriman Alaska Expedition Collection, 1899. Robert Kennicott Papers, 1863-65. John Murdoch Journals, 1881-83. Lucien M. Turner Papers, ca. 1882-84. Western Union Telegraph Expedition Collection, 1865-67.

United States Geological Survey Library (Denver, Colorado) H. B. Allen: Photographs.

United States National Archives (Washington, D.C.) Records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Alaska Division. Record Group 75. (Microfilm at the University of Alaska, Fairbanks). Records of the U.S. Coast Guard (including the former U.S. Revenue Cutter Service). Record Group 26.

University of Alaska Archives (Fairbanks, Alaska) Clarence L. Andrews Collection: Notes, correspondence, memorabilia, and journals from various parts of Northwest Alaska, including Deering, Kivalina, Kobuk, and Kotzebue, primarily from the 1920s. E.L. "Bob" Bartlett Collection: Fisheries and whaling data from Federal departments and agencies, 1924-68. Joseph Bernard Papers: Arctic voyages of the Schooner "Teddy Bear", 1909-70. Laurel Bland Collection: Human census data from Kivalina, Alaska. Don Charles Foote Collection: Field notes, correspondence, manuscripts, and other items from Northwest Alaska and the Canadian Arctic. Otto W. Geist Papers: "St. Lawrence Papers". Includes diaries, ethnological reports, notes, and correspondence. Includes information on subsistence whaling on St. Lawrence Island in the 1920s and 1930s. Dorothy Leighton Collection: Information on whaling, walrus, and human populations. Includes journals of Edgar Omar Campbell, Presbyterian missionary 1904-11. Lusk Album: Handwritten album containing ethnographic information and photographs of people and whaling equipment, undated, probably early 1900s.

- 15 - Table 1: Repositories, Libraries, and Archives Searched for Information On Alaska Shore-Based Whaling (Cont.)

University of Alaska Archives (Fairbanks, Alaska) Presbyterian Church Collection: Historical information on the Presbyterian church in Alaska. Froelich Rainey Collection: Field notes from Point Hope, early 1940s, with some information on Kivalina. Eva Alvey Richards Collection. St. Lawrence Island Journals: Information on whaling, walrus, and human population. Detailed daily accounts of life. Includes the journals of William F. Doty, 1898-99; P.H.J. Lerrigo, M.D., 1899-1901; William A. Egan, 1901-02; and Edgar Omar Camp bell, 1902-04. (Microfilm). William Van Vallin Collection: Diaries from Northern Alaska, ca. 1913-27.

University of British Columbia. Special Collections Division (Vancouver, British Columbia) Edward Belcher: Manuscript journal, H.M.S. "Blossom", 1825-27.

University of Pennsylvania. University Museum Archives (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) E.A. Mcllhenny Collection, from Barrow.

University of Washington Library (Seattle, Washington) Charles L. Bulkley Papers. Tundra Times: complete collection.

Yale University. Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library (New Haven, Connecticut) Franklin Search Expeditions: miscellaneous notes and letters. James Wolfe: Journal of a Voyage ... on H.M.S. "Blossom", 1825-27. William Smyth: Journal of H.M.S. "Blossom".

Stephen R. Braund & Associates, 1988

- 16 - Braund conducted two types of interviews: individual and group. The individual interviews were usually held within the respondent's home and focused on his personal whaling history. Occasionally the respondent's wife or another relative also participated (e.g., a spouse confirmed the year of marriage or the dates of travel out of the village), but the focus of the interview was always the whaling history of that individual or that individual's father.

Group interviews were generally conducted in the community office or another public building with numerous whalers present. The group interviews served four major purposes. First, they provided Braund with an opportunity to explain the purpose of the study to the community and to describe the type of information he sought. Second, they provided community residents with the opportunity to identify members of the village (e.g., former whaling captains and other elders) who should be interviewed. Third, they provided the first step in verifying data collected in the individual interviews. Fourth, they provided an excellent f arum for ascertaining the whaling history of a particular community during a given time period.

In the villages, Braund followed standard procedures of social science field research. Since the subject matter of the interviews covered extensive time periods, every effort was made to validate information collected during these interviews through triangulation with other sources. For example, during an individual interview, the first and most important step was to identify important dates in the respondent's life (e.g., birth date, date and location of marriage, time served in the military, and times spent away from the village - an event more memorable before air travel became commonplace). Once these known and significant reference points were fixed, Braund was able to pinpoint the year of a particular harvest event with reasonable accuracy. The data obtained from the individual were then verified by comparison with data generated through other individual interviews, group interviews, and diaries.

Triangulation was also used in group interviews, although these interviews were conducted in a more free-flowing manner than were the individual interviews. The first step again was to identify distinct time periods that provided chronological reference points for the group (e.g., from the end of World War II until the construction of the Distant Early Warning [DEW] Line system). Next, through general consensus, a history was established of where whaling by

- 17 - the community had occurred during each time period. By their nature, the group interviews contained an inherent form of verification: if a consensus could not be reached regarding a particular piece of data, the data was dismissed as unreliable. The most important function served by the group intervews was the documentation of where residents had whaled prior to the consolidation of these semi-nomadic peoples into the present permanent communities.

Another source of data collected during this field effort was written diaries. In both Gambell and Wainwright, Braund located previously undiscovered diaries covering various time periods which contained references to whaling activities. In most instances, these diaries were maintained daily by an observer who was present in the village and who made the entry regarding the whaling activity on the day of its occurrence. In other cases, the diary consisted of a datebook or calendar in which items of interest were noted on the day such events occurred. Details regarding the collection of these data are provided below on a village by village basis.

Wainwright

A group meeting was held in Wainwright with seven current and former whaling captains and a number of co-captains and crew. The group identified community elders and other residents who should be interviewed. The group also discussed in detail the geographic areas that they had collectively used for whaling in the historic past and the geographic areas where whaling had occurred most commonly in the past few years. Due to Wainwright's physical location on a large inlet (as opposed to a cape or point), Wainwright whalers have always hunted whales at considerable distances from their community at locations where ice leads are more conducive to bowhead whale hunting. This discussion, in combination with the individual interviews and analysis of published sources, led the study team to conclude that bowhead whale harvests documented between Icy Cape and Point Franklin were appropriately attributed to the past and current residents of Wainwright.

At the conclusion of the group interview, the seven current and former whaling captains met individually with Braund. Each man detailed the years he had been a whaling captain including the year, location, and number of whales he and his crew had harvested. In addition, 10 other former and current Wainwright

- 18 - whaling captains (identified by participants of the group meeting) were interviewed individually on their whaling histories. One diary was also located and reviewed. The individual accounts were then tabulated and verified with other residents' accounts as well as with other published and unpublished sources.

Braund met with 10 whalers at a group meeting in this community. He explained the research endeavor and identified elders in the community to interview. At this meeting recent bow head harvests (i.e., since 1980) were discussed. Braund constructed the Wales whaling history based on interviews with these 10 whalers and four elders, including the oldest people in the village. Because Wales had a long period without harvesting any whales, reconstructing the year that they harvested their first bowhead in modern times proved relatively simple through triangulation with a number of local people in independent interviews. Residents reported taking their first bowhead whale in 34 years in 1970 and not in 1969 as previously reported by Harry (1973). Data indicating that whale harvests had occurred in 1926 and 1935 were verified by their association with other events in the respondents' lives (e.g., marriage). No written diaries or accounts were located in Wales.

Gambell

Braund conducted two group meetings with a total of 18 whaling captains as well as other interested villagers. In addition, he met with individual whaling captains and elders regarding their personal whaling histories. Gambell is one of the oldest whaling comm uni ties in Alaska, but one with Ii ttle written whaling history. Therefore, the present fieldwork proved to be particularly important and fruitful in this village. Braund located two diaries and other written records in this community that had daily entries regarding bowhead harvests. Other data gathered for this appendix included: landed information from individuals who remembered the particular whale they or someone else landed as it related to another event in their life (e.g., marriage, illness or a trip from the community); a son who remembered his father landed 13 whales in his career with one being in a particular year the son identified (not remembering the years of the other 12 whales); residents of a nearby village

- 19 - remembering the year they visited Gambell and who landed a whale that . year; captains remembering the year they struck and lost or landed their first whale; and numerous captains reconstructing the recent past by recollecting who landed a whale that year and who else landed whales the same year.

Savoonga

Braund held a group meeting with all of the Savoonga whaling captains. Because Savoonga had only begun to whale as an independent community in 1972, reconstructing and verifying Sa voonga's whaling history was relatively easy. Virtually every captain who had landed a whale since 1972 was present at the group meeting. Braund interviewed the man who first went to Southwest Cape where he harvested a whale in 1972. No written sources of data were located in Savoonga.

Summary

This supplemental study collected all available data regarding Alaska Eskimo shore-based bowhead whaling through exhaustive reviews of repositories, archives, and libraries for published and unpublished sources. Fieldwork in four villages, consisting of individual and group interviews, supplemented the archival research with oral history data. Additionally, diaries discovered in Wainwright and Gambell provided pertinent information. It should be noted, however, that while this data collection effort was the most extensive search possible, it includes only available data and may not necessarily represent the total number of whales landed or crews in any one year. For example, on Saint Lawrence Island the data indicate that 10 crews whaled in 1901, and that only one crew whaled in 1902. In all likelihood, more crews were whaling in 1902, but the available data mentioned only one.

THE ESKIMO POPULATION MODEL

The Eskimo population variable used for the 1983 quantification of the Alaska Eskimos' subsistence and cultural need for the bowhead whale was based on available decennial census population counts. To accurately examine the relationship between bowhead landings and Eskimo population, however, annual

- 20 - village population counts should be compared to the number of bowheads landed that year in that village. While one could simply assume a uniform rate of change in population between census counts and assume a continuation of present growth rates, such assumptions fail to consider the dramatic demographic shifts that have occurred in the Eskimo population since the turn of the century and that will continue to affect Eskimo population trends. Therefore, a population. model incorporating data on age and sex distributions, birth rates, and death rates is the preferred approach to developing a realistic Eskimo population data base to be compared with bowhead landings. Such a model was constructed for this study.

The present population model is intended to produce estimates of the size of the Eskimo population in nine Alaska Eskimo whaling communities for the period 1900 through 2020. Therefore, the model is used to derive annual population estimates for the historical period 1900 through 1980 (the last year of decennial population counts) and to produce population projections for the period 1981 through 2020.

Data Sources for the Model

Decennial census population counts by place and by age, race, and sex are the primary source of information for the population model. These data are augmented by vital statistics data and various compilations of health records by the Alaska Area Native Health Service and other researchers. Table 2 lists the sources consulted in developing this model.

Model Structure

As noted above, in order to represent more accurately the population of the nine study communities, the model was designed to include data on age and sex distributions, birth rates, and death rates. The core of the model is the simple equation:

Popt+l = Popt + sum(Births - Deaths ± Migration)t,t+l where "Pop" refers to the Eskimo population and "t" corresponds to each year during the period 1900 through 2020.

- 21 - Table 2: Information Sources for the Eskimo Population Model

Alaska Area Native Health Service (1977). Alaska Native Death Rates: 1950-1975, unpublished.

Alaska Area Native Health Service (1984). Number and Rate of Live Births: 1949-1980, unpublished.

Alaska Area Native Health Service (nd). Alaska Native Crude Death Rates with Comparison to the United States (All Races): 1972-1982. unpublished.

Alaska Area Native Health Service (nd). Leading Causes of Mortality Alaska Area and Selected Service Units, 1982-84, unpublished.

Alaska Area Native Health Service (nd). Native Deaths by Age and Five Leading Causes of Death: Alaska Area, 1976-1978, 1978-1980, 1980-1982, 1982-1984, unpublished.

Arctic Health Research Center (nd). Compilation from Records of the Alaska Department of Health and Welfare, Bureau of Vital Statistics, unpublished.

Blackwood, Larry (1980). Trends in Fertility Among Alaska Natives, Alaska Area Native Health Service, Program Formulation Branch, Health Statistics Section.

Buffler, Patricia A., and Robert F. Kraus (1975). The Population and Communities of Alaska. University of Alaska, Anchorage, unpublished.

Fellows, F.S. (1934). Mortality in the Native Races of the Territory of Alaska, with Special Reference to Tuberculosis. Public Health Reports 49:289-298.

Foote, Don Charles (1964). American Whalemen in Northwestern Arctic Alaska. Arctic Anthropology 2(2): 16-20.

Fortuine, Robert (1971). The Health of the Eskimos as Portrayed in the Earliest Written Accounts. Bulletin of the History of Medicine, XL V(2):97-114.

Fortuine, Robert (1975). Health Care and the Alaska Native: Some Historical Perspectives. Polar Notes. XIV:l-42.

Hayman, Charles R. and Francis E. Kester (1957). A Study of Infant Mortality in Alaska. Northwest Medicine 56(7):819-823.

Hrdlicka, Ales (1936). Fecundity of Eskimo Women. American Journal of Physical Anthropology XXIl(l).

Lantis, Margaret L. (1954). Alaska's Health: A Survey Report. The Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburg.

- 22 - Table 2: Information Sources for the Eskimo Population Model (Cont.)

Masnick, George, and Solomon H. Katz (1976). Adaptive Childbearing in a North Slope Community. In: Anthropological Studies of Human Fertility, B. A. Kaplan, Ed., Detroit: Wayne State University Press.

United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1902. Census Reports, Volume 2, Population: Part 2.

United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1913. Thirteenth Census of the United States, Abstract of the Census with Supplement for Alaska.

United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1921. Fourteenth Census of the United States: Population - Number and Distribution of Inha bi tan ts.

United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1932. Fifteenth Census of the United States: Outlying Territories and Possessions: Number and Distribution of Inhabitants, Composition and Characteristics of the Population.

United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1942. Sixteenth Census of the United States: Population, Volume 1: Number of Inhabitants - Alaska.

United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1942. Sixteenth Census of the United States: Population, Second Series. Characteristics of the Population (with limited data on housing) - Alaska.

United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1952. Alaska: General Characteristics. P-B51.

United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1952. Alaska: Detailed Characteristics. P-C5 l.

United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1961. Alaska: Number of Inhabitants. PC(l)-3A.

United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1961. Alaska: General Population Characteristics. PC( 1)-3B.

United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1961. Alaska: General Social and Economic Characteristics. PC(l )-3C.

United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1971. General Population Characteristics: Alaska. PC(l)-B3.

- 23 - Table 2: Information Sources for the Eskimo Population Model (Cont.)

United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1974. 1970 Census of Population: Supplementary Report. Native Population of Alaska by Race: 1970. PC(Sl)-64.

United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1972. 1970 Census of Population: First Count Summary Tape - Alaska. (unpublished data).

United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1982. 1980 Census of Population: Summary Tape File 2B: Sex by Age by Place (unpublished data).

Watkins, J.A. (1914). U.S. Public Health Service: The Alaska Eskimo, the Prevalence of Disease and the Sanitary Conditions of the Villages Along the Arctic Coast. American Journal of Public Health, 4:643-648.

Stephen R. Braund & Associates, 1988

- 24 - Death and migration estimates are computed separately by sex for single years of age. For example, the number of deaths estimated to occur among 39 year old women between two years is calculated separately. Both death and migration estimates are based on year/age/sex specific rates derived from sources cited in Table 2. Births are estimated in the same way, with year/age rates estimated for women between 15 and 45.

The model is calculated on a decade-by-decade basis. The accuracy of model assumptions for a given decade is tested by projecting the regional population over the ten year period and comparing the tenth year projection with available decennial census data (i.e., population counts by place and age/sex dis tri bu tions) for the same year. Comparisons of model projections with decennial census data were made in the following manner. First, the model estimate of the total Eskimo population was compared with the decennial census count (or an estimate derived from the count). Model assumptions of birth and death rates were adjusted to improve the model fit as expressed by the absolute difference between the model estimate and the census count. Second, model estimates of the number of Eskimo women 15 to 35 years old (i.e., women in their childbearing years), Eskimo men 18 to 65 years old, and children under five years old were compared with corresponding census counts or estimates derived from available census data. Birth and death rates were adjusted on an age-specific basis to improve the model fit, while at the same time maintaining the close match in the total Eskimo population figures. Finally, remaining discrepancies between model estimates and census counts were minimized by adjusting migration rates, again on an age-specific basis.

The model is structured to first calculate regional population estimates. The model is based primarily on regional rather than village estimates since there is insufficient data to calibrate the model with village population data. Once projections closely match available data, however, regional results are disaggregated to the village level based on a smoothed shift in the distribution of the regional population over each decade. The non-Native population is estimated as a whole simply by applying a uniform annual growth rate in each decade consistent with the observed change over the entire decade.

As described above, annual estimates of the Eskimo population in each of the nine Eskimo whaling villages were produced with the population model. Figure 2

- 25 - Figure 2: Alaska Eski~o Population Liuing in Whaling Villages, 1900-2020

10000 9000 8000 p ?000 0 p 6000 u l 5000 a t. 4000 l 0 n 3000 2000 1000 0 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 Year

Source: Stephen H. Braund & Associates, 1988.

- 26 - displays the change in the Eskimo population for the nine whaling villages during the period 1900 - 2020. Immediately obvious are two distinct population trends. Between 1900 and approximately 1930, high death rates attributable to disease and poor health conditions resulted in an absolute decline in the population. Birth rates were apparently high in the early part of the century and rose even higher in the 1950s in response to improved health conditions. The combination of lower death rates and high birth rates resulted in the second population trend, a major increase in population between 1945 and 1970.

Two other population tren,ds are less obvious in Figure 2, namely, outmigration and declining birth rates. Eskimos suffering from tuberculosis and other health problems were frequently sent south for treatment in the 1950s. Eskimo youth also left the region in this period to attend high school. While many of these people eventually returned to northern Alaska, others chose to settle in other locations. The net outmigration trend continued on the North Slope until the mid-1970s when economic conditions dramatically improved and local high school education became available.

The major brake on the rate of population increase occurred in the mid-1960s when birth rates began to drop rapidly. Birth rates declined into the 1970s and appear to have leveled off, although periodic increases will occur in the absolute number of births as relatively large cohorts of women born in the mid-1950s and early 1990s reach childbearing age.

WILDLIFE RESOURCE DAT A

In the course of re-examining the quantification of cultural and subsistence need for bow head whales by the Alaska Eskimos, the study team realized that the base period of the 1983 calculations (U.S. Government 1983) was unrepresentative of historic variation in wildlife resource populations, harvest success, and village economic conditions. Therefore, an effort was made to document the variability in wildlife resource population and harvest levels.

The foundation for the assessment of annual variability in wildlife resource harvest levels by Alaska Eskimos and the assessment of the population status of

- 27 - the various wildlife resources over time is a report by Stoker (1984) entitled Subsistence Harvest Estimates and Faunal Resource Potential at Whaling Villages in Northwestern Alaska. The original intent of refining Stoker's report was to extend this data base and analysis as far back in time as possible in order to compare and correlate bowhead and non-bowhead harvest patterns over a longer time period than the twenty years (1962-1982) used previously. As the study progressed, however, it became apparent that data prior to 1960 (the year after statehood) were insufficient to proceed with any reliability. Consequently, the base period 1962-1982 was retained for the analysis and discussion of village and regional harvest levels. All data regarding total harvest by village or region are based on Stoker's (1984) previous estimates, corrected as appropriate to include information acquired since 1984. These data consist of newly acquired harvest information for some species, years, and villages, and more recent population data regarding walrus and the western Arctic caribou herd.

Data Sources for the Resource Assessment

Data and information on wildlife resources were obtained through review and analysis of available published literature, unpublished records and documents, and correspondence with the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, the University of Alaska, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and individual investigators. Data and estimates regarding population levels and trends for major species were obtained primarily from the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, the National Marine Fisheries Service, and various research publications. Most of these data are estimates only. Marine mammals are difficult and expensive to census, for obvious reasons; this is particularly true for species such as ringed and bearded seals which are essentially solitary in nature. The most reliable numbers probably relate to walrus, bowhead whale, and caribou, species that are gregarious or that follow well-defined migration routes and to which large amounts of scientific effort and resources have been devoted in the form of census counts. Data and estimates regarding village and regional harvest levels were obtained from the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and from accounts of individual investigators. It must be kept in mind, however, that these results are still es ti mates in most cases, are often based on information lacking detailed quantification, and may be subject to further revision as additional information is acquired.

- 28 - CONCLUSION

The data collection methods used to compile whale harvest, Eskimo population, and resource population estimates reflect the authors' intent to produce the most complete data base possible. While data gaps are known to remain, the authors believe that the gaps are minor. Attempts to refine the data base further would not significantly affect the results presented in the next section.

- 29 - RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

This part of the report applies data related to bowhead harvests (struck and lost and landed statistics), Eskimo population, and wildlife resources to the task of selecting a base time period and calculating the Alaska Eskimo cultural and subsistence need for bowhead whales. The first section describes the whaling data which are produced in full in Appendix 1. The second section discusses how and why historic harvest data from 21 sites were reorganized to reflect current settlement patterns. In the third section, the selection of the most appropriate base period is discussed. The concluding section of Results and Analysis presents the calculation of the cultural and subsistence need for bowhead whales by the Alaska Eskimos now and in the year 2020.

WHALE HARVEST DATA

As stated in Data Collection Methods, one of the study team's first steps in this research was to update the comprehensive listing of historical bowhead whale harvest data compiled by Marquette and Bockstoce (1980).

Presentation of Whale Harvest Data in Appendix 1

The current data are compiled under the same categories as established by Marquette and Bockstoce in 1980. Appendix 1 presents the following information by year and location: the number of crews that whaled; the number of whales struck but lost; the number of whales landed; the number of whales killed but lost; and the total number of whales killed. Appendix 1 contains the complete data set, and Figure 3 is an excerpt from that appendix to illustrate the manner in which the current data are organized.

In Appendix 1, a year is listed only if data were found in one of the five categories. Hence, if a year is not listed, no data were found for that year. If there is no entry under a category (e.g., landed whales) for a particular year at a specific location, no data were available (e.g., at Wainwright in 1950, two whales were landed, but no data were found in the other categories). Hence, Appendix 1 only represents available data, not necessarily the total

- 30 - Figure 3: Excerpt from Appendix 1 - Data on Shore-Based Bowhead Whaling at Sites in Alaska

Number of whales

Site No. Struck Killed Sources and of and but Total (** indicates source is in the ) Year Crews Lost Landed Lost Killed (Bibliography of Unpublished Works)

Source: Stephen R. Braund & Associates, 1988

- 31 - number of whales landed or crews in any one year. For example, as explained earlier, on Saint Lawrence Island in 1901 the data indicate 10 crews whaled, while the data indicate that only one crew whaled in 1902. There may have been more crews whaling in 1902, but the available data mentioned only one.

