Stephen I of

“Stephen of Hungary” redirects here. For other people death caused civil wars which lasted for decades. He of the same name, see Stephen of Hungary (disambigua- was canonized, together with his son, Emeric, and tion). Gerard of Csanád, in 1083. Stephen is a popular saint in “Szent István” redirects here. For the dreadnought of the Hungary and the neighboring territories. In Hungary, his Austro-Hungarian Navy, see SMS Szent István. feast day (celebrated on 20 August) is also a public holi- day commemorating the foundation of the state. Stephen I, also (Hungarian: Szent István király; : Sanctus Stephanus;[1] Slovak: Štefan I. or Štefan Veľký; c. 975 – 15 August 1038) was the last 1 Early years (c. 975–997) of the between 997 and 1000 or 1001, and the first from 1000 or 1001 until his death in 1038. The year of his birth is uncertain, but many details of his life suggest that he was born in or after 975 in . At his birth, he was given the pagan name Vajk. The date of his baptism is unknown. He was the only son of Grand Prince Géza and his wife, , who was descended from the prominent family of the gyulas. Although both of his parents were baptized, Stephen was the first member of his family to become a devout Christian. He married Gisela of , a scion of the imperial Ottonian . After succeeding his father in 997, Stephen had to fight for the throne against his relative, Koppány, who was sup- ported by large numbers of pagan warriors. He defeated Koppány mainly with the assistance of foreign knights, including Vecelin, Hont and Pázmány, but also with help from native lords. He was crowned on 25 December 1000 or 1 January 1001 with a crown sent by Sylvester II. In a series of wars against semi-independent tribes and chieftains—including the Black Hungarians and his un- cle, the Younger—he unified the Carpathian Basin. He protected the independence of his kingdom by forcing the invading troops of Conrad II, to withdraw from Hungary in 1030. Stephen established at least one archbishopric, six bish- oprics and three Benedictine monasteries; thus the Church in Hungary developed independently of the arch- of the Holy Roman . He ensured the spread of Christianity with severe punishments for ignor- ing Christian customs. His system of local administration was based on counties organized around fortresses and administered by royal officials. Hungary, which enjoyed a lasting period of peace during his reign, became a pre- ferred route for and merchants traveling between and the or . Stephen’s birth depicted in the Illuminated Chronicle He survived all of his children. He died on 15 Au- gust 1038 and was buried in his new basilica, built in The date of Stephen’s birth is uncertain, because it was Székesfehérvár and dedicated to the Holy Virgin. His not recorded in contemporaneous documents.[2] Hungar- ian and Polish chronicles written centuries later give three

1 2 1 EARLY YEARS (C. 975–997)

different years: 967, 969 and 975.[3] The unanimous testimony of his legends and other Hungarian sources, which state that Stephen was “still an adolescent”[4] in 997, substantiate the reliability of the later year (975).[2][3] Stephen’s Lesser Legend adds that he was born in Esztergom.[2][3][5] His place of birth also implies that he was born after 972, because his father, Géza, Grand Prince of the Hungarians, chose Esztergom as royal res- idence around that year.[2] Géza promoted the spread of Christianity among his subjects by force, but never ceased worshipping pagan gods.[6][7] Both his son’s Greater Leg- end and the nearly contemporaneous Thietmar of Merse- burg described Géza as a cruel monarch, suggesting that he was a despot who mercilessly consolidated his author- ity over the rebellious Hungarian lords.[7][8] Hungarian chronicles unanimously report that Stephen’s mother was Sarolt, a daughter of Gyula, a Hungar- ian chieftain with jurisdiction either in [9] or in the wider region of the confluence of the rivers and Maros.[10] Many historians—including Pál Engel and Gyula Kristó—propose that her father was identical with “Gylas”, who had around 952 been baptized in Constantinople and “remained faithful to Christianity”,[11] according to the Byzantine chronicler, .[12][13] However, this identification is not unanimously accepted; for instance, historian György Györffy says that it was not Sarolt’s father, but his younger brother who was baptized in the Byzantine Baptism of Vajk, painting by Gyula Benczúr capital.[9] In contrast with all Hungarian sources, the Polish-Hungarian Chronicle and later Polish sources state that Stephen’s mother was Adelhaid, an otherwise un- to the Illuminated Chronicle, one of his tutors was a Count known sister of Duke of , but the Deodatus from , who later founded a monastery in reliability of this report is not accepted by modern Tata.[20] historians.[14] According to Stephen’s legends, Grand Prince Géza [5][15] He was born as Vajk, which derived from a convoked an assembly of the Hungarian chieftains and Turkic word baj, meaning “hero”, “master”, “prince”, or warriors when Stephen “ascended to the first stage of [3][14] “rich”. Stephen’s Greater Legend narrates that he adolescence”,[19] when he was 14 or 15.[21][22] Géza nom- [16] was baptized by the saintly Bishop , inated Stephen as his successor and all those who were who stayed in Géza’s court several times between 983 present took an oath of loyalty to the young prince.[22] [17][18] and 994. However, St Adalbert’s nearly contem- Györffy also writes, without referring to his source, that poraneous Legend, written by , does Géza appointed his son to rule the extquotedblNyitra [17][16][18] not mention of the event. Accordingly, the date ducate extquotedbl around that time.