The earliest documentation of bowhead shore-based whaling by Alaska Eskimos is 1816 and the most recent is 1987. Appendix 1 identifies a total of 21 locations (including one "unlocated" category) where bowhead whales were known to have been hunted by Alaska Eskimos. The locations are presented in the order established by Marquette and Bockstoce in 1980. This study found whaling data for two additional locations - Ogotoruk Creek and Shaktoolik - which were not listed by Marquette and Bockstoce in 1980. The current study also determined that one whaling location - Flaxman Island - that was listed by Marquette and Bockstoce in 1980 was a duplication of data listed under another lo ca ti on. Therefore, Flaxman Island was removed from the current data table and is not included in Appendix 1. Additionally, Appendix 1 lists whaling data separately for Gambell and Savoonga beginning in 1972 in contrast to Marquette and Bockstoce's 1980 method of providing a single heading of Saint Lawrence Island. Data for Gambell and Savoonga prior to 1972 are still listed as Saint Lawrence Island.

The data table originally constructed by Marquette and Bockstoce in 1980 listed available whaling information by year for each location. On the same line, Marquette and Bockstoce cited the source of that data by author and date if the source was published, or by a code number if the source was unpublished (e.g., personal communication, diaries, or logbooks). The reader thus had to check the bibliography of unpublished sources to identify the source referenced by code number in the table. In contrast, Appendix I provides the reader with all the sources of all the data, both published and unpublished, alongside the whaling data. Unpublished sources are distinguished from published sources by two asterisks, thus informing the reader which bibliography to check for detailed information about a particular source.

Resolution of Whale Harvest Data Conflicts

Appendix 1 of this report contains several instances in which data from different sources regarding the same incident are different (e.g., the number

- 32 - of whales landed for a particular location and year). These discrepancies occur for a variety of reasons. For example, one observation may have been from someone who was present for only the first part of whaling season, while another person's report may have followed the whaling season. Another example is a case in which a whaling captain's recollection is inconsistent with a diary or logbook. When such discrepancies occurred, often both pieces of data were included in Appendix 1 so the reader can see the range of reported data. The asterisk indicates which of the data were adopted by the study team and forwarded to the data base in Appendix 2 to supply the information for the actual quantification o_f subsistence and cultural need. As a rule, discrepancies were resolved by selecting the lower of the available numbers in an effort to err on the conservative side. However, because the reliability of the conflicting data sources was also considered, the higher number was adopted under the following circumstances:

1) The lower number came from a source that only visited the community for a short time and reported the harvest or lack of harvest up until that date (e.g., an explorer or whaleship visited Gambell early in the whaling season and noted that the local Eskimos had not harvested any whales at that time).

2) If an observer (e.g., missionary, schoolteacher, or local resident) was present during the entire whaling season and kept a diary or journal, that document was considered more valid than a source that was only present for a portion of the whaling season or a source that was relying on informant recall or a personal communication.

3) If an observer (e.g., missionary, schoolteacher, or local resident who kept a diary) was only present for a portion of the whaling season, their data were considered partial reporting, and other sources that covered the whole season were chosen if they reported a larger harvest.

Finally, a different rule was applied to discrepancies between AEWC annual bowhead harvest reports (1980 through 1987) and National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) field notes. The United States and the AEWC have entered into a cooperative agreement under which the AEWC provides the government with an annual report of bowhead whale harvests. These reports are then submitted by

- 33 - the United States to the IWC as official documentation of the harvest. Thus, in discrepancies between NMFS field notes and the AEWC records, the AEWC records were selected for use in this appendix.

In summary, the Appendix 1 data represent a thorough review and update of the 1980 Marquette and Bockstoce data on historic· Alaskan bowhead whale hunting. The review resulted in considerable clarification and re-evaluation of the 1980 data, which appears in the present Appendix 1 table in its revised form. Moreover, Appendix 1 also contains the results of an extensive investigation of sources not included in the 1980 Marquette and Bockstoce table, thus providing a more thorough data base from which to calculate cultural and subsistence need. This effort identified approximately 200 new (i.e., in addition to Marquette and Bockstoce's 1980 findings) observations of zero or more landed whales at specific locations by year. These data are included in Appendix 1 along with the original data compiled by Marquette and Bockstoce in 1980. These additions bring the total landed whale data to approximately 590 observations (i.e., one observation represents zero or more landed whales) by location by year. These new observations added a net total of 295 landed whales to the data base presented by Marquette and Bockstoce in 1980. Approximately 47 percent or 139 of these additional whales were landed between 1978 and 1987, years not included in Marquette and Bockstoce's 1980 count. Hence, this study added a total of 156 landed whales at shore-based sites in Alaska to the 161 year period from 1816 through 1977. Finally, the reader is reminded that the Appendix l data represent minimum numbers for the various categories of data since many of the numbers were reported before the whaling season concluded in that particular year and location.

CONSOLIDATION OF HISTORIC SITES

As stated in the previous section (Whale Harvest Data), Appendix 1 is organized according to the 21 different locations where hunting activity was reported. Some of the 21 locations are historic but not current Eskimo settlements, others are traditional whaling sites occupied seasonally, while others remain as existing communities (Table 3).

- 34 - Table 3: List Of Alaska Sites For Shore-Based Bowhead Whaling Data

Saint Lawrence Island Gambell Savoonga Wales Kivalina Point Hope Point Lay Icy Cape Wainwright Point Belcher and Point Franklin Barrow Nuiqsut Kaktovik, Barter Island King Island Little Diomede Island Kotzebue Sound Cape Lisburne Cape Halkett Cross Island/Prudhoe Bay Ogotoruk Creek Shaktoolik unlocated

Source: Stephen R. Braund & Associates, 1988.

- 35 - Data for seasonal hunting sites and former Eskimo settlements that are within traditional use areas for current villages have been consolidated with the data for those villages. The study team made the decision to classify most of the bowhead whaling data under current whaling communities (rather than by all 21 sites where whales are known to have been harvested) for the following reasons. Several of these sites were once Eskimo settlements scattered along the arctic coast that have since been abandoned. A process of centralization into larger communities has taken place over time, and most of the people who lived and whaled at smaller sites are now residents of the nearby larger village, i.e., one of the nine active whaling communities. Also, residents of the current whaling communities traditionally travel to many smaller sites on a seasonal basis to hunt bowheads. Thus, because of these migration patterns, historic whaling trends, and current whaling activity, the relevant data are organized around the current nine Alaska Eskimo whaling communities.

The nine · current whaling communities are Gambell, Savoonga, Wales, Kivalina, Point Hope, Wainwright, Barrow, Nuiqsut, and Kaktovik. The study team grouped seven of the remaining 12 locations listed in Table 3 with these nine communities, while the last five locations -- Little Diomede, King Island, Point Lay, Shaktoolik, and "unlocated" -- are not included in this analysis. Little Diomede, King Island, Point Lay, and Shaktoolik each have whaling histories. Their populations have remained discrete relative to the other current and historic whaling sites; therefore, historic data for these communities were not combined with that of any of the other sites. Table 4 presents the new organization of whaling sites by 14 locations (13 current villages plus one "unknown" category). The following discussion presents the rationale for combining data for particular sites with one of the nine current whaling villages on a case-by-case basis.

Kivalina

Kivalina's whaling data have been expanded by the addition of the Kotzebue Sound data from Appendix 1. Kivalina is the only active bowhead whaling community in the Kotzebue region. Kivalina is situated within a larger region of shared cultural and ecological characteristics, and many residents from the Kotzebue region participate in Kivalina bowhead whaling activities. Therefore, the available post-1900 whaling record for Kotzebue Sound, consisting of only

- 36 - Table 4: List of Consolidated Alaska Sites for Subsistence Whaling Data

Nine Current Whaling Villages + Historic Whaling Sites

Gambell

Savoonga

Wales

Kivalina Kotzebue Sound

Point Hope Cape Lisburne and Ogotoruk Creek

Wainwright Icy Cape, Point Belcher and Point Franklin

Barrow Cape Halkett and Cross Island/Prudhoe Bay

Nuiqsut

Kaktovik (Barter Island)

Sites not included in the analysis

Point Lay

King Island

Little Diomede Island

Shaktoolik

Unlocated

Source: Stephen R. Braund & Associates, 1988.

- 37 - one whale landed in 1917 (Andrews 1917), was included in Kivalina's whaling data. The addition of this one case to the Kivalina record is minor in terms of the overall data base.

Point Hope

Historic whaling data for Cape Lisburne and Ogotoruk Creek have been combined with the Point Hope data. These two areas fall within what Burch (1981) defines as the "Point Hope Region," i.e., "that portion of Northwest Alaska owned by the Tikirarmiut, the People of Point Hope." Burch (1981) describes Cape Lisburne as a spring whale hunting location for Point Hope crews "long ago" but states that it has not been used regularly in more recent years. The whaling data for Cape Lisburne consist of one crew hunting (unsuccessfully) in 1909 (Marsh & Cobb 1910) and one crew landing a whale there in 1950 (Durham 1979). Two crews hunted unsuccessfully at Ogotoruk Creek in 1916 and 1917, and in three subsequent years one whale was taken each year: 1921, 1923, and 1938 (Lowenstein n.d.). The consolidation of Cape Lisburne and Ogotoruk Creek data with Point Hope adds four landed whales to the Point Hope record.

Wainwright

Whaling data for Wainwright has been combined with data from Icy Cape, Point Belcher and Point Franklin. Because Wainwright's position on a coastal bight is not an ideal location for whaling, Wainwright crews often travel some distance from the village to hunt (Nelson 1981). Nelson states,

In recent years, whalers have occasionally traveled by boat or snow machine to the Icy Cape area when open water was not accessible near Wainwright. The lead is far more reliable there and conditions for whaling are often excellent. By moving down the coast to Icy Cape, Wainwright people are reestablishing activity at a traditional whaling center where many of their forebears lived earlier in this century. (Nelson 1981:86).

Thus, many of the people who formerly lived at Icy Cape eventually moved to Wainwright, and Icy Cape is now used by Wainwright residents as a whaling site on a seasonal basis. Icy Cape records show considerable whaling activity between 1900 and 1940 with 45 whales landed there. Many of these whales were taken by current Wainwright residents and their ancestors (Braund fieldwork, 1987 Wainwright).

- 38 - Similar to Icy Cape, Point Franklin possesses features that favor bow head whale hunting, and is even more accessible to Wainwright than Icy Cape. Although Point Franklin was used historically, use dwindled in recent decades until the introduction of the snow machine (Nelson 1981).

The harvest records for Point Belcher and Point Franklin, located only a few miles apart, show three whales taken in this area between 1900 and 1925. Although these sites were settled in the past, they are no longer inhabited other than as seasonal camps. Regarding modern use of this area, Nelson (1981:85) wrote that because ice leads are often 10 to 15 miles offshore from Wainwright, "whaling is often done north of Wainwright, between Nunagiaq [approximately Point Belcher] and Ataniq [at the base of Point Franklin]."

Barrow

Historic data for Cape Halkett and Cross Island/Prudhoe Bay have been incorporated with Barrow in this report. Cape Halkett and Cross Island/Prudhoe Bay lie east of Barrow on the Beaufort Sea coast, with Cape Halkett approximately midway between Barrow and Prudhoe Bay. Cross Island is located at the mouth of Prudhoe Bay.

The Cape Halkett record of one whale landed (1919) was described by a current Barrow resident who participated in the hunt. At the end of his story, this individual said, "We always lived along the coast in those days," (North Slope Borough 1980:100). Another Barrow resident described his past way of life saying, "The Inupiaq never live in one place. They always move to wherever there's animals, whether it's summer or winter," (North Slope Borough 1980:105).

In 1921, at least seven families moved from Utgiagvik (Barrow) to Cross Island to settle because of the whale hunting potential of this island; onshore settlement also occurred at Prudhoe Bay in the early 1900s (North Slope Borough 1980). The historical record shows seven whales taken at Cross Island/Prudhoe Bay between 1921 and 1938. Some of these whale harvests are described in transcriptions of oral recollections (North Slope Borough 1980) by people who had Ii ved in various settlements along the coastline earlier in their lives, but who had since settled permanently in Barrow. They either had participated in the harvests or remembered their occurrence.

- 39 - As Barrow modernized and became the Nor th Slope's link to the rest of the world, many families from these smaller settlements along the coast relocated to Barrow. Thus, niost of the whales taken at Cross Island/Prudhoe Bay and Cape Halkett were hunted by current residents of Barrow or their relatives. Note that all or part of the data for Cross Island/Prudhoe Bay and Cape Halkett could have been combined with the Nuiqsut data because of the proximity of these locations to Nuiqsut; descendants of people who hunted from these locations now reside in Nuiqsut and in Barrow. However, not enough Eskimo population data exist for Nuiqsut prior to 1970 to be able to attribute these whales to that community.

No additional locations were consolidated with five of the nine current whaling communities: Gambell, Savoonga, Wales, Nuiqsut, and Kaktovik. The whaling data presented for each of these communities remains the same as in Appendix l. Because the bowhead harvest data for King Island, Little Diomede, Point Lay, and Shaktoolik represent bowhead whaling activity by discrete Eskimo populations not included in this analysis, information for these sites was not presented with the data for the other communities.

SELECTION OF THE APPROPRIATE BASE PERIOD

The previous sections discussed data on bowhead whale hunting from the earliest recorded activity in Alaska (1816) through 1987 and described how these data were incorporated with nine modern whaling villages. The next step in the analysis was to select a representative historical base period to be used in estimating current cultural and subsistence need.

The 1983 quantification of cultural and subsistence need for bowhead whales by Alaska Eskimos (U.S. Government 1983) was based on population and whale hunting data for the time period 1940 through 1969 for three communities (Barrow, Wainwright, and Point Hope) and 1950 through 1969 for Gambell. The data for these communities were then extrapolated to the other five communities, providing the basis for the 1983 estimate of need for all nine communities under consideration. As discussed previously in this report, IWC members questioned both the use of such a limited base period and extrapolation of the per capita harvest of four communities to the other five villages. As a result, the study team gathered adequate data to increase substantially the

- 40 - base period and, with two exceptions, used each community's unique whale harvest history to establish that community's current need. The two exceptions are Savoonga and Nuiqsut. Savoonga and Nuiqsut had inadequate historical data on which to base current estimates of need. Therefore, the study team used historical data from Gambell for calculating Savoonga's current need, and historical data from Barrow to calculate Nuiqsut's need. Savoonga and Nuiqsu t's populations originally came mainly from Gambell and Barrow, respectively. Thus, the histories of Savoonga and Gambell are closely intertwined and the populations share virtually the same culture, as is also the case with Nuiqsut and Barrow.

Other IWC member nations criticized the base period used in 1983 for presenting data selectively. Furthermore, that base period did not reflect the variability in economic and wildlife resources that is known to occur in the study region. In order to account for these known sources of variability, the base period was extended to include the longest period for which enough data were available. The remainder of this section discusses the economic and biological factors that justify extending the base period as well as the historical and cultural events that influenced the study team's decision to select the base period of 1910 through 1969 for this analysis.

Variability in Resource Populations

When reviewing harvest records for bowhead whales or other marine mammal species on either a village by village or regional level, the most striking factor is the great variability observed from year to year. Walrus harvests at villages in the north Bering Sea, for instance, have varied by more than an order of magnitude in recent decades as have bowhead landings by major whaling communities such as Point Hope and Barrow (Stoker 1984).

Some of this variability is due to changes in population levels or migration patterns of the species in question (Stoker 1984). Undoubtedly, however, most short-term (annual) variability results from environmental conditions, particularly nearshore sea ice and wind conditions during peak migration periods in the spring and/or fall. Such conditions are extremely variable and unpredictable from year to year, and, when unfavorable, can severely curtail hunting effort and effectiveness. In some years, nearshore ice conditions are

- 41 - such that leads used by migrating bowheads and other marine mammals are not accessible from certain villages. In other years, adverse wind and fog may severely restrict the ability to hunt at all, or wind may move the ice and its associated marine mammals too far offshore to be accessible. The spring of 1969, for instance, was characterized by unusually strong prevailing north winds in the north Bering Sea and Bering Strait region, with resultant poor harvests of walrus and seals by all villages of the region.

Walrus suffered a severe population decline in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, primarily as the result of commercial over-harvesting, from which they have only recently recovered. The original pre-exploitation population of walrus, estimated at about 200,000 (Fay 1982, Sease 1986), was reduced to a low of 40,000 to 60,000 between about 1930 and the late 1950s when all commercial hunting was finally prohibited.

Since the early 1960s this population has made a dramatic recovery, and is probably back to at least its pre-exploitation level at this time. Cooperative U.S.-U.S.S.R. censuses have yielded estimates of 168,000 to 250,000 walrus for 1976 and 240,000 to 250,000 for 1980. Since the last full census in 1980 numbers may have continued to increase slowly, perhaps to as many as 300,000 animals. Most researchers agree, however, that the population has leveled off at present and may be facing another decline due to pressure from the walrus population itself on its food supply.

Another resource of doubtful stability is the western Arctic caribou herd, the largest herd in the state and the sole source of caribou to Chukchi coastal villages. Early historical records indicate that caribou were "abundant" in the western Arctic in the early 1800s and "scarce" by the late 1800s and early 1900s. No population censuses were undertaken during that time, of course, so it is not entirely certain whether such fluctuations reflect actual population changes or shifts in distribution and migration patterns. In more recent years, estimates based on aerial surveys indicate a population increase in this herd from about ll9,000 in 1950 to 300,000 by 1964. By 1970 the population had begun to crash, falling to 60,000 to 100,000 by 1976 (Doerr 1979, Davis et al. 1980). Since that time the herd has once more increased to an estimated 241,000 (ADF&G 1987).

- 42 - One result of the extreme and frequent variability observed in harvest returns is that it renders average values es sen ti ally meaningless for short-term predictive or regulatory purposes. If the mean harvest level is applied as an upper limit (quota) for a given village or region, for instance, the result will almost certainly be a significant reduction in average harvest returns since maintenance of a mean value, by definition, requires the possibility of attaining values both above and below that mean. To apply a long-term mean as an upper limit would seem unfairly and unnecessarily restrictive since most of the variability in harvest success derives from environmental factors over which there is no control. - In order to ensure the attainment of a mean value, opportunity must exist to exceed that mean.

While most species of major subsistence importance to this region seem to be in good shape at this time, substantial population fluctuations for several species, including the bowhead itself, have been recorded during the last century and may occur again in the future.

Economic Variability Over Time

The residents of the nine study communities have undergone (and are still undergoing) several periods of major socioeconomic change since contact with Western culture. The commercial whaling period that ended in 1910 was marked by the establishment of shore-based whaling stations, the trading of baleen and other items for Western goods, and the hiring of coastal Eskimos to work in the whaling industry. After the end of this commercial whaling era, rising fox prices encouraged Eskimos to trap as a means of obtaining Western trade goods. When fur prices collapsed in the 1930s with the Depression, the Eskimos of northern Alaska suffered economic hardship. Many relied almost entirely on subsistence resources. In the 1940s and 19 50s, economic conditions improved somewhat associated with government spending for oil exploration (Pet-4), the construction of the DEW Line system, and other military projects. The discovery of oil on the North Slope of Alaska in 1969, the passage of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act in 1971, the incorporation of the North Slope Borough in 1972, and the construction of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System in the 1970s have resulted in significant socioeconomic change. Thus, the late 19th and 20th centuries have represented a period of variability in the economic conditions of the study communities. Through all of these events, the

- 43 - Eskimos of northern Alaska have continued to harvest subsistence resources and place a high value on this activity.

Currently, cash economies of northern Alaska whaling villages are almost completely dependent on state and borough government spending. The spending patterns of these governments have historically matched the flow of petroleum related tax and royalty payments. The unpredictability of these payments has been dramatically documented in the last decade (Goldsmith 1987). The combined effects of transient fluctuations in revenues and the long-term depletion of currently proven oil reserves, and the possibility of new discoveries are likely to result in further economic changes in northern whaling villages. Large new petroleum discoveries and/or substantial increases in oil prices could result in new waves of local spending for public buildings, roads, airstrips, and other facilities. On the other hand, continued low oil prices and no new discoveries may spell economic disaster for village residents who now must pay to operate expensive schools, clinics, electric power plants, and other products of better economic times. Thus, one cannot assume that the economies of northern whaling villages will be stable; rather, instability is more likely to be the norm. It is most appropriate, therefore, to adopt a base period that is representative of the variability in both resource and local economic conditions.

Establishing the Beginning of the Base Period

Figure 4 displays the number of bowheads landed from 1900 to 1987. The base period ultimately adopted (1910-1969) is shown on the graph. As stated previously, the earliest whaling record identified by the study team occurred in 1816. The study team located only three reports of whaling activity for the time period between 1816 and 1848, the year that commercial whaling in northern Alaska commenced. Clearly, too little data exist to be able to base an estimate of need on the pre-commercial whaling era. The reason for this dearth of information is that very few explorers visited northern Alaska and recorded their observations of whaling activity prior to the onset of commercial whaling, and the Native Alaskans did not keep written records of their own.

The documentation of whale hunting increased considerably with the arrival of commercial whaling ships in the arctic. Journals, diaries, logbooks and

- 44 - Figure 4: HuAber of Bowhead Landed by Year by the Alaska Eski~o, 1900-198?

50 i------Base Period ------1 45

B 40 0 w 35 h e 30 a d 25 L 20. a n . A. d 15 .. . I. . .. . V . ~ 10 \ . . .. \ r\ I . .\) J ~ 5

0-+-~~---t-~--+-~-+-~+----+-~--+-~-+-~ 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 19?0 1980 1990 Year

Source: Stephen R. Braund & Associates, 1988.

- 45 - letters reported observations about the Eskimos' hunting methods and success at landing bowheads. Thus, the data base is more substantial from 1848 to 1909 (when commercial whaling ceased) than the time period prior to 1848. Within the commercial whaling period, the years from 1885 to 1909 are particularly well documented because the introduction of shore-based whaling placed Eskimo whalers in the employ of the commercial ventures. The commercial whalers, a main source of Eskimo whaling information for that time, produced more frequent and accurate observations of the Eskimo pursuit of bowheads than are available prior to shore-based whaling.

The commercial whaling era, however, generated a highly anomalous and unrepresentative set of circumstances in the history of subsistence whaling as well as in Eskimo population trends. During the period of shore-based whaling, stations proliferated along the northwest coast of Alaska with as many as 60 crews, consisting primarily of Eskimos, operating out of some stations (Allen 1978). According to Foote and Williamson (1966), shore-based whaling more than tripled the number of Eskimo crews hunting at Point Hope. This increased effort resulted in considerably increased harvests. At the same time, the Eskimos' participation in commercial whaling diminished their pursuit of bowheads for strictly subsistence use. Whether working from shore-based stations or hunting on their own and selling the whale to the commercial whalers, the Eskimos salvaged the whale carcasses for food, a traditional component of their diet. Ironically, the Eskimo population became more dependent on whale meat during this period because the Yankee whalers' exploitation of walrus as their main food source had reduced the walrus population and, hence, the amount of walrus available for Eskimo consumption (Sease 1986, Fay 1982). Caribou stocks were also reduced during this period, further contributing to the Eskimos' dependence on the bowhead for food.

The commercial whaling era influenced Eskimo population trends as well. Contact with non-Natives introduced diseases to the Eskimo population to which they had little resistance. Consequently, these diseases resulted in widespread fatalities among the Eskimo population. Depleted walrus and caribou stocks caused food shortages that may have also affected Eskimo population levels. The Eskimo population in northwestern Alaska began to plummet in the late nineteenth century, with an estimated reduction of 50 percent or more from 1850 to 1885 (Foote and Williamson 1966). Thus, Eskimo population levels during the commercial whaling period are considered anomalous.

- 46 - In summary, the study team concluded that the lack of data prior to commercial whaling and the radical shifts in bowhead harvest and Eskimo population levels during the commercial era rendered the pre-1910 data inappropriate for calculating the current Alaska Eskimo subsistence and cultural need for bow heads.

Establishing the End of the Base Period

Following the 1909 collapse of commercial whaling (Bockstoce 1986), Eskimos resumed subsistence whaling at a level not influenced by outside commerce. From that time to the present, a number of events and trends have influenced the Eskimo whaling village populations and their bowhead harvest levels. However, a combination of events in the early 1970s dramatically changed the level of subsistence whaling. A Native cultural revival movement throughout Alaska, of which a noteworthy result was the passage of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA), coincided with increased local employment opportunities associated with oil development and the formation of the North Slope Borough. Concurrently, a population decline in the western Arctic caribou herd generated increased hunting pressure on other subsistence resources. All of these factors contributed to a renewed interest in subsistence whaling.

In part a result of ANCSA, the economic boom in the study area enabled a greater number of Eskimos to undertake the relatively expensive step of establishing their own whaling crews. ANCSA also provided the impetus for re-establishing abandoned settlements in traditional areas of concentrated use by Eskimo groups (i.e., Nuiqsut, Atkasuq, and Point Lay). Some of these communities, as well as longstanding communities that had not whaled in recent history (e.g., Kaktovik}, could now afford to send out whaling crews to supply their communities with this valuable food source. As a result of all of these factors, the subsistence whaling effort rapidly intensified, as did the number of strikes and landings of bowheads (Tillman 1980), during the years 1970 through 1977.

As social scientists, the study team considers this phenomenon and the events leading up to it consistent with the cultural revival of Alaska Eskimos. The results of contact with commercial whalers were felt by the Eskimo population for many decades following the collapse of commercial whaling. The eventual

- 47 - recovery of Eskimo population levels and bowhead stocks, combined with economic well being and emergent political autonomy of Alaska Eskimos, resulted in a widespread cultural revitalization. That these trends are also associated with increased bowhead hunting activity is considered by the study team to be a natural component of this rebound process. However, the years 1970 through 1977 were excluded from the base period because of the increased numbers of whales struck and lost as well as landed.

The impact of this increased level of activity on bowhead stocks, believed to be endangered and still recovering from the commercial whaling era, raised concerns within the IWC. Hence, the IWC imposed a 1978 quota on the number of whales landed and/or strikes made by Alaska Eskimos in the pursuit of this traditional subsistence food. Quotas have been in effect from that time to the present. The imposition of an artificial ceiling on the subsistence bowhead hunt renders this recent time period (1978 through 1987) unrepresentative as a base for determining subsistence and cultural need.

The Base Period: 1910 through 1969

Having eliminated the anomalous periods before 1910 and after 1969 due to all the factors described above, the study team believes the intervening years, 1910 through 1969, constitute the most representative base period for calculating Alaska Eskimos' current cultural and subsistence need for bowhead whales. The recent investigation of additional historic whaling activity has improved the quantity and quality of data available for this time period. The added data allow projections to be made for most communities based on that community's history, rather than using data from other communities, as was done in the 1983 quantification of need (U.S. Government 1983). Furthermore, the added data allow for a longer base period than that used in the 1983 analysis. A longer base period ensures better representation of the various fluctuations in human population, resource populations, and economic trends that can affect a community or region's ability to participate successfully in whaling. Such fluctuations are the norm, and a broad base period presents a better average_ of these constantly changing trends than does a shorter base period.

The period from 1910 through 1969 includes economic trends that were predominantly poor to average in northern Alaska villages. Additionally,

- 48 - several wars, the tuberculosis epidemic of the 1950s, and the practice of sending children to boarding schools (for lack of schools in the villages) served to slow population growth and decrease the male population in the villages. The lack of men significantly affects a village's ability to assemble enough crews to hunt whales successfully. Consequently, if this period is flawed in any way as a basis for calculating need, it errs on the· side of underrepresenting the needs of the currently revitalized village populations. Also during this period the bowhead population itself was severely depressed as the result of commercial hunting, probably limiting the availability of this resource t_o most or all of the whaling communities.

FSTIMATION OF CULTURAL AND SURSISTENCE NEED BASED ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BOWHEAD WHALES LANDED AND ESKIMO POPULATION

As discussed above, the historical data on bowhead landings, the number of crews engaged in whaling, and Eskimo population levels were incomplete in 1983; hence, the quantification of cultural need was constrained by lack of data at that time. Using the available historic data, the 1983 report used two methods to quantify Alaska Eskimo cultural and subsistence need for bowhead whales: one method based on historical catch per crew between 1960 and 1983 and the other method based on per capita returns (i.e., the historic bowhead harvest divided by the historic Eskimo population multiplied by the 19 80 Eskimo population) adjusted for the level of participation (i.e., adjusted according to the number of whaling crews relative to the population in each community).

In responding to questions by IWC member nations, the study team greatly expanded the data base for both whales landed and the Eskimo population in the Alaska Eskimo whaling communities. However, the data on the number of crews remains incomplete and spotty. For this reason, any analysis of need based on the number of whaling crews in the communities does not allow for a broad base period. Furthermore, the number of crews is susceptible to greater fluctuation than human population. For example, if an individual's economic situation improves, he may be able to finance a whaling crew and become a captain. The number of whaling crews greatly increased in recent decades from approximately 50 crews in the early 1960s to approximately 100 crews by the early 1980s (U.S. Government 1983) to 139 crews in 1986 (Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission

- 49 - n.d.a). In 1988 at the annual meeting of the Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission, 126 whaling captains registered for nine whaling communities (Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission n.d.b). In an effort to err on the conservative side, to base cultural and subsistence need on as broad a base period as possible (reliable crew data only go back to 1960), and to predicate need on a relatively stable variable (i.e., Eskimo population, for which changes are generally gradual over time unless there is a famine or disease), the study team decided that the method based on the number of crews was not satisfactory.

Thus, as the study team gathered more data, the methodology of determining cultural and subsistence need became refined to the per capita method only and the base period expanded to 1910 through 1969 for all communities (see Selection of the Appropriate Base Period above). The starting point for the base period used in 1983 varied by village from 1940 to 1950. The end point was uniformly 1969. The present expansion of the base period does not include the pre-1910 commercial whaling influence or the post-1969 period of increases in whaling effort, struck and lost, and harvest. Also, the number of whales per capita for four whaling communities between 1940 and 1970 is no longer extrapolated to the other five communities.

Figure 5 illustrates the data base of bow head whales landed for one community, Barrow, from 1910 to 1969. The most striking characteristic of Barrow's whaling history during the base period is the high variability in harvest from year to year. The study team found nothing in the historical record that suggested this year to year variation in the number of bowhead landed during the period 1910 to 1969 reflects year to year variations in whaling effort. Nor is this variability due to missing data; Barrow bowhead harvest history includes data for each of the 60 years from 1910 to 1969. The principal source of variation in the number of bowheads landed was the presence or absence of favorable hunting conditions. As with other subsistence harvests, environmental conditions (e.g., weather, wind, and ice conditions) exert a strong influence on whaling success.

Figure 6 illustrates the data base of the Eskimo population, again for the community of Barrow. As discussed earlier with respect to the regional Eskimo population, the Eskimo population of Barrow declined between 1900 and approximately 1930 due to disease and generally poor health conditions. Both

- 50 - Figure 5: Hu~ber of Bowhead Landed by the Barrow, Alaska Eski~o, 1910-1969

20 18

B 16 0 w 14 h e 12 a d 10 L B a n d 6 e d 4 \ 2 . \ 0-+-----+-----+----i-----··t-·-·····+-I----ti 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 19?0 Year

Source: Stephen R. Braund & Associates, 19BB.

- 51 - Figure 6: Barrow, Alaska EskiMo Population, 1910-1969

4000

3500

3000 p ~ 2500 u l 2000 a t. 1 1500 / 0 _r-··/ n ... ___.../ 1000 ,/" .. / / 500 !"...... /...... ,,......

0-+-~---+~~--+-~~+--~--t-~~-+-~~ 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 19?0 Year

Source: Stephen R. Braund & Associates, 1988.

- 52 - death and birth rates increased in the 1940s and 1950s. Barrow's population continued to grow rapidly through the 1960s due to a high birth rate and in-migration.

In order to calculate the per capita mean for landed bowheads over the base period, it was necessary first to match bowheads landed and Eskimo population for each community for each year for which there were bowhead landed data. Table 5 presents an example of how the bowhead landed and the Eskimo population data for each community were combined for Barrow. Each of the nine study communities was handled in a similar manner (see Appendix 2).

Again referring to the Barrow example presented in Table 5, once all of the data on bowhead landed and Eskimo population were entered for the 1910 to 1969 period, the Eskimo population was summed for every year for which the number of landed bowhead whales is known (all 60 years for Barrow). The sum of Barrow's Eskimo population for the years 1910 to 1969 is 44,687. During this sixty year period, Barrow Eskimos landed a total of 3 79 whales. Dividing the total bowhead landed (379) by the total Eskimo population (44,687) results in a mean number of whales landed per capita for Barrow of .008481. Except for Savoonga and Nuiqsut, a similar procedure was followed for each of the nine communities (see Appendix 2). Neither Nuiqsut nor Savoonga had any landed bowhead whales during the base period. Because Nuiqsut is culturally and ecologically most like Barrow and Savoonga is most like Gambell, the mean landed whales per capita for Barrow and Gambell was used for Nuiqsut and Savoonga respectively.

Table 6 presents the calculated subsistence and cultural need for landed bowhead whales for each whaling community based on the same method of calculation illustrated for Barrow. The data base includes 250 observations matching the Eskimo population with bowheads landed at the community level. The number of observations represents the number of years for which data on landed whales were available for each community between 1910 and 1969 (see Appendices 1 and 2). As shown in Table 6, substantial landed whale data were compiled for the 60 year period 1910 to 1969 for Gambell (39 years), Point Hope (50 years), Wainwright (49 years), and Barrow (60 years).

The total Eskimo population by village represents the sum of each village's population estimates for years for which there was an observation of zero or

- 53 - Table 5: Example from Appendix 2, Whale Harvest and Human Population Data for Barrow, Alaska, 1910-1969

Number Number Bowhead Eskimo Village Year Crews Landed Population

Barrow

1910 55 5 571 1911 20 1 564 1912 9 9 551 1913 2 4 520 1914 1 5 507 1915 7 494 1916 4 5 481 1917 9 7 454 1918 14 7 442 1919 2 3 416 1920 11 409 1921 8 1 410 1922 2 6 396 1923 1 2 394 1924 5 380 1925 5 19 366 1926 12 4 365 1927 2 2 350 1928 14 12 349 1929 15 335 1930 1 7 337 1931 2 12 348 1932 2 7 332 1933 5 342 1934 4 340 1935 1 7 349 1936 4 343 1937 9 352 1938 1 5 345 1939 10 6 354 1940 0 362 1941 8 385 1942 7 10 445 1943 7 6 489 1944 3 537 1945 2 2 588 1946 1 9 660 1947 4 716 1948 5 759 1949 0 849 1950 3 8 929 1951 7 9 956 1952 3 0 982 1953 8 19 1011

- 54 - Table 5: Example from Appendix 2, Whale Harvest and Human Population Data for Barrow, Alaska, 1910-1969 (Cont.)

Number Number Bowbead Eskimo Village Year Crews Landed Population

Barrow

1954 1 1041 195S 10 19 1097 19S6 2 11S8 19S7 9 0 1186 1958 10 0 1248 19S9 1 0 1281 1960 18 lS 129S 1961 18 6 1369 1962 17 s 1414 1963 21 s 1S2S 1964 7 11 1S71 196S 19 4 1614 1966 lS 7 1674 1967 7 3 1731 1968 10 10 1794 1969 11 11 182S

Totals for Barrow 379 44687 Bowhead Landed per Capita .008481 Number of Observations 60

. = No data available.

Source: Stephen R. Braund & Associates

- SS - Table 6: Alaska Eskimo Whaling Villages' Subsistence and Cultural Need For Landed Bowhead Whales, 1988. \1

Total Eskimo Population Mean 1987 1987 Number for ea. yr. Bowheads Landed 1983-87 Bowhead Need of of a Bowhead Landed Per Capita Eskimo Need (Landed) Village Observations\2 Observation\3 1910-1969\4 1910-1969\5 Population\6 (Landed)\ 7 (Rounded)\8 ------Gambell 39 11,883 68 0.005722 495 2.8 3 Savoonga \9 0 0.005722 485 2.8 3 Wales 42 6,907 5 0.000724 154 0.1 1 Kivalina 7 926 3 0.003240 275 0.9 1 Point Hope 50 12,467 209 0.016764 534 9.0 9 Wainwright 49 10,723 108 0.010072 445 4.5 5 Barrow 60 44,687 379 0.008481 1,823 15.5 16 Nuiqsut \9 0 0.008481 227 1. 9 2 Kaktovik 3 327 3 0.009174 154 1.4 1

Totals 250 87,920 775 4,592 38.8 41

Region\10 250 87,920 775 0.008815 4,592 40.5 41

\1 Subsistence and cultural need is based on historic per capita harvest per community multiplied by present village population. \2 The number of observations represents the number of years for which data on landed whales were available for each community (See Appendices 1 and 2). \3 Total Eskimo population represents the sum of the Eskimo population for each year there was an observation of a landed bowhead whale. \4 Represents the sum of the observed bowheads landed between 1910 and 1969. \$ The mean per capita landed whales is based on the total number of whales landed between 1910 and 1969 for each conmunity divided by the sum of the total Eskimo population for each village for each year landed whale data existed between 1910 and 1969 (See Appendices 1 and 2). The sum of the total Eskimo population was calculated by adding the population estimates for each village for each year that there was a landed whale observation. For example, Barrow's 379 landed whales from 1910-1969 was divided by the total Eskimo population sum of 44,687 for this 60 year period (i.e., 379 divided by 44,687 = .008481). \6 See Table 7 for the source of Eskimo population data for each community. \7 The number of bowheads needed is derived by multiplying the mean per capita landed whales (1910-1969) by the most current Eskimo population figure available for each conmunity. \8 The number of whales needed is rounded to the nearest whole number unless the product was less than .5; such cases were rounded up to one. \9 Because there are no landed bowhead data for neither Nuiqsut nor Savoonga between 1910-1969, the mean per capita landed whales for Gambell was used for Savoonga and the mean for Barrow was used for Nuiqsut. \10 The mean per capita landed whales for the region represents the total number of whales landed for all conmunities between 1910 and 1969 divided by the sum of the total Eskimo population for all communities for each year landed whale data existed bewteeen 1910 and 1969 (i.e., 775 whales divided by 87,920 = .008815).

Source: Stephen R. Braund & Associates, 1988.

- 56 - more landed bowhead whales. Correspondingly, the total Eskimo population for the region (i.e., all nine of the study communities) is the sum of all village population estimates for years in which there are bowhead landed data (e.g., zero or more landed whales).

The mean number of whales landed per capita over the time period was calculated from the total number of whales landed between 1910 and 1969 for each community (and for the region as a whole) divided by the total Eskimo population, by community and region, summed over all the years for which landed whale data exist between 1910 and 1969.

In Table 6, the number of bowheads currently needed by each community and by the region as a whole is then derived by multiplying the mean number of whales landed per capita over the time period selected (1910 to 1969) by the best estimate of present Eskimo population for these communities and the region (see Table 7). Following along with the Barrow example, the sum of Barrow's Eskimo population for the years 1910 to 1969 is 44,687. During this sixty year period, Barrow Eskimos landed a total of 379 whales. Thus, Barrow's mean number of whales landed per capita is .008481. Multiplying .008481 by Barrow's current Eskimo population (1,823) yields a current need of 15.5 bowheads landed per year. Because the fraction is .5, the study team rounded Barrow's current need to 16 landed whales (see Table 6). Similarly, all nine communities landed 775 whales from 1910 to 1969. Dividing these 775 whales by the total Eskimo population sum of 87 ,920 people for this 60 year period yields a mean landed per capita figure of .008815. Applying the mean of .008815 bowhead landed per capita for the historical period (1910-1969) to the current regional Eskimo population of 4,592 results in a current regional cultural and subsistence need of 41 landed whales.

FUTURE POPULATION TRENDS

In order to respond to IWC member nations' concern that if the need for whales is based on historical per capita catch, there is no ceiling on the number of whales that will be needed in the future as village populations increase, the study team developed a Eskimo population model to project the Eskimo population in the nine study communities to the year 2020 (see Figure 2). Thus, it is possible to project the estimated need for bow head whales to the year 2020.

- 57 - Table 7: Alaska Eskimo Whaling Villages' Eskimo Pooula ti on Es ti mates. 1983-1988

Date Eskimo of Count Source of Census Population Gambell Oct. 1987 City of Gambell Census 495 Savoonga 1985 Savoonga IRA Council Census 485 Wales 1987 City of Wales estimate 154 Kivalina 1987 City of Kivalina Census 275 Point Hope March 1986 NSB Planning Dept. \ 1 534 Wainwright 1983 Estimate from Luton \2 445 Barrow Feb. 1986 NSB Planning Dept. \ 1 1,823 Nuiqsut 1983 Research Foundation of SUNY \3 227 Kaktovik 1983 Pederson et al. 1985 \4 154 Total 4,592

\1 North Slope Borough Planning Department 1986 Economic Profile. Barrow, Alaska.

\2 Luton, H.H. 1985 Effects of Renewable Resource Harvest Disruptions on Socioeconomic and Sociocultural Systems: Wainwright, Alaska. Technical Report No. 91, Alaska OCS Social and Economic Studies Program, l\1MS, Anchorage, Alaska.

\3 Research Foundation of State University of New York 1984 Ethnographic Study and Monitoring Methodology of Contemporary Economic Growth, Socio-Cultural Change and Community Development in Nuiqsut, Alaska. Technical Report No. 96. Alaska OCS Social and Economic Studies Program, MMS, Anchorage, Alaska.

\4 Pederson, S., M. Coffing, and J. Thompson 1985 Subsistence Land Use and Place Names Maps for Kaktovik, Alaska. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence Technical Report No. 109.

Stephen R. Braund & Associates, 1988.

- 58 - The major sources of Eskimo population change in the next three decades are likely to be: (a) periodic increases in the number of births associated with relatively large cohorts of women in their childbearing years, and (b) outmigration. The dramatically lower birth rates in the 1970s and 1980s are likely to continue. Labor force participation among northern Inupiat women has increased substantially over the past decade and is likely to permanently change desired family size. A transient peak in the absolute number of births is likely to occur toward the end of the projection period.

The historical pattern of migration in rural Alaska has been a movement from rural regions to urban areas (Kruse and Foster 1986). Unprecedented state spending in rural areas in the 1970s and early 1980s resulted in a temporary interruption of the historic pattern. In the long term, however, the flow of people from rural to urban areas is likely to continue. Our population projection is based on assumptions of constant birth rates and a small rate of net outmigration (i.e., one percent).

The projected Eskimo population in the nine whaling villages in 2020 is 5,445. Based on the same ratio of .008815 bow head per capita used to estimate the cultural need for bow head whales in 1988, the projected cultural need for landed bow head whales in 2020 is 48. Thus, the likely increase in population over the next three decades will generate an increased cultural need of an additional seven bowhead whales in the nine study communities.

STRUCK AND LOST

Available data regarding struck and lost ratios indicate that an average of 53 percent of whales struck were landed during the period 1978-1987 as opposed to 41 percent landed during the period 1970-1977 and 56 percent from 1910-1969 (Table 8). It should be noted, however, that very few data points (38) are available between 1910-1969, weakening the calculation for that period. Moreover, the IWC Scientific Committee has determined that struck and lost rates have improved significantly since 1982 (IWC 1987).

This figure of approximately 50 percent landed versus struck and lost is consistent with subsistence hunting struck and lost ratios for most other

- 59 - Table 8: Percent of Bowheads Landed out of Total Struck \l

Location 1910 - 1969\2 1970 - 1977\3 1978 - 1987

St. Lawrence Island 31 Gambell 35 52 Savoonga 50 67 Wales Kivalina 29 40 Wainwright 50 21 81 Barrow 70 46 42 Nuiqsut 100 Kaktovik 100 59

All Locations 56 41 53

1\ Source: Appendix 1.

2\ Based on 38 data points.

3 \ Based on 30 data po in ts.

Stephen R. Braund & Associates, 1988

- 60 - marine mammal species taken in Alaska under similar conditions. The Alaska Department of Fish and Game, for instance, applies a figure of 60 percent landed versus 40 percent struck and lost to· walrus harvest estimates within the state, and generally assumes a struck and lost ratio of about 50 percent for other marine mammal species hunted in broken ice or open water (John Burns and Lloyd Lowry, ADF&G, Fairbanks, AK, personal communication). For walrus hunted in open water, the struck and lost ratio undoubtedly exceeds 50 percent, at least during the spring hunt.

Within the quota period~ (1978-1987), hunting efficiency (whales landed/total whales struck) has varied between 70 percent (19/27) in 1986 and 71 percent (10/4) in 1978 to lows of 32 percent (7 /22) in 1979 and 33 percent (13/39) in 1980. Undoubtedly, a number of factors influence this variability in hunting efficiency, including weather and ice conditions, timing and distribution of the bowhead migration, and the performance level of hunters and equipment.

The Alaska Eskimos are making efforts to improve the performance level of whaling equipment used in the hunt and to increase overall hunting efficiency. It is not possible, however, to influence weather and ice conditions or bowhead migration behavior, and so it is likely that some continued loss can be expected given the conditions under which the hunt is necessarily conducted (i.e., whaling from small open boats in restricted leads and moving ice).

CONCLUSION

Based on the mean number of whales landed per capita from 1910 to 1969 (calculated from the total number of whales landed, by community and region, divided by the sum of the Eskimo population for all years for which landed whale data existed, by community and region), the current cultural need in nine Alaska Eskimo whaling villages is 41 landed whales. Historic struck and lost ratios of approximately 50 percent yield a need of 82 strikes. Following the 1983 goal of 75 percent efficiency, the calculated need of 41 landed whales requires 55 strikes. The projected Eskimo population in the nine whaling villages in 2020 is 5,445. Based on the 1988 ratio of bowhead per capita, the projected cultural need for landed bowhead whales in 2020 is 48. Thus, the projected population increase over the next three decades will generate an increased cultural need of seven more landed bowhead whales in the nine study communities. - 61 - References Cited

Alaska Consultants, Inc. and Stephen Braund & Associates 1984 Subsistence Study of Alaska Eskimo Whaling Villages. Prepared for the U.S. Department of the Interior.

Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission n.d.a Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission Whaling Captain Registrations. Barrow, Alaska. n.d.b Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission February 1988 Captain Registration. Barrow, Alaska.

Allen, A.J. 1978 A Whaler and Trader in the Arctic 1895 to 1944. Anchorage, AK: Alaska Northwest Publishing Company.

Alaska Department of Fish and Game 1987 Annual Report of Survey-Inventory Activities: Caribou. Juneau, Alaska, unpublished.

Andrews, C.L. 1917 Notebooks. Box 3, folder 40, UAF Archives, Fairbanks, AK.

Bockstoce, J .R. 1978 History of Commercial Whaling in Arctic Alaska. Alaska Geographic 5, no. 4. 1986 Whales, Ice, and Men: The History of Whaling in the Western Arctic. University of Washington Press, Seattle, WA.

Burch, E.S., Jr. 1981 The Traditional Eskimo Hunters of Point Hope, Alaska: 1800-1875. Nor th Slope Borough, Barrow, Alaska.

Davis, J.L., P. Valkenburg and H.V. Reynolds. 1980 Population Dynamics of Alaska's Western Arctic Caribou Herd. Reimers, E., Garre, E., and Skjenneberg, S., eds. 1980 Proceedings from the Second International Reindeer /Caribou Symposium. Roros, Norway. 1979. Direcktoratet for vilt og ferskvannsfisk, Trondheim. pp. 595-604.

Doerr, J. 1979 Population Analysis and Modeling of the Western Arctic Caribou Herd with Comparisons to Other Alaska Rangifer Populations. M.S. Thesis, University of Alaska. Fairbanks, Alaska.

Durham, F.E. 1979 The Catch of Bowhead Whales by Eskimos, With Emphasis on the Western Arctic. Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Contributions in Science Number 314. Los Angeles, CA.

Fay, F.H. 1982 Ecology and Biology of the Pacific Walrus, Odobenus rosmarus divergens Illiger. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, North America Fauna Series, No. 74. Washington, D.C.

- 62 - Foote, D., and H.A. Williamson. 1966 A Human Geographical Study. In: N.J. Wilimovsky and J.N. Wolfe (eds.), Environment of the Cape Thompson Region, Alaska, p. 1041-1107. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. U.S. Government Printing Off ice, Washington, D.C.

Goldsmith, 0. S. 1987 Alaska's Economy: What's Ahead?. Alaska Review of Social and Economic Conditions, Vol. 24, No. 2.

Harry, G.Y., Jr. 1973 Arctic Whales and the Eskimos. Unpublished report, submitted as SC/25/Doc 23 to the International Whaling Commission, London, June 1973, by Marine Mammal Division, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way N.E., Bldg. 32, Seattle, WA 98115.

International Whaling Commission 1979 Report of the Panel to Consider Cultural Aspects of Aboriginal Whaling in North Alaska. Meeting in Seattle, WA. February 5-9, 1979 under the auspices of the International Whaling Commission.

Kruse, J., and K. Foster 1986 Rural Alaska Settlement Patterns, Alaska Review of Social and Economic Conditions, Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of Alaska, Anchorage.

Kruse, J., M. Baring-Gould, W. Schneider, J. Gross, G. Knapp, and G. Sherrod. 1983 A Description of the Socioeconomics of the North Slope Borough, Technical Report No. 85, Minerals Management Service, Alaska Outer Continental Shelf Region.

Lowenstein, T. 1981 Some Aspects of Sea Ice Subsistence Hunting in Point Hope, Alaska. A report for the North Slope Borough's Coastal Zone Management Plan. Barrow, Alaska.

n.d. Whaling at Aggutauraq. Unpublished manuscript, p. 472-3. (Personal communication from T. Lowenstein, Cambridge, Great Britain, to W.M. Marquette.)

Marquette, W.M. 1979 The 1977 Catch of Bowhead Whales by Alaskan Eskimos. Report of the International Whaling Commission, 29:281-289. Seattle, WA.

Marquette, W.M. and J.R. Bockstoce 1980 Historical Shore-Based Catch of Bowhead Whales in the Bering, Chukchi, and Beaufort Seas. Marine Fisheries Review. 42(9-10):5-19. Seattle, WA.

Marsh, M.C., and J.N. Cobb. 1910 The Fisheries of Alaska in 1909. U.S. Bureau of Fish., Rep. Comm. Fish., 1909.

- 63 - Nelson, R.K. 1981 Harvest of the Sea: Coastal Subsistence in Modern Wainwright. Report of the North Slope's Coastal Management Program. North Slope Borough, Barrow, Alaska.

North Slope Borough 1980 Qiniqtuagaksrat Utuqqanaat Inuuniagninisiqun. The Traditional Land Use Inventory for the Mid-Beaufort Sea. Volume 1. NSB Commission on History and Culture, Barrow, AK.

Sease, J.L. 1986 Historical Status and Population Dynamics of the Pacific Walrus. Unpublished MS. Thesis, University of Alaska, Fairbanks.

Stoker, S.W. 1984 Subsistence Harvest Estimates and Faunal Resource Potential at Whaling Villages in Northwestern Alaska. In: Alaska Consultants, Inc. and Stephen R. Braund & Associates, Subsistence Study of Alaska Eskimo Whaling Villages, Prepared for the U.S. Department of Interior.

Tillman M.F. 1980 Introduction: A Scientific Perspective of the Bowhead Whale Problem. Marine Fisheries Review. 42(9-10):2-5. Seattle, WA.

U.S. Department of the Interior 1980 Interim Report on Aboriginal/Subsistence Whaling of the Bowhead Whale by Alaskan Eskimos.

U.S. Government 1983 Report on Nutritional, Subsistence, and Cultural Needs Relating to the Catch of Bowhead Whales by Alaskan Natives. Submitted by the U.S. Government to the International Whaling Commission at its 35th Annual Meeting.

Worl R. 1978 The North Slope Inupiat Whaling Complex. Senri Ethnological Studies 4, National Museum of Ethnology Osaka, Japan.

1979 Sociocultural Assessment of the Impact of the 1978 International Whaling Commission Quota on the Eskimo Communities. Arctic Environmental Information and Data Center. University of Alaska, Anchorage.

- 64 - APPENDIX 1

Data on Shore-Based Bowhead Whaling

Sites in Alaska

Stephen R. Braund Willman M. Marquette John R. Bockstoce

Stephen R. Braund & Associates P.O. Box 1480 Anchorage, Alaska 99510

907-276-8222

May 1988

INTRODUCTION

Appendix 1 is based on the original data in Marquette and Bockstoce (1980), additional published and unpublished information gathered by Marquette and Bockstoce and supplied for this report, further published and unpublished harvest data gathered by Stephen R. Braund & Associates, and harvest data gathered by Stephen R. Braund during field visits to Wainwright, Wales, Gambell, and Savoonga in November and December 1987. A detailed explanation of the methods used to compile this data table is found in the body of the report under Data on Shore-Based Whaling (in Data Collection Methods) and Whale Harvest Data (in Results and Analysis).

Appendix 1 only represents available data, not necessarily the total number of whales landed or crews in any one year. For example, on Saint Lawrence Island in 1901 the data indicate 10 crews whaled, while the data indicate that only one crew whaled in 1902. There may have been more crews whaling in 1902, but the available data mentioned only one.

LIST OF ALASKA SITES FOR SHORE-BASED BOWHEAD WHALING DAT A

Saint Lawrence Island Gambell Savoonga Wales Kivalina Point Hope Point Lay Icy Cape Wainwright Point Belcher and Point Franklin Barrow Nuiqsut Kaktovik, Barter Island King Island Little Diomede Island Kotze hue Sound Cape Lisburne Cape Halkett Cross Island/Prudhoe Bay Ogotoruk Creek Shaktoolik unlocated

- 1 - 5/13/88 page 2 Appendix 1: Data on Shore-Based Bowhead Whaling at Sites in Alaska

Number of whales

Site No. Struck Killed Sources NOTE: Footnotes found and of and but Total (** indicates source is in the ) on Page 27 Year Crews Lost Landed Lost Killed (Bibliography of Unpublished Works)

St. Lawrence Island (SLI) 1816 3\a Kotzebue (1821) 1826 4\a Beechey (1832) 1858 1\b 1 Bockstoce (1986) 1865 25*-30\a Bockstoce (1986) 1870 5 5 Logbook Thomas Dickason (1870)** 1880 1 1 1 Keim (1969); Hooper (1884) 1881 1 1 Hooper (1881); Hooper (1881)** 1886 2 2 Brower (1863-1937)** 1891 4 4 Logbook F.A. Barstow (1891)**; Journal Orea (1891b)** 1892 2 2 Journal Narwhal (1892)** 1893 1 Cook (1926) 1894 1 (2\c) (2) Cook (1926); Jackson (1895) 1895 1 Jackson (1896) 1899 12 1 1 1 Cook (1926); Doty (1900); Jackson (1900) 1900 0 0 Jackson (1900) 1901 10 3 3 Jackson (1902); Lerrigo (1899-1901)** 1902 1 1 0 0 Jackson (1904); Egan (1901-1902)** 1903 1 0 0 Cook (1926) 1903 13* 1* 5* 5* Campbell (1902-1904)** 1904 13 3 3 3 Campbell (1902-1904)** 1905 2 Campbell (1905-1906)** 1906 6 1 2 2 Campbell (1905-1906)** 1907 2 2 Logbook William Baylies (1907b)** 1908 1 2 1 3 Campbell (1906-1911)** [includes 1 whale found] 1909 3* O* O* Bodfish (1936); Campbell (1906-1911)** 1909 3 3 Braund (1987d Fieldwork - SLI)** 1910 4 4 Braund (1987d Fieldwork - SLI)** 1910 1 Campbell (1906-1911)** 1911 5* 3* 3* 3* Journal Belvedere (1911)**; Campbell (1906-1911)** 1911 4 4 Braund (1987d Fieldwork - SLI)** 1912 5 5 Braund (1987d Fieldwork - SLI)** . 1913 8 8 Braund (1987d Fieldwork - SLI)** 1914 5 5 Braund (1987d Fieldwork - SLI)** 1914 2* 2* Coffin (1914)** [includes 1 whale found] 1915 4 4 Coffin (1915)** [includes 2 whales found] 1917 3 3 Eskimo (1917d); Andrews (1917b)** 1920 1 1 Braund (1987d Fieldwork - SLI)** 1921 20 Hunt (1975) 1924 1 1 Troutman (1925)**; Braund (1987d Fieldwork - SLI)** 1925 1 1 Troutman (1925)** 1928 3 2 Geist (1937); Keim (1969) 1929 6 3 1 1 2 Keim (1969); Geist (1929a & 1929b)** 1932 13 2 2 Braund (1981)**; Geist (1932a & 1932b)** 1934 1 1 Gambell Village Council (1926-34)** 1936 1 1 Smith (1937) 1937 1 1 Smith (1937) 1939 2 2 Braund (1987a Fieldwork - Antoghame's diary)** 1940 5 5 Hughes & Hughes (1960); Braund (1987a Fieldwork - Antoghame' s diary)~<>'< 1942 1 1 Braund (1987d Fieldwork - SLI)** 1947 2 2 Braund (1987d Fieldwork - SLI)** Number of whales page 3

Site No. Struck Killed Sources and of and but Total (** indicates source is in the ) Year Crews Lost Landed Lost Killed (Bibliography of Unpublished Works)

St. Lawrence Island (SLI) (Continued) 1949 1 1 1 U.S.G.S. (n.d.)** 1950 1 1 1 Mukluk Teleg. _(1950); Braund (l987b&c Fieldwork-Kulukhon Diary & Tungiyan records)** 1951 1 1 1 Rodahl (1963); Braund (1987b Fieldwork - Kulukhon Diary)** 1952 2 0 0 Fay (1973)**; Braund (1987b Fieldwork - Kulukhon Diary)** 1953 1* 2 2 Fay (1973)** 1953 3* 3* Braund (1987b Fieldwork - Kulukhon Diary [includes 1 whale found])** 1954 O* O* Hughes and Hughes (1960) 1954 1 1 Braund (1987d Fieldwork - SLI)** 1955 11 2 2 Hughes and Hughes (1960); Fay (1973)** 1956 1 1 Fay (1973)** 1957 0 0 Fay (1973)** 1958 0 0 Fay (1973)** 1960 l* O* O* Fay (1973)** 1960 3 3 Braund (1987d Fieldwork - SLI)** 1961 1 1 1 Alaska(\d) (1965); Fay (1973)** 1962 4 0 0 Alaska (1965); Fay (1973)** 1963 0 0 Alaska (1965) 1964 0 0 Alaska (1965) 1965 2 1 1 1 Alaska (1965); Balcomb (1978)**; Slwooko (1965)**; Braund (1987b Fieldwork - - Kulukhon Diary)** 1966 6* 2 1 3 Burns (1982)**; Fay (1966)**; Morgan (1978)** 1966 3* 3* Braund (1987b Fieldwork - Kulukhon Diary)** 1967 5 3 3 Durham (1979c); Durham (1979a) 1968 20 4 1 1 Durham (1973); Fay (1973)** 1969 1 2 2 Alaska (1969b); Fay (1973)** 1970 1 Braund (1987d Fieldwork - SLI)** 1971 2 1 1 Durham (1979c); Balcomb (1978)**

Gambell 1972 16 3 1 0 1 Burgess (1974)** 1973 14 3 2 2 Marquette (1973)**; Braund (1981)** 1974 11 2 2 2 Stevens (1976); Fiscus & Marquette (1975)**; Braund (1987d Fieldwork - SLI)** 1975 19 3 1 1 2 Marquette (1976); Braund (1987d Fieldwork - SLI)** 1976 19 O* 1* O* 1* Marquette (1978) 1976 16* 3 3 0 3 Braund (1987d Fieldwork - SLI)** 1977 19 6 2 0 2 Marquette (1979) 1978 21 4 1 1 Braham et al. (1979); NMFS (1978-87)** 1979 22 0 0 0 Braham et al. (1980); NMFS (1978-87)** 1980\e 1 2 2 AEWC (1980)** 1980\e 3 1 1 NMFS (1978-87)** 1981 2 1 1 AEWC (1981a & 198lb)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1982 22 0 2 2 AEWC (1982a & l982b)**; NMFS (1978-87)**; Little & Robbins (1984) 1983 0 1 1 AEWC (1983 & 1984a)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1984 3 0 0 AEWC (1984b & 1984c)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1985 1 1 1 AEWC (1985 & 1986a)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1986 1 3 3 AEWC (1986b & 1987a)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1987 0 2 2 AEWC (1987b & 1987c)**; NMFS (1978-87)**

Savoonga 1972 1 1*-5 1 1 Kelly (1980)**; Knutson (1978)** 1973 4 2 4 4 Kelly (1980)** 1974 2 0 0 Braund (1987d Fieldwork - SLI)**; Fiscus & Marquette (1975)** 1975 4 0 0 Braund (1987d Fieldwork - SLI)**; Marquette (1976) Number of whales page 4

Site No. Struck Killed Sources and of and but Total (** indicates source is in the ) Year Crews Lost Landed Lost Killed (Bibliography of Unpublished Works)

Savoonga (continued) 1976 3* 5* 7* 7* Marquette (1978) 1976 6 2 6 0 6 Braund (1987d Fieldwork - SLI)** 1977 8 2 0 0 0 Marquette (1979) . 197& 8 0 1 1 Braham et al. (1979); NMFS (1978-87)** 1979 8 0 0 0 Braham et al. (1980); NMFS (1978-87)** 1980\e 0 1 1 AEWC (1980)** 1980\e 0 2 2 NMFS (1978-87)** 1981 1 2 2 AEWC (1981a & 1981b)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1982 10 1 1 1 AEWC (1982a & 1982b)**; NMFS (1978-87)**; Little & Robbins (1984) 1983 0 1 1 AEWC (1983 & 1984a)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1984 1 2 2 AEWC (1984b & 1984c)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1985 1 1 1 AEWC (1985 & 1986a)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1986 1 0 0 AEWC (1986b & 1987a)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1987 0 1 1 AEWC (1987b & 1987c)**; NMFS (1978-87)**

Wales 1848 7\a Bockstoce (1986) 1888 1 1 1 Ray (1975) 1889 10*-12 12 3 3 Thornton (1931) 1890 10*-12 2 0 0 0 Thornton (1931) 1891 10*-12 29 1 1 Thornton (1931) 1893 2 2 Eskimo Bulletin (1893) 1894 4 4 Koenig (1895)** 1895 0 0 Ray (1975) 1897 0 0 Eskimo Bulletin (1897) 1898 1 2 2 Eskimo Bulletin (1898) 1900 0 0 Bernardi (1912) 1901 16 8 8 Eskimo (1936); Jackson (1906) 1902 11 11 Witten (1904) 1903 0 0 Nome Nugget (1903) 1906 0 0 Andrews (1939) 1907 0 0 Andrews (1939); Eskimo (1916) 1908 0 0 Andrews (1939); Eskimo (1916) 1909 0 0 Andrews (1939); Eskimo (1916) 1910 0 0 Andrews (1939); Eskimo (1916) 1911 1* l* Bureau of Indian Affairs (19llb)** 1911 0 0 Eskimo (1916) 1912 0 0 Andrews (1939); Eskimo (1916) 1913 0 0 Andrews (1939); Eskimo (1916) 1914 0 0 Andrews (1939); Eskimo (1916) 1915 0 0 0 Andrews (1939); Eskimo (1916) 1916 6 1 1 Eskimo (1916); Durham (1979c) 1918 5\f 0 1 1 Eskimo (1918); Mayokok (1950) 1922 6 Bailey (1971) 1926 1 1 Braund (1987e Fieldwork - Wales)** 1927 1 1 Bailey (1928) 1935 1 1 Braund (1987e Fieldwork - Wales)** . 1936 5 Collins (1939) 1938 1 1 1 Durham (1979c) 1939 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field CoDITl. (1968) 1940 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field CoDITl. (1968) 1941 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field CoDITl. (1968) 1942 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field ColJITl, (1968) Number of whales page 5

Site No. Struck Killed Sources and of and but Total (** indicates source is in the ) Year Crews Lost Landed Lost Killed (Bibliography of Unpublished Works)

Wales (Continued) 1943 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Cornn. (1968) 1944 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Cornn. (1968) 1945 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Cornn. (1968) 1946 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Comm. (1968) 1947 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Cornn. (1968) 1948 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Comm. (1968) 1949 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Cornn. (1968) 1950 7 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Comm. (1968); Mukluk Telegraph (1950) 1951 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Cornn. (1968) 1952 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Cornn. (1968) 1953 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Cornn. (1968) 1954 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Cornn. (1968) 1955 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Conm. (1968) 1956 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Cornn. (1968) 1957 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Conm. (1968) 1958 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Conm. (1968) 1959 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Conm. (1968) 1960 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Conxn. (1968) 1961 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Conxn. (1968) 1962 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Conxn. (1968) 1963 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Conxn. (1968) 1964 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Conxn. (1968) 1965 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Conxn. (1968) 1966 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Cornn. (1968) 1967 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Conxn. (1968) 1968 0 0 U.S. Fed. Field Cormn. (1968) 1969 1 1 1 Harry (1973b)** 1969 O* O* Braund (1987e Fieldwork - Wales)** 1970 2 1 1 Durham (1979c); Braund (1987e Fieldwork - Wales)** 1971 2 0 0 Bering Straights (1980); Worl (1979) 1972 0 0 Seaman (1976)**; Bering Straights (1980) 1973 0 0 Seaman (1976)**; Bering Straights (1980) 1974 2 0 0 Seaman (1976)**; Braund (1987e Fieldwork - Wales)** 1975 0 0 Seaman (1976)**; Bering Straights (1980) 1976 2 0 0 0 0 Marquette (1978) 1977 2 0 0 0 0 Marquette (1979) 1978 3 0 0 0 Braham et al. (1979); NMFS (1978-87)** 1979 2 0 0 0 Braham et al. (1980); NMFS (1978-87)** 1980 0 1 1 AEWC (1980)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1981 0 0 0 AEWC (1981a & 1981b)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1982 0 0 0 AEWC (1982a & 1982b)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1983 0 1 1 AEWC (1983 & 1984a)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1984 0 0 0 AEWC (1984b & 1984c)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1985 0 1 1 AEWC (1985 & 1986a)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1986 0 O* O* AEWC (1986b & 1987a)** 1986 0 1 1 NMFS (1978-87)** 1987 0 1 1 AEWC (1987b & 1987c)**; NMFS (1978-87)** Number of whales page 6

Site No. Struck Killed Sources and of and but Total (** indicates source is in the ) Year Crews Lost Landed Lost Killed (Bibliography of Unpublished Works)

Kivalina 1916 2 Lowenstein (n.d.)** 1917 2 Lowenstein (n.d.)**; Eskimo (1917) 1934 1 1 1 Harry (1973a)** 1938 0 0 Zensler (1938)** 1958 1 Morgan (1974) 1960 1 Saario and Kessel (1966) 1961 0 0 0 0 0 Saario and Kessel (1966) 1964 O* Burch (1988)** 1964 1 1 Durham (1979c) 1966 2 Burch (1985); Burch (1988)** 1967 2 Burch (1988)** 1968 2* 1* Burch (1988)** 1968 1 1 1 Harry (1973a)** 1969 0 0 Burch (1988)**; Harry (1973a)** 1970 1 0 1 Burch (1988)**; Morgan (1974) 1971 O* Burch (1988)** . 1971 1 1 0 1 Morgan (1974); Harry (1973a)** 1972 3 1 1 0 1 Burch (1988)**; Morgan (1974); Harry (1973a)** 1973 6* 1* Burch (1988)** 1973 4 0 1 1 Morgan (1974); Harry (1973a)** 1974 5 1 0 0 0 Burch (1988)**; Morgan (1974); Fiscus & Marquette (1975)** 1975 5 0 0 0 0 Burch (1988)**; Marquette (1976) 1976 3 0 0 0 0 Burch (1988)**; Marquette (1978) 1977 4* 1* Burch (1988)** 1977 3 2 1 1 2 Marquette (1979) 1978 3 0 0 0 Burch (1988)**; Braham et al. (1979); NMFS (1978-87)** 1979 3 0 0 0 Burch (1988)**; Braham et al. (1980); NMFS (1978-87)** 1980 0 0 0 Burch (1988)**; AEWC (1980)**; NMFS (1980-87)** 1981 2 0 0 AEWC (198la & 1981b)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1982 5 1 0 0 Burch (1988)**; AEWC (1982a & 1982b)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1983 5 0 0 0 Burch (1988)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1984 5 0 1 1 Burch (1988)**; AEWC (1984a & 1984b)**; NMFS (9178-87)** 1985 0 0 0 Burch (1988)**; AEWC (1985 & 1986a)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1986 0 0 0 Burch (1988)**; AEWC (1986b & 1987a)**; NMFS (9178-87)** 1987 0 1 1 Burch (1988)**; AEWC (9187b & 1987c)**; NMES (1978-87)**

Point Hope 1869 5\f 5 Logbook Cornelius Howland (1869)** 1880 5 5 Bean (1887); Hooper (1881) 1882 8*-10 Murdoch (1891) 1884 3 3 Logbook Balaena (1884)** 1885 10 12 12 Brower (1942); Brower (1863-1937)** 1886 1 Bockstoce (1986) 1887 2 Bockstoce (1986) 1888 1 12 12 Healy (1888)**; Bockstoce (1986) 1889 2 18 18 Poole (1971); Bockstoce (1986) 1890 3 1 1 Brower (1863-1937)**; Howland (1890)**; Foote (1964)** 1891 8*-10 8 8 Woolfe (1893); Journal Orea (1891a)** 1892 0 0 Foote (1964)**; Journal Orea (1892)** 1893 8*-10 13 13 Woolfe (1893); Journal Mary D. Hume (1893)** 1894 3 3 3 Klengenberg (1932) Number of whales page 7

Site No. Struck Killed Sources and of and but Total (** indicates source is in the ) Year Crews Lost Landed Lost Killed (Bibliography of Unpublished Works)

Point Hope (Continued) 1895 1 0 0 Healy (1895)**; Bockstoce (1986) 1896 2 33 33 Foote (1964)**; Edson (1896)**; Klengenberg (1932); Bockstoce (1986) 1897 2 32 32 Eskimo Bulletin (1897); Boyd (1972) 1898 70 2 2 Eskimo Bulletin (1898) 1899 2 4 4 Brower (1863-1937)**; Bockstoce (1986) 1900 1 Bockstoce (1986) 1901 1 1 1 Foote (1964)**; Driggs (1902)**; Bockstoce (1986) 1902 1 2 2 Foote (1964)**; Driggs (1902)**; Bockstoce (1986) 1903 60 1 4 4 Allen (1978) 1904 5 1 1 Allen (1978); Bockstoce (1986) 1905 3 2 2 Allen (1978); Bockstoce (1986) 1906 1 9 9 Logbook William Baylies (1906)** 1907 0 0 Foote (1964)**; Logbook William Baylies (1907a)** 1907 1 2* 2* Bockstoce (1986); Koenig (1907)** 1908 1 13 13 Foote (1964)**; Bockstoce (1986) 1909 1 13 13 Marsh and Cobb (1910) 1910 22 1 1 Marsh and Cobb (1911); Allen (1978) 1911 3 3 Foote (1964)** 1912 1 9 9 Logbook John & Winthrop (1912a)**; St. Thomas Episcopal Mission (1890 to present)** 1913 1 1 Foote (1964)** 1914 2 2 Foote (1964)** 1915 3 3 3 Foote (1964)** 1916 1 7 7 Foote (1964)** 1917 2 2 3 3 Reese (1918); Foote (1964)** 1918 7 7 Foote (1964)** 1919 2 2 Foote (1964)** 1920 3 3 Foote (1964)** 1921 2 2 Foote (1964)** 1922 13 13 Foote (1964)** 1923 1 1 Mayokok (1955) 1924 14 1 16 16 Thomas (1962); Foote (1964)** 1925 2 10 10 Foote (1964)**; Durham (1979b); Lowenstein (n.d.)** 1926 13 13 Foote (1964)**; Andrews (1925-1926)** 1927 3 3 Foote (1964)** 1929 1 Pulu (1980) 1930 1 Pulu (1980) 1931 1 1 1 Allen (1978); Pulu (1980) 1935 1 Pulu (1980) 1936 4 4 Eskimo (1937) 1937 7 7 Nome Nugget (1937) 1938 5 5 Zensler (1938)** 1940 10*-15 8 5 5 Larsen & Rainey (1948); Rainey (1940); Rainey (1947) 1941 13 14 14 Alaska Sportsman (1941, 1943) 1942 1 1 1 Smullin (1980)** 1945 3 3 Foote (1964)** 1946 2 2 Foote (1964)** 1947 2 6 6 Foote (1964)**; Neakok et al. (1985) 1948 0 0 Foote (1964)** 1949 4 4 4 Kinneeveauk (1976)** 1950 2 2 2 Kinneeveauk (1976)** 1951 4 8*-10 4 4 Foote (1964)**; Kinneeveauk (1976)** Number of whales page 8

Site No. Struck Killed Sources and of and but Total (** indicates source is in the ) Year Crews Lost Landed Lost Killed (Bibliography of Unpublished Works)

Point Hope (Continued) 1952 2 2 3 5 Weed (1957); Kinneeveauk (1976)** 1953 4 4 4 Kinneeveauk (1976)** 1954 3 3 3 Kinneeveauk (1976)** 1955 1 1 1 Vanstone (1962); Kinneeveauk (1976)** 1956 9 3 2 2 Vanstone (1962); Kinneeveauk (1976)** 1957 3 3 3 Kinneeveauk (1976)** 1958 1 2 2 Kinneeveauk (1976)** 1959 1 1 1 Johnson et al. (1966); Kinneeveauk (1976)** 1960 13 10 4 4 Johnson et al. (1966); Foote (1964)**; Kinneeveauk (1976)** 1961 13 3 2 2 Johnson et al. (1966); Kinneeveauk (1976)**; Rice (1979)** 1962 12 1 6 6 Foote (1964)**1 Kinneeveauk (1976)**; Garno (1980) 1963 11 5*-6 3 3 Alaska Sportsman (1963); Kinneeveauk (1976)**; Tigara Times (1964) 1964 13 1 1 Kinneeveauk (1976)**; Weber (1964) 1965 11 1 2 2 Nelson (1969); Kinneeveauk (1976)**; Patty (1965) 1966 5 5 5 Kinneeveauk (1976)** 1967 1 1 1 Kinneeveauk (1976)** 1968 3 3 3 Kinneeveauk (1976)** 1969 2 18 3 3 Kinneeveauk (1976)**; Durham (1979a) 1970 4 7 8 3 11 Frankson (1970); Kinneeveauk (1976)** 1971 10 3 6 6 Pederson (1971); Kinneeveauk (1976)**; Durham (1979a) 1972 12 14 14 Morgan (1972); Kinneeveauk (1976)** 1973 12 7 7 Marquette (1973)**; Harry (1973b)** 1974 10 5 6 1 7 Fiscus & Marquette (1975)** 1975 13 13 4 0 4 Marquette (1976) 1976 14 12 12 0 12 Marquette (1978) 1977 15 11 2 0 2 Marquette (1979) 1978 15 0 2 2 Braham et al. (1979); NMFS (1978-87)** 1979 16 2 3 3 Braham et al. (1980); NMFS (1978-87)** 1980 1 0 0 AEWC (1980)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1981 1 4 4 AEWC (1981a & 1981b)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1982 3 1 1 AEWC (1982a & 1982b)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1983 3 1 1 AEWC (1983 & 1984a)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1984 3 2 2 AEWC (1984b & 1984c)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1985 2 1 1 AEWC (1985 & 1986a)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1986 4 2 2 AEWC (1986b & 1987a)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1987 2 5 5 AEWC (1987b & 1987c)**; NMFS (1978-87)**

Point Lay 1886 6 6 Journal Mary & Helen II (1886)** 1890 3 0 0 San Francisco Chronicle (1890b) 1923 1 (1) (1) Ostermann (1952) 1924 1 Ostermann (1952) 1930 1 1 1 Durham (1979c) 1937 3 2 2 Neakok et. al. (1985) 1939 1 1 1 Milan (1977)**; Harry (1973a)** 1940 1 1 1 Durham (1979c) 1941 1 Harry (1973a)** Number of whales page 9

Site No. Struck Killed Sources and of and but Total (** indicates source is in the ) Year Crews Lost Landed Lost Killed (Bibliography of Unpublished Works)

Icy Cape 1872 4 4 Pacific Co1J111ercial Advertiser (1872) 1879 1 1 Journal Leo (1879)** 1887 0 0 Brower (1863-1937)** 1890 3 0 0 San Francisco Chron. (1890b) 1891 1 (1) (1) Bockstoce (1986) 1892 1 1 U.S. Revenue Cutter Service (n.d.)**; Brower (1863-1937)** 1907 2 2 Bureau of Indian Affairs (1907)** 1908 10*-12 10*-12 Marsh and Cobb (1910) 1909 1 1 1 Marsh and Cobb (1910) 1910 8\g 1 1 Durham (1979c) 1911 3 3 Bureau of Indian Affairs (1911a)** 1912 2 2 Braund (1987g Fieldwork - Wainwright)** 1913 2 2 Bureau of Indian Affairs (1913)** 1914 5 1 1 1 VanValin (1941) 1916 6 Durham (1979c) 1917 3 3 3 Forrest (1937) 1919 2 2 2 Durham (1979c) 1920 2 2 2 Durham (1979c) 1921 2 2 2 Durham (1979c) 1922 2 2 2 Durham (1979c) 1924 4 3 3 Durham (1979c) 1925 2 1 1 Andrews (1939); Richards (1949) 1926 1 1 Andrews (1939) 1936 1 1 1 Braund (1987g Fieldwork - Wainwright)** 1937 2 2 Nome Nugget (1937) 1938 2 2 2 Durham (1979c); Braund (1987g Fieldwork - Wainwright)** 1939 1 1 1 Durham (1979c) 1940 2 1 1 Durham (1979c)

Wainwright 1880 5\f 5 Logbook Mary & Helen (1880)** 1882 8*-10 Murdoch (1891) 1891 8*-10 Woolfe (1893) 1893 8*-10 Woolfe (1893) 1912 >or=l* >or=l* Bureau of Indian Affairs (1912)** 1916 3 1 1 Forrest (1937) . 1917 3 2 0 0 Eskimo (1917) 1919 4 4 Bureau of Indian Affairs (1919)** 1920 2 0 0 Milan (1977)**; Eskimo (1941) 1921 1 Bailey ( 1971) 1922 3 2 3 3 Bailey & Hendee (1926) 1924 1 0 0 O Andrews· (1939); Ostermann (1952) 1925 4 1 2 2 Andrews (1939); Richards (1949); Andrews (1925b)** 1926 1 2 2 Andrews (1939); Milan (1977)** 1927 3 2 2 Allen (1978); Bodfish & Minner (1947) 1928 3 3 Brower (1863-1937)** 1930 3 Milan (1977)** 1931 6 6 6 Allen (1978) 1932 1 Allen (1978) 1936 1 1 1 Milan (1977)**; Braund (1987g Fieldwork - Wainwright)** 1937 4 4 Nome Nugget (1937) 1938 3 5 5 Milan (1977)**; Zensler (1938)** Number of whales page 10

Site No. Struck Killed Sources and of and but Total (** indicates source is in the ) Year Crews Lost Landed Lost Killed (Bibliography of Unpublished Works)

Wainwright (Continued) 1939 2 2 Braund (1987g Fieldwork - Wainwright)** 1940 1 1 Braund (1987g Fieldwork - Wainwright)** 1940 O* O* Eskimo (1941) 1941 1 1 1 Alaska Sportsman (1941); Milan (1977)**; Braund (1987g Fieldwork - Wainwright)** 1942 1* 1* Sonnenfeld (1960) 1942 2 2 Braund (1987g Fieldwork - Wainwright)** 1943 1 1 1 Durham (1979c); Poor (1945); Braund (1987g Fieldwork - Wainwright)** 1944 3 2 2 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Wilson (1944)** 1945 3 6 6 Milan (1977)** 1946 6 1 1 Minner (1948); Milan (1977)** 1947 3 2 2 Milan (1977)**; Bodfish & Minner (1947); Nelson (1981) 1948 6 Minner (1948) 1949 2 2 Milan (1977)** 1950 2 2 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963) 1952 2 2 Bee & Hall (1956) 1953 1 1 Braund (1987g Fieldwork - Wainwright)** 1954 1 1 Sonnenfeld (1956)** 1955 3 1 1 1 Milan (1964) 1956 2 2 Taber (1958) 1957 0 O Milan (1977)** 1958 0 0 Milan (1977)** 1959 0 0 Milan (1977)** 1960 0 0 Milan (1977)** 1961 5 1 1 Rice (1964)**; Rice (1979)** 1962 1 1 Rice (1964)** 1963 3 2 2 Milan (1977)**; Nelson (1981) 1964 2 1 1 1 Milan (1977)**; Nelson (1965)** 1965 2 2 Nelson (1965)** 1966 1 1 1 Nelson (1969); Milan (1977)** 1967 0 0 Milan (1977)** 1968 5 2 2 Milan (1977)** 1969 4 4 Durham (1979c) 1970 4 30 0 0 Durham (1979c); Durham (1979a); McVay (1973); NARL (1972a)** 1971 2 5 2 2 Durham (1979c); Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (1971)** 1972 1 1 Braund (1987f Fieldwork - SiIIITlonds diary)** 1972 2* 2* Durham (1979c); NARL (1972a)**; NARL (1972b)** 1973 5* 5* Braund (1987£ Fieldwor~ - SiIIITlonds diary)** 1973 6* 7* 3 3 Marquette (1973) 1974 2 1 1 Fiscus & Marquette (1975)**; Braund (1987£ Fieldwork - Simmonds diary)** 1975 4 0 0 Marquette (1976) 1976 8 0 3 0 3 Marquette (1978); Braund (1987£ Fieldwork - SiIIITlonds diary)** 1977 8 2 2 0 2 Marquette (1979); Braund (1987f Fieldwork - SiIIITlonds diary)** 1978 5 0 2 2 Braham et al. (1979); NMFS (1978-87)** . 1979 7 3 1 1 Braham et al. (1980); NMFS (1978-87)** 1980\e 1 1 1 AEWC (1980)** 1980\e 0 1 1 NMFS (1978-87)** 1981 0 3 3 AEWC (1981a & 1981b)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1982 0 2 2 AEWC (1982a & l982b)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1983 0 2 2 AEWC (1983 & 1984a)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1984 0 2 2 AEWC (1984b & 1984c)**; NMFS (1978-87)** Number of whales page 11

Site No. Struck Killed Sources and of and but Total (** indicates source is in the ) Year Crews Lost Landed Lost Killed (Bibliography of Unpublished Works)

Wainwright (Continued) 1985 0 2 2 AEWC (1985 & l986a)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1986 1 3 3 AEWC (1986b & 1987a)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1987 0 4 4 AEWC (1987b & 1987c); NMFS (1978-87)**

Point Belcher and Point Franklin . 1887 1 1 1 Brower (1863-1937)** 1890 0 0 San Francisco Chronicle (1890a) 1891 1 1 Brower (1863-1937)** 1892 10 0 0 Brower (1863-1937)**; Bockstoce (1986) 1898 2 2 Journal Belvedere (1898)** 1904 2 2 Journal Alexander (1904)** 1905 1 Brower (1863-1937)** 1917 1 1 Bureau of Indian Affairs (1917)** 1925 2 Richards (1949)

Barrow 1838 20 Kashevarov (1838) 1852 17 17 Simpson (1875) 1853 7 7 Simpson (1875) 1854 24 24 Ray (1885) 1879 2 2 Journal Leo (1879)** 1881 10 10 Murdoch (1885) 1882 20 5\f 1 1 Murdoch (1885, 1892) 1883 20 5\f 2 2 Murdoch (1885, 1892) 1884 10 10 Sonnenfeld (1960) 1885 2 28 1 29 Murdoch (1892); Brower (1863-1937)**; Brower (1942:70) 1886 3 5\f 5 Brower (1863-1937)**; Hadley (1915) 1887 6 2 22 22 Brower (1886-1945)** 1888 5 4 4 Brower (1863-1937)** 1889 7+(5*)\f 1 28 28 San Francisco Chronicle (1889); Brower (1863-1937)** 1890 50 5 5 San Francisco Chronicle (1890b); Brower (1863-1937)**; Bockstoce (1986) 1891 43 18 18 Brower (1863-1937)**; Woolfe (1893); Bockstoce (1986) 1892 53 16 16 Brower (1863-1937)**; Logbook Orea (1892)**; Bockstoce (1986) 1893 48\a 11 11 Woolfe (1893); Bockstoce (1986) 1894 48 43 43 Brower (1863-1937)**; Unidentified clipping (n.d.)**; Bockstoce (1986) 1895 48 9 1 10 Brower (1863-1937)**; Logbook Refuge Station (1867-1914)** 1896 2 7 7 Brower (1863-1937)**; Logbook Mermaid (1896)** 1897 1 5 5 Brower (1863-1937)** 1898 15 38 38 Jarvis (1899); Brower (1863-1937)**; Logbook Belvedere (1898)** 1899 1 9\h 9 Brower (1863-1937)**; Brower (1886-1945)** 1900 8 21 21 Klengenberg (1932); Brower (1863-1937)** 1901 5\f 5 Brower (1863-1937)** 1902 5\f 5 Brower (1863-1937)** 1903 1 3 1 4 Brower (1863-1937)** 1904 4 2 2 Klengenberg (1932); Brower (1863-1937)** 1905 4 5 5 Brower (1863-1937)** 1906 13 8 8 Klengenberg (1932); Hamlet (1906)** 1907 20 9 9 Marsh & Cobb (1908); Brower (1863-1937)**; Logbook Belvedere (1907)**; Hadley (1915) 1908 13 23 23 Marsh & Cobb (1910); Brower (1863-1937)**; Stefansson (1913) 1909 3 11 11 Marsh & Cobb (1910); Brower (1863-1937)** Number of whales page 12

Site No. Struck Killed Sources and of and but Total (** indicates source is in the ) Year Crews Lost Landed Lost Killed (Bibliography of Unpublished Works)

Barrow (Continued) 1910 55 2+(5*)\f 2+(5*) Marsh & Cobb (1911); Brower (1863-1937)** 1911 20 1 1 Hadley (1915); Logbook John & Winthrop (1912b)** 1912 9 9 9 Hadley (1915); Logbook John & Winthrop (1912b)** 1913 2 4 4 Evermann (1914); Brower (1863-1937)**; Pacific Fisherman (1914) 1914 1 1+(5*)\f 1+(5*) Brower (1863-1937)** 1915 7 7 Bureau of Indian Affairs (1915)** 1916 4 1 5 5 Brower (1863-1937)**; Andrews (1916-1919)** 1917 9 7 7 U.S. Department of Interior (1917); Andrews (1917a & 1916-1919)** 1918 14 1 2+(7*)\i 2+(7*) VanValin (1941); Brower (1886-1945)**; Andrews (1916-1919)** 1919 1 2 2 U.S. Department of Interior (1919); Brower (1863-1937)**; Andrews (1916-1919)** 1920 11 11 U.S. Department of Interior (1920) 1921 6*-9 Greist (1968)** . 1922 1 1+(5*)\f 1+(5*) Brower (1863-1937)** 1923 1 2 2 Brower (1863-1937)** 1924 1 5 5 Ostermann (1952); Brower (1863-1937)**; Andrews (1925b & 1924)** 1925 5 19 19 Richards (1949); Richards Collection (n.d.)** 1926 12 4 4 Brower (1863-1937)** 1927 1 5\f 1 1 Brower (1863-1937)** 1928 13 2 11 11 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Vincent (1944), Sonnenfeld (1956)**; Brower (1863-1937)*"' 1929 15 15 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Sonnenfeld (1956)**; Brower (1898-1937)** 1930 1 7 7 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Sonnenfeld (1956)**

1931 1 11 11 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Sonnenfeld (1956)**; Brower (1898-1937)>'0 'r 1932 2 7 7 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (1972a)** 1933 5 5 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Brower (1863-1937)** 1934 4 4 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Sonnenfeld (1956)** 1935 6 6 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Sonnenfeld (1956)** 1936 4 4 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Sonnenfeld (1956)** 1937 9 9 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Sonnenfeld (1956)**; Brower (1898-1937)** 1938 4 4 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Sonnenfeld (1956)** 1939 10 6 6 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Sonnenfeld (1956)**; North (1940) 1940 0 0 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Sonnenfeld (1956)** 1941 1 8 8 Alaska Sportsman (1941) 1942 7 10 10 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Vincent (1944); Sonnenfeld (1956)** 1943 7 6 6 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Vincent (1944); Sonnenfeld (1956)** 1944 3 3 Vincent (1945)** 1945 2 2 1 3 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Buice (1947) 1946 1 9 9 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Sonnenfeld (1956)**; Alaska Sportsman (1947) 1947 4 4 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Sonnenfeld (1956)** 1948 5 5 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Sonnenfeld (1956)** 1949 0 0 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Sonnenfeld (1956)** 1950 3 8 1 9 ARL Newsletter (1950a,b,c,d) 1951 7 1 9 1 10 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Spencer (1959); Sonnenfeld (1956)**; ARL Newsl. (1951) 1952 3 0 O Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Spencer (1959); Sonnenfeld (1956)**; ARL Newsl. (1952) 1953 8 3 19 1 20 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Lindsay (1957); Sonnenfeld (1956)**; ARL Newsl. (1953a,b) 1954 1 1 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Sonnenfeld (1956)** 1955 10 5\f 19 19 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Durham (1979c); Freuchen & Salomonsen (1958); ARL Newsletter (1955) 1956 2 2 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963) 1957 9 0 O Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Alaska Sportsman (1957) 1958 10*-30 0 O Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Bills (1980) Number of whales page 13

Site No. Struck Killed Sources and of and but Total C** indicates source is in the ) Year Crews Lost Landed Lost Killed (Bibliography of Unpublished Works)

Barrow (Continued) 1959 1 0 0 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Durham (1979c) 1960 18 15 15 Maher & Wilimovsky (1963); Chambers (1970) 1961 18 4 6 1 7 Caldwell & Caldwell (1966); Rice (1979)**; NARL (1972a)**; Okakok (1961) 1962 17 3 5 1 6 Rice (1979)**; Durham (1972a)** 1963 21 1 5 5 Groom (1963); NARL (1972a)** 1964 7 6 11 11 Durham (1979a); NARL (1972a)**; Durham (1972a)** 1965 19 4 4 NARL (1972a)**; Durham & Burgess (1972)** 1966 15 15 7 7 Poulter (1966); Durham (1979a); NARL (1972a)** 1967 7 3 3 NARL (1972a)**; Durham (1972a)** 1968 10 10 1 11 NARL (1972a)** 1969 11 11 11 Morgan (1974); NARL (1972a)** 1970 15 1 16 16 Alaska (1970); McVay (1973); Johnson (1977); NARL (1972a)** 1971 25 12 1 13 NARL (1972a)**; Durham & Burgess (1972)** 1972 27 20 20 Okakok (1972); Harry (1973b)**; NARL (1972a)** 1973 28 7 17 17 Marquette (1973)** 1974 21 20 9 2 11 Fiscus & Marquette (1975)** 1975 30 10 10 1 11 Marquette (1976) 1976 36 18 23 8 31 Marquette (1978) 1977 35 56 20 2 22 Marquette (1979) 1978 27 1 4 4 Braham et al. (1979); NMFS (1978-87)** 1979 34 10 3 3 Braham et al. (1980); NMFS (1978-87)** 1980\e 20 9 9 AEWC (1980)** 1980\e 11 9 9 NMFS (1978-87)** 1981 5 4 4 AEWC (1981a & 198lb)** 1982 5 0 0 AEWC (1982a & 1982b)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1983 5 2 2 AEWC (1983 & 1984a)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1984 4 4 4 AEWC (1984b & 1984c)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1985 2 5 5 AEWC (1985 & 1986a)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1986 2 8* 8* AEWC (1986b & 1987a)** 1986 2 7 7 NMFS (1978-87)** 1987 6 7 7 AEWC (1987b & 1987c)**; NMFS (1978-87)**

Nuiqsut 1973 1 1 1 Marquette (1973)** 1974 1 0 0 Fiscus & Marquette (1975)** 1975 1 0 0 0 0 Marquette (1976) 1976 3 0 0 0 0 Marquette (1978) 1977 4 0 0 0 0 Marquette (1979) 1978 0 0 0 NMFS (1978-87)** 1979 0 0 0 NMFS (1978-87)** 1980 0 0 0 AEWC (1980)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1981 0 0 0 AEWC (1981a & 198lb)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1982 0 1 1 AEWC (1982a & 1982b)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1983 0 0 0 AEWC (1983 & 1984a)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1984 0 0 0 AEWC (1984b & 1984c)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1985 0 0 0 AEWC (1985 & 1986a)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1986 0 1 l AEWC (1986b & 1987a)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1987 0 1 l AEWC (1987b & l987c)**; NMFS (1978-87)** Number of whales page 14

Site No. Struck Killed Sources and of and but Total (** indicates source is in the ) Year Crews Lost Landed Lost Killed (Bibliography of Unpublished Works)

Kaktovik, Barter Island 1964 2 2 2 Durham (1979c); Durham (1972b)**; Akootchook (1965) 1966 1 1 Soplu (1966-67) 1967 1 1 1 NARL (1972a)** 1968 1 0 0 Smith (1968-69) 1972 1 1 Jarrell (1978)** 1973 2 3 3 Marquette (1973)** 1974 2 2 2 Fiscus & Marquette (1975)** 1975 2 0 0 0 0 Marquette (1976) 1976 7 0 2 2 Marquette (1978) 1977 5 0 2 0 2 Marquette (1979) 1978 1 2 2 NMFS (1978-87)** 1979 0 5 5 NMFS (1978-87)** 1980\e 2 1 1 AEWC (1980)** 1980\e 1 1 1 NMFS (1978-87)** 1981 0 3 3 AEWC (198la & 1981b)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1982 1 1 1 AEWC (1982a & 1982b)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1983 1 1 1 AEWC (1983 & 1984a)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1984 2 1 1 AEWC (1984b & 1984c)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1985 0 0 0 AEWC (1985 & 1986a)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1986 0 3 3 AEWC (1986b & 1987a)**; NMFS (1978-87)** 1987 1 0 0 AEWC (1987b & 1987c)**; NMFS (1978-87)**

King Island 1897 1 1 Cook (1926) 1938 0 0 Zensler (1938)**

Little Diomede Island 1905 1 1 Jones (1927), Journal Alexander (1905)** 1910 1 1 Bodfish (1936) 1917 11 3 3 Eskimo (1917), Eide (1952) 1937 8 1 1 Menager (1962); Bogojavlensky (1969) 1938 3 3 Zensler (1938)** 1946 4 Kenyon (1960) 1950 1 1 Brooks (1981)** 1952 1 1 Brooks (1981)** 1953 1 1 0 0 Brooks (1981)**; Fay (1973)** 1954 0 0 Brooks (1981)** 1955 1 1 Greuel (1956) 1958 4 0 0 Kenyon (1958)** 1960 4\a Paullin (1960)** 1968 4 0 0 Stoker (1977)** 1969 4 0 0 Stoker (1977)** 1976 7\a Bruemner ( 1977) 1980 1 0 0 NMFS (1978-87)**

Kotzebue Sound 1880 1 1 Nelson and True (1887) 1917 1 1 Andrews (1917a)** Number of whales page 15

Site No. Struck Killed Sources and of and but Total (** indicates source is in the ) Year Crews Lost Landed Lost Killed (Bibliography of Unpublished Works)

Cape Lisburne 1909 1 Marsh & Cobb (1910) 1950 1 1 1 Durham (1979c)

Cape Halkett 1919 1 1 1 North Slope Borough (n.d.)**; North Slope Borough (1980)

Cross Island/Prudhoe Bay 1921 2 1 1 Carnahan (1979); Shapiro & Metzner (1979); North Slope Borough (1980) 1922 1 1 1 Carnahan (1979); North Slope Borough (1980) 1927 1 1 1 Carnahan (1979); North Slope Borough (n.d. )** 1928 1 1 1 2 Carnahan (1979); Jacobson (1979)** 1931 1 1 1 North Slope Borough (1980) 1935 1 1 1 Shapiro & Metzner (1979); Carnahan (1979) 1938 1 1 1 Carnahan (1979)

Ogotoruk Creek 1916 2 Lowenstein (n.d. )** 1917 2 Lowenstein (n. d. )** 1921 1 1 1 Lowenstein (n.d. )** 1923 2 1 1 Lowenstein (n.d. )** 1938 1 1 1 Lowenstein (n.d. )**

Shaktoolik 1980 1 1 AEWC (1980)**

Unlocated 1898 13 Bertholf (1899) 1916 1 1 Bower and Aller (1917) 1917 2 2 Bower and Aller (1918) 1923 2 2 Bower (1925) 1937 6 6 Alaska (1938) Footnotes page 16

* Represents number selected when a discrepancy of sources occurred.

() Estimated values.

\a Number of boats reported; may or may not all be used for whaling.

\b The bone from a bowhead was packed alongside of the chief's hut.

\c Natives reported to have about 2,000 pounds of baleen; assumed 2 bowheads taken. These estimated values are given in parentheses.

\d The title of this magazine from the beginning of publication in 1935 through 1958 was The Alaska Sportsman, from 1959 through August 1969 it was Alaska Sportsman, and from September 1969 to the present it has been Alaska.

\e The 1980 AEWC enumeration of struck and lost and landed whales by village is not an official report under the 1981 cooperative agreement between NOAA and AEWC. AEWC and NMFS data are inconsistent, and both are inconsistent with IWC data. Therefore, since 1980 falls outside the base period used in Appendix 2, one source's data were not selected (*) over another's in this case of conflicting observations.

\f For reports of a few, some, several, or a lot, an estimated value of five was assumed to be an average amount.

\g Durham (1979) reported that as many as 11 crews whaled at Icy Cape.

\h 14,000 pounds of baleen reported; assumed 1,500 pounds per average large bowhead.

\i 10,000 pounds of baleen plus two whales reported; assumed 1,500 pounds per average large bowhead. Appendix I: Bibliography

(published sources)

Akootchook, D. 1965 News item: (no title). Kaktovik News (school newspaper), December 1965, 1(3):7-8. U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Indian· Affairs, Juneau Area Office, Education Program, RG 75, Box 295, Federal Archives, Seattle, WA.

Alaska 1970 From Ketchikan to Barrow. Alaska 36(9):AI.

Alaska Sportsman l 969a From Ketchikan to Barrow. Alaska 35(2):28. 1969b From Ketchikan to Barrow. Alaska 35(8):14. 1965 From Ketchikan to Barrow. Alaska 31(10):39. 1963 Letters, notes & comments. Alaska 29(9):4. 1957 From Ketchikan to Barrow. Alaska 23(9):27. 1947 From Ketchikan to Barrow. Alaska 13(5):24. 1943 From Ketchikan to Barrow. Alaska 9(1):19. 1941 From Ketchikan to Barrow. Alaska 7(10):21. 1938 From Ketchikan to Barrow. Alaska 4(4):19.

Allen, A.J. 1978 A Whaler and Trader in the Arctic 1895 to 1944. Anchorage, AK: Alaska Northwest Publishing Company.

Andrews, C.L. 1939 The Eskimo and his Reindeer in Alaska. Caxton Printers, Ltd., Caldwell, Idaho.

Arctic Research Laboratory (ARL) Newsletter. 1955 May 6-31. No. 2 (N.S.). Arctic Research Laboratory, Barrow, AK. 1953a April 9, 27, 28, 29, 30. No. 46. Arctic Research Laboratory, Barrow, AK. 1953b May 1, 5, 7, 11, 20, 28, 29. No. 47. Arctic Research Laboratory, Barrow, AK. 1952 April 20. No. 34. Arctic Research Laboratory, Barrow, AK. 1951 September 28. No. 27. Arctic Research Laboratory, Barrow, AK. 1950a April 29,30. No. IO. Arctic Research Laboratory, Barrow, AK. 1950b May 1, 8, 18. No. 11. Arctic Research Laboratory, Barrow, AK. 1950c September 14, 25. No. 15. Arctic Research Laboratory, Barrow, AK. 1950d October 11, 12. No. 16. Arctic Research Laboratory, Barrow, AK.

Bailey, A.M. 1971 Field Work of a Museum Naturalist. Denver Museum of Natural History, Museum Picture 22. 1928 An Unusual Migration of the Spotted and Ribbon Seals. J. Mammal 9(3):250-251.

Bailey, A.M, and R. W. Hendee 1926 Notes on the Mammals of Northwestern Alaska. J. Mammal 7:9-28.

- 1 - Bean, T.H. 1887 The Fishery Resources and Fishing-Grounds of Alaska. In G.B. Goode et al., The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section III, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

Bee, J.W., and E.R. Hall 1956 Mammals of Northern Alaska on the Arctic Sfope. University of Kansas, Lawrence, Museum of Natural History, Miscellaneous Publication 8.

Beechey, F.W. 1832 Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Bering's Strait, to Co-operate with the Polar Expeditions: Performed in His Majesty's Ship Blossom, Under the Command of Captain F.W. Beechey in the Years 1825, 26, 27, 28. Carey & Lea, Philadelphia, PA.

Bering Straights. 1980 Wales Lands Whale! The Bering Straights, 9 May, 5(11):1. Nome, AK.

Bernardi, S.R. 1912 Whaling with Eskimos of Cape Prince of Wales. Courier-Journal, 20 October, Section 4. Louisville, KY.

Bertholf, E.P. 1899 Report of Second Lieutenant E.P. Bertholf, R.C.S. In Report of the Cruise of the U.S. Revenue Cutter Bear and the Overland Expedition for the Relief of the Whalers in the Arctic Ocean, from November 27, 1897, to September 13, 1898. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

Bills, P. 1980 Alaska. A 20th Century Saga North of the Yukon River. Radiant Books, Gospel Publishing House, Springfield, MO.

Bockstoce, J.R. 1986 Whales, Ice, and Men: The History of Whaling in the Western Arctic. University of Washington Press, Seattle, WA.

Bodfish, H.H. 1936 Chasing the Bowhead. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

Bodfish, W., and J.L. Minner. 1947 Nine Polar Bears. Alaska Sportsman 13(9):22-23, 41-42.

Bower, W.T. 1925 Alaska Fishery and Furseal Industries in 1923. Report of the U.S. Commercial Fisheries, 1924, Appendix 3:47-140.

Bower, W.T., and H.D. Aller 1918 Alaska Fisheries and Fur Industries in 1917. Report of the U.S. Commercial Fisheries, 1917, Appendix 2, 123p. 1917 Alaska Fisheries and Fur Industries in 1916. Report of the U.S. Commercial Fisheries, 1916, Appendix 2, l l 8p.

Boyd, W.L. 1972 Jarvis and the Alaskan Reindeer Caper. Arctic 25(2):75-82.

- 2 - Braham, H.W., B. Krogman, J. Johnson, W. Marquette, D. Rugh, M. Nerini, R. Sonntag, T. Bray, J. Brueggeman, M Dahlheim, S. Savage, and C. Goebal 1980 Population Studies of the Bowhead Whales (Balaena mysticetus): Results of the 1979 Spring Research Season. Report of the International Whaling Commission 30:391-404.

Braham, H.W., B. Krogman, S. Leatherwood, W. Marquette, D. Rugh, M. Tillman, S. Johnson, and G. Carroll 1979 Preliminary Report of the 1978 Spring Bowhead Whale Research Program Results. Report of the International Whaling Commission 29:291-306.

Breiwick, J.M, L.L. Eberhardt, and H.W. Braham 1984 Population Dynamics of Western Arctic Bowhead Whales (Balaena mysticetus). Canadian Journal of Fish and Aqua tic Science, 41(3):484-496.

Brower, C.D. 1942 Fifty Years Below Zero. New York: Dodd, Mead and Co.

Bruemmer, F. 1977 Life on a Cold Rock. Natural History, 86(3):54-65.

Buice, B. 1947 When the Ice Cake Broke A way. Alaska Sportsman 13( 4): 16-17, 46-4 7.

Burch, E. S., Jr. 1985 Subsistence Production in Kivalina, Alaska: A Twenty - Year Perspective. Division of Subsistence Technical Report No. 128, Alaska Department of Fish and Game.

Burnham, J.B. 1929 The Rim of Mystery. G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York.

Caldwell, M.C., and D.K. Caldwell 1966 Epimeletic (care-giving) Behavior in Cetacea. In K.S. Norris (editor), Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises. University of California Press, Berkeley.

Carnahan, J.W. 1979 Cross Island: A Link Between the Past and the Future. Arctic Coastal Zone Management Newsletter, 22:11-14.

Chambers, J.R. 1970 Arctic Bush Mission. Superior Publishing Company, Seattle, WA.

Collins, H.B., Jr. 1939 Exploring Frozen Fragments of American History. National Geographic, 75(5):633-656.

Cook, J.A. 1926 Pursuing the Whale. A Quarter-Century of Whaling in the Arctic. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, MA.

- 3 - Doty, W.F. 1900 The Eskimo on St. Lawrence Island. IN: S. Jackson (1900), Ninth Annual Report on Introduction of Domestic Reindeer into Alaska, 1899. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

Durham, F.E. 1979a Recent Trends in Bowhead Whaling by Eskimos in the Western Arctic With Emphasis on Utilization. Center for Environmental Education, Inc., Washington, D.C.

Durham, F.E. (continued) 1979b Early Development and Reproduction in the Bowhead Whale, Balaena mysticetus. IN: International Whaling Commission Panel Meeting of Experts on Aboriginal Subsistence Whaling, 5-9 February 1979, Seattle, WA. 1979c The Catch of Bowhead Whales by Eskimos, With Emphasis on the Western Arctic. Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Contributions in Science Number 314. Los Angeles, CA. 1973 Ancient and Current Methods of Taking the Bowhead Whale. University of Alaska, Anchorage, Alaska Sea Grant Report 73-9.

Eide, A.H. 1952 Drums of Diomede. The Transformation of the Alaska Eskimo. House-Warven Puhl., Hollywood, CA.

Eskimo 1941 Wainwright. Eskimo 8(1):5. 1937 Letter, Kivalina reindeer man, 7 December 1936. Eskimo 4(1):7. 1936 Whale. Eskimo 3(4):7. 1918 Point Hope and Prince of Wales. Eskimo 2(8):5. 1917a Whaling. Eskimo 2( I): 12. 1917b Eskimo news. Eskimo 1(9):7. 1917c Hunting and trapping ... Eskimo 1(10):7. 1917d Schools and teachers. Eskimo 1(12):8. 1916 Eskimo news. Eskimo 1( 1):6.

Eskimo Bulletin 1898 (No title.) Eskimo Bulletin, 4(1). 1897 (No title.) Eskimo Bulletin, 3(1). 1893 (No title.) Eskimo Bulletin, May.

Evermann, B.W. 1914 Alaska Fisheries and Fur Industries in 1913. Report of the U.S. Commercial Fisheries, 1913, Appendix 2.

Forrest, E.C. 1937 Daylight Moon. Frederick A. Stokes Co., N.Y.

Frankson, D. 1970 Point Hope. Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, 11 May. Fairbanks, AK.

Freuchen, P., and F. Salomonsen 1958 The Arctic Year. G.P. Putnam's Sons, NY.

- 4 - Garno, M. 1980 The Band Structure and Acculturation Among Eskimos of Nelson Island, Southwestern Alaska. IN: Y. Kotani and W.B. Workman (eds.), Alaska Native Culture and History, Senri Ethnological Studies No. 4. National Museum of Ethnology, Senri, Osaka, Japan.

Geist, 0.W. 1937 The Spy in the Igloo. Alaska Sportsman 3(12):8-9, 22.

George, J.C. 1981 Current Procedure for Allocating the Bowhead Whale, Balaena Mysticetus, by the Eskimo Whalers of Barrow, Alaska. In Tissue Structural Studies and Other Investigations on the Biology of Endangered Whales in the Beaufort Sea, Volume II. Submitted by the Dept. of Veterinary Science, University of Maryland. Prepared for the U.S. Dept. of the Interior, BLM, Alaska OCS Office, Anchorage, Alaska.

Greuel, V. 1956 Little Diomede Teachers Tell of Isolated Rocky Isle. Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, July 16, p.l. Fairbanks, AK.

Groom, H. 1963 In Quest of the Great Bowhead Whale. Anchorage Daily News, 21 September, Alaska Living and TV Week:2-8. Anchorage, AK.

Hadley, J. 1915 Whaling off the Alaskan Coast, from the Journal of Jack Hadley of Point Barrow, Alaska. Bulletin of the American Geographic Society, 47:905-921.

Hooper, C.L. 1884 Report of the Cruise of the U.S. Revenue-Steamer Thomas Corwin, in the Arctic Ocean, 1881. 48th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Executive Document 204. 1881 Report of the Cruise of the U.S. Revenue-Steamer Corwin in the Arctic Ocean, November 1, 1880. U.S. Goverment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. (Facsimile reproduction by Shorey Book Store, Seattle, WA., 1964.)

Hughes, C.C., and J.M. Hughes 1960 An Eskimo Village in the Modern World. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. Vail-Ballou Press, Inc.

Hunt, W.R. 1975 Arctic Passage, the Turbulent History of the Land and People of the Bering Sea 1697-1975. Charles Scribner's Sons, NY.

Jackson, S., LL.D. 1906 Facts about Alaska: Its People, Villages, Missions, Schools. Women's Board of Home Missions of the Presbyterian Church, NY. 1904 Thirteenth Annual Report on Introduction of Domestic Reindeer into Alaska, with Maps and Illustrations, 1903. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 1902 Eleventh Annual Report on Introduction of Domestic Reindeer into Alaska, with Maps and Illustrations, 1901. U.S. Government Printing Off ice, Washington, D.C.

- 5 - 1901 Tenth Annual Report on Introduction of Domestic Reindeer· into Alaska, with Maps and Illustrations, 1900. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 1900 Ninth Annual Report on Introduction of Domestic Reindeer into Alaska, with Maps and Illustrations, 1899. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 1896 Report on the Introduction of Domestic Reindeer into Alaska, 1895. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 1895 Report on the Introduction of Domestic Reindeer into Alaska, 1894. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

Jarvis, D.H. 1899 Report of First Lieutenant D.H. Jarvis. In Report of the Cruise of the U.S. Revenue Cutter Bear and the Overland Expedition for the Relief of the Whalers in the Arctic Ocean, from Nov. 27, 1897 to Sept. 13, 1898. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

Johnson, D. 1977 Controls Jeopardize Prosperous Whaling. Anchorage Times, 3 June, p.1-2. Anchorage, AK.

Johnson, M.L., C.H. Fiscus, B.T. Ostenson, and M.L. Barbour 1966 Marine Mammals. In N.J. Wilimovsky and J.N. Wolfe (editors), Environment of the Cape Thompson Region, Alaska. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Washington, D.C.

Jones, W.B. 1927 The Argonauts of Siberia (the diary of a prospector). Dorrance & Co., Philadelphia, PA.

Kashevarov, A.F. 1838 A.F. Kashevarov's Coastal Explorations in Northwest Alaska, 1838. [In Russ.]. Edited by J.W. Vanstone, translated by D.H. Kraus, Chicago Field Museum of Natural History, Fieldiana: Anthropol. 69, 1977.

Keim, C.J. 1969 Aghvook, White Eskimo. Otto Geist and Alaskan Archaeology. University of Alaska Press, College, AK.

Kenyon, K.W. 1960 The Pacific Walrus. Oryx 5(6):332-340.

Klengenberg, C. 1932 Klengenberg of the Arctic, an Autobiography. Jonathan Cape, Ltd., London, England.

Kotzebue, 0. von. 1821 A voyage of discovery into the South Sea and Bering's Straits... in the years 1815-1818. Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, London, 3 vols.

Larsen, H., and F. Rainey 1948 Ipiutak and the Arctic Whale Hunting Culture. Anthropological Papers, American Museum of Natural History.

- 6 - Lindsay, G.E. 1957 Eskimo Whaling at Point Barrow. Zoonooz 30(12):3-6.

Little, R.L. and L.A. Robbins 1984 Effects of Renewable Resource Harvest Disruptions on Socioeconomc and Sociocultural Systems: St. Lawrence Island. Prepared for John Muir Institute and Alaska OCS Office, Socioeconomic Studies. Program, MMS. Technical Report No. 89.

Maher, W.J., and N.J. Wilimovsky 1963 Annual Catch of Bowhead Whales by Eskimos at Point Barrow, Alaska, 1928-1960. J. Mammal. 44:16-20.

Marquette, W.M 1979 The 1977 Catch of Bowhead Whales by Alaskan Eskimos. Report of the International Whaling Commission, 29:281-289. Seattle, WA. 1978 The 1976 Catch of Bowhead Whales, Balaena mysticetus, by Alaskan Eskimos. Marine Fisheries Review. 40(11):18-27. Seattle, WA. 1976 Bowhead Whale Field Studies in Alaska, 1975. Marine Fisheries Review. 38(8):9-17. Seattle, WA.

Marsh, MC., and J.N. Cobb. 1911 The Fisheries of Alaska in 1910. U.S. Bureau of Fish., Rep. Comm. Fish., 1910. 1910 The Fisheries of Alaska in 1909. U.S. Bureau of Fish., Rep. Comm. Fish., 1909. 1908 The Fisheries of Alaska in 1907. U.S. Bureau of Fish., Rep. Comm. Fish., 1907.

Mayokok, R. 1955 Troubles with Civilization. Alaska Sportsman 21(9):16-20, 27-32. 1950 We caught a whale. Alaska Sportsman 16(7):10-13.

McVay, S. 1973 Stalking the Arctic Whale. Am.Sci. 61:24-37.

Menager, F.M. 1962 The Kingdom of the Seal. Loyola University Press, Chicago, IL.

Milan, F.A. 1964 The Acculturation of the Contemporary Eskimo of Wainwright, Alaska. Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska, Fairbanks. Vol. 11, No. 2.

Minner, J.L. 1948 Muktuk. Alaska Sportsman 14(12):16-19.

Morgan, L. 1974 The villages Are Alive and Well, Thank You. Alaska Magazine. 40(8):33-39. 1972 Point Hope -- A Workable Tradition. The Alicia Patterson Fund Publication, LM-5. NY.

Mukluk Telegraph 1950 News from the Villages: Wales .. Mukluk Telegraph 1(7):1,2.

- 7 - Murdoch, J. 1892 Ethnological Results of the Point Barrow Expedition. In J.W. Powell, Ninth Annual Report of the U.S. Bureau of Ethnology, 1887-88. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 1891 Whale-catching at Point Barrow. Popular Science, Mon. 38:830-836. 1885 Birds (Point Barrow Alaska) and Mammals. In P.H. Ray Report of the International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska in response to the resolution of the House of Representatives of Dec. 11, 1884. U.S. House Rep, 48th Congr., 2nd Session, Executive Document 44, part 4, p. 92-128. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

Neakok, W., D. Neakok, W. Bodfish, D. Libby, E. Hall, and the Point Lay Elders. 1985 To Keep the Past Alive: The Point Lay Cultural Resource Site Survey. North Slope Borough, Barrow, AK.

Nelson, E.W., and F.W. True 1887 Mammals of Northern Alaska. In E.W. Nelson, Report upon Natural History Collections Made in Alaska Between the Years 1877 and 1881, Part 2. Arct. Ser. Publ. 3, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

Nelson, R.K. 1981 Harvest of the Sea: Coastal Subsistence in Modern Wainwright. Report prepared for North Slope Borough's Coastal Management Program. North Slope Borough, Anchorage, AK. 1969 Hunters of the Northern Ice. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.

Nome Nugget. 1937 (No title.) Nome Nugget, Nov. 17. 1903 From the Cape -- Natives Catch No Whales This Year. Nome Nugget, Sep. 19.

North, F. 1940 I was their talisman. Alaska Sportsman 6(10):18-20, 22.

Nor th Slope Borough 1980 Qiniqtuagaksrat Utuqqanaat Inuuniagninisiqun. The Traditional Land Use Inventory for the Mid-Beaufort Sea. Volume 1. NSB Commission on History and Cul tu re, Barrow, AK.

Okakok, G. 1972 Barrow Correspondent Reports Five Whales Caught at Barrow. Tundra Times 9(43):5. Anchorage, AK. 1961 The Bush Circuit: Barrow. Alaska Sportsman 27(8):34.

Ostermann, H.B.S. 1952 The Alaskan Eskimos as Described in the Posthumous Notes of Dr. Knud Rasmussen. Report of the Fifth Thule Expedition, 1921-24. Vol. 10, No.3. [In Danish.] (Translated by W.E. Calvert. AMS Press, Inc., NY.).

Pacific Commercial Advertiser 1872 (No title.) Pacific Commercial Advertiser, 23 November.

- 8 - Pacific Fisherman 1914 Deep Sea Whaling. Pacific Fisherman Yearbook 12(1 ):81.

Patty, S.H. 1965 Eskimo Whale Hunt. Seattle Times. A series of articles dated 30 May, 31 May, 1 June, 2 June, 3 June, 4 June, and 6 June. Seattle, WA.

Pederson, S. 1971 Status and Trends of Subsistence Resource Use at Point Hope. In Point Hope Project Report, Summer 1971, p.37-86. University of Alaska, Fairbanks.

Poole, D.C. 1971 Vineyard Whalemen in the Arctic. Dukes Cty. Intell. 13(1):6.

Poor, H.V. 1945 An Artist Sees Alaska. Viking Press, NY.

Poulter, T.C. 1966 Recording the Underwater Signals of Seals in the Arctic. Final Report, Phase II, Subcontract ONR-371. Arctic Institute of North America, Calgary, Alberta.

Pulu, T.L., R. Ramoth-Sampson, and A. Newlin. 1980 Whaling: A Way of Life. National Bilingual Materials Development Center, Rural Education, University of Alaska, Anchorage, AK.

Rainey, F. 1940 Eskimo Method of Capturing Bowhead Whales. J. Mammal. 21:362.

Rainey, F.G. 1947 The Whale Hunters of Tigara. Anthropological Papers, American Museum of Natural History 41(231-283).

Ray, D.J. 1975 The Eskimos of Bering Strait, 1650-1898. University of Washington Press, Seattle, WA.

Ray, P.H. 1885 Report of the International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska. U.S. House of Represen ta ti ves, Executive Document No. 44, 48th Congress, 2nd Session. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

Reese, H.D. 1918 Annual Report of the U.S. Public School at Kivalina, on the Shore of the Arctic Ocean. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education Bulletin. 1918(5):38-43.

Richards, E.A. 1949 Arctic Mood, a Narrative of Arctic Adventures. Caxton Printers, Ltd., Caldwell, ID.

Rodahl, K. 1963 The Last of the Few. Harper and Row, NY.

- 9 - Saario, D.J., and B. Kessel 1966 Human Ecological Investigations at Kivalina. In N.J. Wilimovsky and J.N. Wolfe (eds). Environment of the Cape Thompson Region, Alaska. Report PNE-481. United States Atomic Energy Commission.

San Francisco Chronicle 1890a (No title.) San Francisco Chronicle, 17 September. San Francisco, CA. 1890b (No title.) San Francisco Chronicle, 19 September. San Francisco, CA. 1889 (No ti tie.) San Francisco Chronicle, 30 September. San Francisco, CA.

Shapiro, L.H., and R.C. Metzner 1979 Historical References to Ice Conditions Along the Beaufort Sea Coast of Alaska. University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Geophysical Institute Science Report UAGR-268, Appendix A-I:l; A-11:1-39; and A-111:1-11. Fairbanks, AK.

Simpson, J. 1875 Observations on the Western Eskimo and the Country They Inhabit. Arctic Geography and Ethnology.

Smith, N.L. 1937 Eskimos Hunt Whales Ceremoniously. Alaska Sportsman 3(10):16-18.

Smith, R. 1968-69 News item: (No title). Kaktovik News (school newspaper), 3(3):5. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Juneau Area Office, Education Program, RG 75, Box 295, Federal Archives, Seattle, WA.

Sonnenfeld, J. 1960 Changes in an Eskimo Hunting Technology, an Introduction to Implement Geography. Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr. 50:172-186.

Soplu, J. 1966-67 News item (no title). Kaktovik News (school newspaper), 2(1 ):I. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Juneau Area Office, Education Program, RG 75, Box 295, Federal Archives, Seattle, WA.

Spencer, R.F. 1959 The North Alaskan Eskimo: A Study in Ecology and Society. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 171, Washington, D.C.

Stefansson, V. 1913 My Life with the Eskimo. Macmillan Company. NY.

Stevens, R.W. 1976 Season of the Whale. Arctic in Colour 5(1):3-5,7.

Taber, R.D. 1958 Eskimo Hunters. 1. Whales. Pac. Discovery 11(3):18-21.

Thomas, T.K. 1962 Four Whales for Tigara. Alaska Sportsman 28(5):8-10, 40-41.

- IO - Thorn ton, H.R. 1931 Among the Eskimos of Wales, Alaska, 1890-93. Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, MD.

Tigara Times 1964 (No title.) April-May issue, p.3. Point Hope, AK.

U.S. Department of the Interior 1920 Annual report of the Barrow School. 1919-1920. 30 June 1920. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Annual Report. Barrow, AK. 1919 Annual report of the Barrow School. 1918-1919. 30 June 1919. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Annual Report. Barrow, AK. 1917 Annual report of the Barrow school. 1916-1917. 27 August 1917. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Annual Report. Barrow, AK.

(U.S.) Federal Field Committee for Development Planning in Alaska 1968 Federal Field Committee for Development Planning in Alaska. U.S. Government Printing Off ice, Washington, D.C.

Vanstone, J.W. 1962 Point Hope: An Eskimo Village in Transition. University of Washington Press. Seattle, WA.

VanValin, W.B. 1941 Eskimoland Speaks. Caxton Printers, Ltd., Caldwell, ID.

Vincent, L.S. 1944 The Whale Didn't Get Away. Alaska Sportsman 10(8):16-17, 26-28.

Weber, P. 1964 News item: Whaling at Point Hope. Tigara Times (school newspaper), Point Hope, Alaska, April-May 1964, p. 2. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs Juneau Area Office, Education Program, RG 75, Box 298, Federal Archives, Seattle, WA.

Weed, A.L. 1957 Grandma Goes to the Arctic. Dorrance & Co., Philadelphia, PA.

Witten, J.W. 1904 Report on the Agricultural Prospects, Natives, Salmon Fisheries, Coal Prospects and Development, Timber and Lumber Interests of Alaska, 1903. U.S. Department of the Interior, General Land Office, Washington, D.C.

Woolfe, H.D. 1893 The Seventh or Arctic District. In R.P. Porter, Report on Population and Resources of Alaska at the Eleventh Census: 1890. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

Worl, R. 1979 Sociocultural Assessment of the Impact of the 1978 International Whaling Commission Quota on the Eskimo Communities. Prepared for the U.S. Department of the Interior by the Arctic Environmental Inf or ma ti on and Data Center, University of Alaska, Anchorage.

- 11 - Appendix I: Bibliography

(**Unpublished Sources)

Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission (AEWC) 1980 Report on the 1980 Hunt. Barrow, AK. 1981a Report on the Spring 1981 Bowhead Whale Hunt. Barrow, AK. 198lb Report on the Fall 1981 Hunt. Barrow, AK. 1982a Report on the Spring 1982 Bowhead Whale Hunt. Barrow, AK. 1982b Report on the Fall 1982 Bowhead Whale Hunt. Barrow, AK. 1983 Report on the Spring 1983 Bowhead Whale Hunt. Barrow, AK. 1984a Report on the Fall 1983 Bowhead Whale Hunt. Barrow, AK. 1984b 1984 Spring Bowhead Whale Report. Barrow, AK. 1984c 1984 Fall Bowhead Hunt Report. Barrow, AK. 1985 1985 Spring Bowhead Harvest Report. Barrow, AK. 1986a 1985 Fall Bowhead Hunt Report. Barrow, AK. 1986b 1986 Spring Bowhead Harvest Report. Barrow, AK. 1987a 1986 Fall Bowhead Harvest Report. Barrow, AK. 1987b 1987 Spring Bowhead Harvest Report. Barrow, AK. 1987c 1987 Fall B-owhead Harvest Report. Barrow, AK.

Andrews, Clarence L. 1925-26 Notebooks. Box 4, folder 47, UAF Archives, Fairbanks, AK. 1925a Notebooks. Box 4, folder 44, UAF Archives, Fairbanks, AK. 1925b Diary. Box 1, folder 9, UAF Archives, Fairbanks, AK. 1924 Notebooks. Box 4, folder 42, UAF Archives, Fairbanks, AK. 1916-19 Notes from Barrow Reports. Box 4, folder 48, UAF Archives, Fairbanks, AK. 1917a Notebooks. Box 3, folder 40, UAF Archives, Fairbanks, AK. 1917b Notebooks. Box 3, folder 39, UAF Archives, Fairbanks, AK.

Balcomb, K. 1978 Field notes. National Marine Mammal Laboratory, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way N.E., Bldg. 4, Seattle, WA 98115.

Bane, G.R. n.d. Environmental Exploitation of the Eskimos of Wainwright, AK. Unpublished manuscript.

Bogojavlensky, S. 1969 Emaangmiut Eskimo Careers: Skinboats in Bering Strait. Ph.D. thesis, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.

Braund, S.R. 1987a Fieldwork, December 1987, Jack Antoghame diaries, Gambell, AK. 1987b Fieldwork, December 1987, Lawrence Kulukhon diaries, Nome & Gambell, AK. 1987c Fieldwork, December 1987, Robert Tungiyan records, Nome, AK. 1987d Fieldwork, December 1987, St. Lawrence Island (Gambell & Savoonga), AK. 1987e Fieldwork, December 1987, Wales, Alaska.

- 12 - Braund, S.R. (continued) 1987f Fieldwork, November 1987, Samuel Simmonds diaries, Wainwright, AK. 1987g Fieldwork, November 1987, Wainwright, AK. 1981 The Skin Boa ts of St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. M.A. thesis, University of Alaska, Fairbanks.

Brooks, J.W. 1981 National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, Juneau, AK. Personal communication to Marquette, 5 Jan. 1981.

Brower, C.D. 1886-1945 Diary. Copy in Naval Arctic Research Laboratory library, Barrow, AK. 1898-1937 Autobiographic~l Notes. In Don Foote Collection, box 52, folder 8, UAF Archives, Fairbanks, AK. 1863-1937 The Northernmost American, an Autobiography. Unpublished manuscript, three volumes. Copy in Naval Arctic Research Laboratory library, Barrow, AK.

Burch, E. S., Jr. 1988 A History of Whaling Activities in Kivalina, Alaska. A report prepared for Stephen R. Braund & Associates.

Bureau of Indian Affairs 1919 Teacher Report, Wainwright. Federal Records Center, National Archives and Records Service, Region 10, Seattle, WA. 1917 Teacher Report, Point Belcher /Point Franklin. Federal Records Center, National Archives and Records Service, Region 10, Seattle, WA. 1915 Teacher Report, Point Barrow. Federal Records Center, National Archives and Records Service, Region 10, Seattle, WA. 1913 Teacher Report, Icy Cape. Federal Records Center, National Archives and Records Service, Region 10, Seattle, WA. 1912 Teacher Report, Wainwright. Federal Records Center, National Archives and Records Service, Region 10, Seattle, WA. 1911a Teacher Report, Icy Cape. Federal Records Center, National Archives and Records Service, Region 10, Seattle, WA. 1911b Teacher Report, Wales. Federal Records Center, National Archives and Records Service, Region 10, Seattle, WA. 1907 Teacher Report, Icy Cape. Federal Records Center, National Archives and Records Service, Region 10, Seattle, WA.

Burgess, S.M. 1974 The St. Lawrence Islanders of Northwest Cape: Patterns of Resource Utilization. Ph.D. thesis, University of Alaska, Fairbanks.

Burns, J.J. 1982 Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks, AK. Personal communication to Marquette, 8 February 1982.

Campbell, Edgar Omar M.D. 1906-11 Field Journal. In Dorothy Leighton Collection, UAF Archives. Fairbanks, AK. 1905-06 Field Journal. In "Saint Lawrence Island Journals, 1898-1906," U AF Archives, Fairbanks, AK.

- 13 - Campbell, Edgar Omar MD. (continued) 1904-05 Field Journal. In Dorothy Leighton Collection, UAF Archives. Fairbanks, AK. 1902-04 Field Journal. In "Saint Lawrence Island Journals, 1898-1906," UAF Archives, Fairbanks, AK.

Coffin, John & Mary 1915 Annual Report, 1915. In Dorothy Leighton Collection, UAF Archives, Fairbanks, AK. 1914 Annual Report, 1914. In Dorothy Leighton Collection, UAF Archives, Fairbanks, AK.

Doty, William F. 1898-99 Field Journal. In "Saint Lawrence Island Journals, 1899-1906," UAF Archives, Fairbanks, AK.

Driggs, J. 1902 Personal communication to Wood, 23 May 1902. Episcopal Church Historical Society, Austin, TX.

Dur ham, F .E. 1972a Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History, 900 Exposition Blvd., Los Angeles, CA 90007. Personal communication to Director, Marine Mammal Division, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way N.E., Bldg. 32, Seattle, WA 98115. 3 December 1972. 1972b Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History, 900 Exposition Blvd., Los Angeles, CA 90007. Personal communication to Director, Marine Mammal Division, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way N.E., Bldg. 32, Seattle, WA 98115. 13 October 1972.

Durham, F.E., and S.M. Burgess 1972 Eskimo Effort in Bowhead Whaling at Point Barrow, Alaska. Unpublished manuscript. University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA.

Edson 1896 Personal communication to Board of Missions, 1 July 1896. Episcopal Church Historical Society. Austin, TX.

Egan, William, A. 1901-02 Field Journal. In "Saint Lawrence Island Journals, 1898-1906," U AF Archives, Fairbanks, AK.

Fay, F.H. 1973 Institute of Marine Science, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK. Personal communication to Director, Marine Mammal Di vision, National Marine Fisheries Service Seattle, WA, 9 October 1973. 1966 Personal communication to Karl Kenyon, May 1966. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Sand Point Naval Air Station, Seattle, WA.

Fiscus, C.H., and W.M Marquette 1975 National Marine Fisheries Service Field Studies Relating to the Bowhead Whale Harvest in Alaska, 1974. Processed report. Northwest Fisheries Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, Seattle, WA 98115.

- 14 - Foote, D.C. 1964 Geography Department, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Personal communication to D.W. Rice, 2 November 1964, and records. UAF Archives, Fairbanks, AK.

Garn bell Village Council 1926-34 Abstracts from Minutes of Council Meetings. In Dorothy Leighton Collection, UAF Archives, Fairbanks, AK.

Geist, Otto W. 1932a "St. Lawrence Papers." Section V, box 2, folder 35. UAF Archives, Fairbanks, AK. 1932b "St. Lawrence Papers." Section V, box 2, folder 35. UAF Archives, Fairbanks, AK. 1929a "St. Lawrence Papers." Section v, box 2, folder 38. UAF Archives, Fairbanks, AK. 1929b "St. Lawrence Papers." Section v, box 2, folder 31. UAF Archives, Fairbanks, AK.

George, J.C. n.d. Current Procedures for Allocating the Bowhead Whale by the Whalers of Barrow Alaska. Unpublished Manuscript.

Greist, M. 1968 Nursing Under the North Star. Private Publication, Monticello, IN (copy in Monticello Public Library).

Hamlet, O.C. 1906 Personal communication to the Secretary of the Treasury, 11 September 1906. U.S. Coast Guard, Historical Files of the Public Affairs Division, Washington, D.C.

Harry, G.Y., Jr. 1973a Field notes. National Marine Mammal Laboratory, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way N.E., Bldg. 4, Seattle, WA, 98115. 1973b Arctic Whales and the Eskimos. Unpublished report, submitted as SC/25/Doc 23 to the International Whaling Commission, London, June 1973, by Marine Mammal Division, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way N.E., Bldg. 32, Seattle, WA 98115.

Healy, M.A. 1895 Personal communication to Secretary of the Treasury, 25 September 1895; U.S. Revenue Cutter Service, Alaska file, Refuge Station correspondence, R.G. 26, National Archives, Washington, D.C. 1888 Personal communication to Secretary of the Treasury, 6 September 1888. U.S. Revenue Cutter Service, Alaska file, R.G. 26, National Archives, Washington, D.C.

Hooper, C.L. 1881 Personal communication to William Windom, 14 June 1881. U.S. Revenue Cutter Service, Alaska File, R.G. 26, National Archives, Washington, D.C.

Hopson, F. 1977 Barrow-Atkasook Area Traditional Land Use Inventory. Unpublished Data, North Slope Borough Inupiat Office, Barrow, AK.

- 15 - Howland, W. 1890 Personal communication to wife. 14 July 1890. Old Dartmouth Historical Society, New Bedford, MA.

Jacobson, C. W. 1979 Our Lives and the Beaufort Seacoast: A Kaktovik Historical and Land Use perspective. Unpublished report, Coastal Zone Management Program, Nor th Slope Borough, Barrow, AK.

Jarrell, G.H. 1978 Personal communication to Marquette, 11 October 1978. Division of Life Sciences, Biological Sciences Program, University of Alaska, Fair banks, AK.

Journal Alexander 1905 Dukes County Historical Society, MA. 25 May 1905. 1904 Dukes County Historical Society, MA. 5 July 1904.

Journal Belvedere 1898 Old Dartmouth Historical Society, New Bedford, MA. 22 April 1898. 1911 Private Collection. 23 July 1911.

Journal Leo 1879 Old Dartmouth Historical Society, New Bedford, MA. 29 August 1879.

Journal Mary D. Hume 1893 Baker Library, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA. 5 July 1893.

Journal Mary and Helen II 1886 Nantucket Historical Association, Nantucket, MA. 2 August 1886.

Journal Narwhal 1892 Old Dartmouth Historical Society, New Bedford, MA. 15 April 1892.

Journal Orea 1892 Private Collection. 21 July 1892. 1891 a Private Collection. 17 July 1891. 1891 b Southampton Musuem, Southampton, NY. l June 1891.

Kelly B. 1980 Field notes. National Marine Mammal Laboratory, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way N.E., Bldg. 4, Seattle, WA 98115.

Kenyon, K.W. 1958 Walrus and Other Marine Mammal Studies at Little Diomede Island, Alaska, 11 May to 14 June 1958. Unpublished report, U.S. Bureau of Sport Fish and Wildlife, Sand Point Naval Air Station, Seattle, WA. Available from National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way N.E., Bldg. 4, Seattle, WA 98115.

Kinneeveauk, Rev. H. 1976 Personal communication to Marquette, 28 May 1976. Point Hope, AK.

- 16 - Knutson, E. 1978 Field Notes. National Marine Mammal Laboratory, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way N.E., Bldg. 4, Seattle, WA 98115.

Koenig, Henry 1907 Henry Koenig Papers - 7 /22/07, UAF Archives, Fairbanks, AK. 1895 Henry Koenig Papers - 3/19/95, UAF Archives, Fairbanks, AK.

Lerrigo, P.H.J., 1899-1901 Field Journal. In "Saint Lawrence Island Journals, 1898-1906," U AF Archives. Fairbanks, AK.

Log book Balaena 1884 International Marine Archives, Old Dartmouth Historical Society, New Bedford, MA. 4 July 1884.

Logbook F.A. Barstow 1891 Providence Public Library, Providence, RI, 3 June 1891.

Logbook William Baylies 1907a Old Dartmouth Historical Society, New Bedford, MA. 27 July 1907. 1907b Old Dartmouth Historical Society, #956, New Bedford, MA. 16 April 1907. 1906 Kendall Whaling Museum, Sharon, MA. 18 July 1906.

Logbook Belvedere 1907 Kendall Whaling Museum, Sharon, MA. 25 July 1907. 1898 Old Dartmouth Historical Society, New Bedford, MA. 10 May 1898.

Logbook Thomas Dickason 1870 Providence Public Library, Providence, RI, 29 June 1870.

Logbook Cornelius Howland 1869 New Bedford Free Public Library, New Bedford, MA. 5 July 1869.

Logbook John and Winthrop 1912a Private Collection. 16 July 1912. 1912b Private Collection. 29 July 1912.

Logbook Mary and Helen 1880 Old Dartmouth Historical Society, New Bedford, MA. 12 August 1880.

Logbook Mermaid 1896 Kendall Whaling Museum, Sharon, Mass. 16 August 1896.

Logbook Orea 1892 Private collection. 26 July 1892.

Logbook Refuge Station. 1867-1914 Logbook Refuge Station, Barrow, AK, U.S. Revenue Cutter Service, Alaska File, 1867-1914. IN: W.R. Hunt and C.M. Naske, 1979, A Baseline Study of Historic Ice Conditions in the Beaufort Sea, and Bering Strait. Prine. Invest. Final Report, Environmental Assessment, Alaskan Continental Shelf, vol. 1, Physical Science Studies. Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment Program, Boulder, CO.

- 17 - Lowenstein, Tom n.d. Whaling at Aggutauraq. Unpublished manuscript, p. 472-3. (Personal communication from T. Lowenstein, Cambridge, Great Britain, to Marquette.)

Marquette, W.M 1973 Harvest of Bowhead Whales by Alaskan Eskimos in 1973. Unpublished manuscript. National Marine Mammal Laboratory, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way N.E., Bldg. 32, Seattle, WA 98115.

Milan, F.A. 1977 Department of Anthropology and Geography, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK. Personal communication to Marquette, 19 April 1977.

Morgan, C.J. 1978 Institute for Environmental Studies, University of Washington FM-12, Seattle, WA. Personal communication to Marquette, 25 July 1978.

National Marine Fisheries Service 1978-87 Alaska Bowhead Whaling Harvest Field Notes. Juneau, AK.

Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (NARL) 1972a Eskimo Whaling at Barrow, Alaska. Unpublished report. Naval Arctic Research Laboratory, Barrow, AK. 1972b Logbook, 11 June 1972. Naval Arctic Research Laboratory, Barrow, AK. 1971 Log book, 4 May 1971. Na val Arctic Research Laboratory, Barrow, AK.

Nelson, R.K. 1965 North Alaskan Eskimo Exploitation of the Sea Environment. Unpublished manuscript. Arctic Aeromedical Laboratory, Fort Wainwright, AK. Copy at Naval Arctic Research Laboratory library, Barrow, AK.

Nor th Slope Borough n.d. Beaufort Sea Traditional Land Use Inventory. Commission on History and Culture. Nor th Slope Borough, Barrow, AK 99723.

Paullin, J.B. 1960 Unpublished manuscript, U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Juneau Area Office, Education Program, Little Diomede Island corre pondence, RG 75, Box 266. Federal Archives, Seattle, WA.

Rice, D.W. 1979 National Marine Mammal Laboratory, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way N.E., Bldg. 32, Seattle, WA 98115. Personal communication to Marquette, 26 October 1979. 1964 Eskimo Whaling in Arctic Alaska. Unpublished manuscript. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. Available from National Marine Mammal Laboratory, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way N.E., Bldg. 32, Seattle, WA 98115.

- 18 - Richards (Eva Alvey) Collection. n.d. UAF Archives, Access. No. 78-14, Folders 8-41, Fairbanks, AK.

St. Thomas Episcopal Mission. 1890-pres Unpublished Church records. St. Thomas Episcopal Mission, Point Hope, AK 99766.

Seaman, G.A. 1976 P.O. Box 80642, College, AK 99708. Personal communication to Marquette, 25 June 1976.

Slwooko, Grace 1965 Diary. In Dorothy Leighton Collection, UAF Archives, Fairbanks, AK.

Smullin, David. 1980 Field notes. National Marine Mammal Laboratory, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way N.E., Bldg. 4, Seattle, WA 98115.

Sonnenfeld, J. 1956 Changes in Subsistence Among Barrow Eskimo. Unpublished report. Arctic Institute of North America, Project No. ONR-140. Copy in Naval Arctic Research Laboratory library, Barrow, AK.

Stoker, S.W. 1977 Institute of Marine Science, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK. Personal communication to Marquette, 1 June 1977.

Troutman 1925 Abstracts from Notes Made for the Next Teachers. In Dorothy Leighton Collection, UAF Archives, Fairbanks, AK.

U.S. Geological Survey. n.d. H.B. Allen photographs nos. 95-101. U.S. Geological Survey library, Mail Stop 914, Box 25046, Denver Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225.

U.S. Revenue Cutter Service. n.d. Alaska File, Refuge Station correspondence, R.G. 26. Microcopy 641/17 Frame 765. National Archives, Washington, D.C.

Unidentified clipping n.d. Scrapbook, Old Dartmouth Historical Society, New Bedford, MA.

Vincent, L.S. 1945 (apparent sender, no signature) Report from Barrow Teacher. Bureau of Indian Affairs, Juneau Office, Alaska Reindeer Service, RG75, Box 60, Federal Archives, Seattle, WA. 1944 Telegram. May 19, 1944. Federal Archives, Seattle, WA. 1943 Letter of July 20, 1943. Federal Archives, Seattle, WA.

Williams, L.B. 1951 Letter of March 29, 1951 to Mr. Mountjoy, Area Director, Alaska Native Service, Juneau, Alaska. Bureau of Indian Affairs, Alaska Reindeer Service, RG75, Box 60, Federal Archives, Seattle, WA.

- 19 - Wilson, G. 1944 Telegram. May 21, 1944. Federal Archives, Seattle, WA.

Zensler 1938 "Sociological Study of Villages." Excerpted in Clarence L. Andrews Collection, box 4, folder 57, UAF Archives, Fairbanks, AK.

- 20 - APPENDIX 2

Whale Harvest and Eskimo Population Data

for

Alaska Eskimo Whaling Communities,

1910-1969

Stephen R. Braund John A. Kruse

Stephen R. Braund & Associates P.O. Box 1480 Anchorage, AK 99510

(907) 276-8222

May 1988

For references cited, refer to Appendix 1 bibliographies.

INTRODUCTION

Whale harvest data included in Appendix 2 are derived from the unconsolidated data presented in Appendix 1. Appendix 2 expands the Appendix 1 data by linking human population to whale hunting activity from 1910 through 1969. While conflicting data are presented for some years and locations in Appendix 1, only a single data point is given in Appendix 2, representing our best estimate based on the most complete data for the year (see Results and Analysis section of text). A dot in one of the data columns indicates that no data were found for that category in that year.

Appendix 1 presented bowhead whale harvest data by the specific location where the activity occurred from pre-1900 to 1987. The bowhead harvest data were grouped into 21 different locations. Some of the 21 locations are historic but not current human settlements, others are traditional whaling sites occupied seasonally, while others remain as existing communities. The locations are:

In App end ix 2, those harvest sites that are traditional hunting areas for current villages and those that formerly were human settlements have been

- 1 - consolidated with the harvest locations that are current whaling villages. The decision was made to classify most of the bowhead whaling data under current whaling communities (rather than by all 21 sites where whales are known to have been harvested) for the following reasons. Several of the sites listed above were once human settlements scattered along the arctic coast that have since been abandoned. A process of centralization into larger communities has occurred over time, and most of the people who lived and whaled at smaller sites are now reside in the nearby larger village, i.e., one of the nine active whaling communities. Also, residents of the current whaling communities traditionally travel to many smaller sites on a seasonal basis to hunt bowheads. Because of these migration patterns, historic whaling trends, and current whaling activity, the data are. organized around the current nine Alaska Eskimo whaling comm uni ties. The rationale for combining data for particular historic sites with one of the nine current whaling villages is presented in the report on a case-by-case basis in Consolidation of Historic Sites.

The nine current whaling communities are Gambell, Savoonga, Wales, Kivalina, Point Hope, Wainwright, Barrow, Nuiqsut, and Kaktovik. Seven of the remaining 12 locations were grouped with these nine communities, while the last five locations (King Island, Little Diomede, Point Lay, Shaktoolik, and "unlocated") are not included in this analysis. King Island, Little Diomede, Point Lay, and Shaktoolik each have whaling histories. Their populations have remained discrete relative to the other whaling sites. Therefore, historic data for these communities were not combined with that of any of the other sites. The 21 locations have been consolidated to 14 locations as follows:

Alaska Eskimo Whaling Villages: Gambell Savoonga Wales Kivalina & Kotzebue Sound Point Hope, Cape Lisburne & Ogotoruk Creek Wainwright, Icy Cape, Point Belcher & Point Franklin Barrow, Cape Halkett, Cross Island/Prudhoe Bay Nuiqsut Kaktovik (Barter Island)

Other: King Island Little Diomede Island Point Lay Shaktoolik unlocated

- 2 - Appendix 2: Whale Harvest & Hwnan Population Data for Alaska Eskimo Whaling Communities, 1910-1969

Nwnber Nwnber Bowhead Eskimo Village Year Crews Landed PoI!ulation Gambell

1910 4 218 1911 5 3 232 1912 5 243 1913 8 252 1914 2 261 1915 4 269 1916 277 1917 3 284 1918 290 1919 296 1920 1 303 1921 20 291 1922 290 1923 289 1924 1 276 1925 1 275 1926 274 1927 272 1928 3 258 1929 6 1 244 1930 246 1931 254 1932 13 2 262 1933 271 1934 1 266 1935 273 1936 1 280 1937 1 272 1938 279 1939 2 287 1940 5 293 1941 297 1942 1 285 1943 290 1944 278 1945 284 1946 291 1947 2 298 1948 308

Stephen R. Braund & Associates, 1988

- 3 - Appendix 2: Whale Harvest & Human Population Data for Alaska Eskimo Whaling Communities, 1910-1969, continued

Number Number Bowhead Eskimo Village Year Crews Landed Population Gambell

1949 1 1 297 1950 1 1 310 1951 1 1 319 1952 0 327 1953 3 337 1954 0 322 1955 11 2 332 1956 1 342 1957 0 351 1958 0 333 1959 342 1960 0 352 1961 1 357 1962 0 354 1963 0 350 1964 0 350 1965 2 1 360 1966 6 3 362 1967 5 3 346 1968 20 1 338 1969 1 2 344

Totals for Gambell 68 11883\1 Bowhead Landed per Capita .005722 Number of Observations 39

Savoonga

1910 134 1911 133 1912 130 1913 142 1914 138 1915 135 1916 131 1917 142 1918 138 1919 134 1920 132 1921 132 1922 132

\1 The population totals include years with bowhead landed data only (e.g., for Gambell in 1959, those 342 people were not included in the total human population because no landed whale data were available for that year).

Stephen R. Braund & Associates, 1988

- 4 - Appendix 2: Whale Harvest & Human Population Data for Alaska Eskimo Whaling Communities, 1910-1969, continued

Number Number Bowhead Eskimo Village Year Crews Landed Po12ulation Savoonga

1923 131 1924 131 1925 131 1926 130 1927 130 1928 129 1929 129 1930 130 1931 134 1932 138 1933 142 1934 162 1935 167 1936 171 1937 192 1938 197 1939 202 1940 207 1941 210 1942 214 1943 217 1944 222 1945 227 1946 233 1947 239 1948 246 1949 255 1950 243 1951 250 1952 257 1953 265 1954 273 1955 281 1956 263 1957 270 1958 277 1959 285 1960 294 1961 298 1962 307 1963 318 1964 327 1965 336

Stephen R. Braund & Associates, 1988

- 5 - Appendix 2: Whale Harvest & Human Population Data for Alaska Eskimo Whaling Communities, 1910-1969, continued

Number Number Bowhead Eskimo Village Year Crews Landed Po:i;!ulation Savoonga

1966 342 1967 346 1968 352 1969 358

Totals for Savoonga Gambell Landed per Capita is used for Savoonga.

Wales 1910 0 336 1911 1 315 1912 0 292 1913 0 268 1914 0 246 1915 0 224 1916 6 1 204 1917 184 1918 5 0 166 1919 148 1920 132 1921 132 1922 6 132 1923 131 1924 144 1925 144 1926 1 143 1927 1 156 1928 155 1929 167 1930 168 1931 174 1932 180 1933 185 1934 192 1935 1 182 1936 5 187 1937 192 1938 1 1 197 1939 0 185 1940 0 189 1941 0 192 1942 0 178 1943 0 163

Stephen R. Braund & Associates, 1988

- 6 - Appendix 2: Whale Harvest & Human Population Data for Alaska Eskimo Whaling Communities, 1910-1969, continued

Number Number Bowhead Eskimo Village Year Crews Landed PoRulation Wales

1944 0 167 1945 0 152 1946 0 136 1947 0 119 1948 0 123 1949 0 127 1950 7 0 133 1951 0 137 1952 0 140 1953 0 120 1954 0 124 1955 0 128 1956 0 105 1957 0 108 1958 0 111 1959 0 114 1960 0 124 1961 0 119 1962 0 123 1963 0 111 1964 0 115 1965 0 118 1966 0 120 1967 0 121 1968 0 123 1969 0 125

Totals for Wales 5 6907 Bowhead Landed per Capita .000724 Number of Observations 42

Kivalina

1910 84 1911 83 1912 81 1913 79 1914 92 1915 90 1916 2 87 1917 2 1 85

Stephen R. Braund & Associates, 1988

- 7 - Appendix 2: Whale Harvest & Human Population Data for Alaska Eskimo Whaling Communities, 1910-1969, continued

Number Number Bowhead Eskimo Village Year Crews Landed Po2ulation Kivalina

1918 83 1919 94 1920 92 1921 93 1922 92 1923 92 1924 92 1925 92 1926 91 1927 91 1928 90 1929 90 1930 91 1931 94 1932 97 1933 100 1934 1 1 89 1935 91 1936 93 1937 96 1938 0 99 1939 101 1940 86 1941 87 1942 89 1943 91 1944 93 1945 95 1946 97 1947 99 1948 103 1949 106 1950 111 1951 114 1952 117 1953 120 1954 124 1955 128 1956 132 1957 135 1958 1 139

Stephen R. Braund & Associates, 1988

- 8 - Appendix 2: Whale Harvest & Human Population Data for Alaska Eskimo Whaling Communities, 1910-1969, continued

Number Number Bowhead Eskimo Village Year Crews Landed Po12ulation Kivalina

1959 142 1960 1 138 1961 0 0 146 1962 151 1963 156 1964 0 160 1965 165 1966 2 167 1967 2 170 1968 2 1 172 1969 0 175

Totals for Kivalina 3 926 Bowhead Landed per Capita .003240 Number of Observations 7

Point Hope

1910 22 1 252 1911 3 249 1912 1 9 243 1913 1 221 1914 2 200 1915 3 195 1916 2 7 189 1917 4 3 184 1918 7 166 1919 2 148 1920 3 145 1921 1 3 146 1922 13 145 1923 2 2 131 1924 14 16 131 1925 2 10 131 1926 13 130 1927 3 130 1928 129 1929 1 129 1930 1 130 1931 1 1 134 1932 152

Stephen R. Braund & Associates, 1988

- 9 - Appendix 2: Whale Harvest & Human Population Data for Alaska Eskimo Whaling Communities, 1910-1969, continued

Number Number Bowhead Eskimo Village Year Crews Landed Pol:'.!ulation Point Hope

1933 157 1934 177 1935 1 182 1936 4 202 1937 7 208 1938 1 6 230 1939 236 1940 10 5 258 1941 14 262 1942 1 1 267 1943 272 1944 278 1945 3 284 1946 2 272 1947 2 6 279 1948 0 267 1949 4 4 255 1950 3 3 266 1951 4 4 273 1952 2 2 281 1953 4 4 289 1954 3 3 297 1955 1 1 306 1956 9 2 316 1957 3 3 324 1958 1 2 305 1959 1 1 313 1960 13 4 320 1961 13 2 327 1962 12 6 338 1963 11 3 350 1964 13 1 344 1965 11 2 353 1966 5 5 355 1967 1 1 346 1968 3 3 352 1969 2 3 358

Totals for Point Hope 209 12467 Bowhead Landed per Capita .016764 Number of Observations 50

Stephen R. Braund & Associates, 1988

- 10 - Appendix 2: Whale Harvest & Human Population Data for Alaska Eskimo Whaling Communities, 1910-1969, continued

Number Number Bowhead Eskimo Village Year Crews Landed Ponulation Wainwright

1910 8 1 84 1911 3 83 1912 3 81 1913 2 95 1914 5 1 92 1915 90 1916 9 1 87 1917 6 4 85 1918 97 1919 2 6 107 1920 4 2 106 1921 3 2 119 1922 5 5 132 1923 145 1924 5 3 157 1925 8 3 170 1926 1 3 169 1927 3 2 169 1928 3 181 1929 193 1930 3 194 1931 6 6 201 1932 1 221 1933 228 1934 251 1935 273 1936 2 2 280 1937 6 288 1938 5 7 296 1939. 1 3 320 1940 2 1 327 1941 1 1 315 1942 1 303 1943 1 1 290 1944 3 2 278 1945 3 6 265 1946 6 1 252 1947 3 2 239 1948 6 246 1949 2 233

Stephen R. Braund & Associates, 1988

- 11 - Appendix 2: Whale Harvest & Human Population Data for Alaska Eskimo Whaling Communities, 1910-1969, continued

Number Number Bowhead Eskimo Village Year Crews Landed Po12ulation Wainwright

1950 2 221 1951 228 1952 2 234 1953 1 241 1954 1 248 1955 3 1 230 1956 2 237 1957 0 243 1958 0 250 1959 0 256 1960 0 248 1961 5 1 253 1962 1 261 1963 3 2 270 1964 2 1 278 1965 2 286 1966 1 1 287 1967 0 287 1968 5 2 292 1969 4 297

Totals for Wainwright 108 10723 Bowhead Landed per Capita . 010072 Number of Observations 49

Barrow

1910 55 5 571 1911 20 1 564 1912 9 9 551 1913 2 4 520 1914 1 5 507 1915 7 494 1916 4 5 481 1917 9 7 454 1918 14 7 442 1919 2 3 416 1920 11 409 1921 8 1 410 1922 2 6 396 1923 1 2 394

Stephen R. Braund & Associates, 1988

- 12 -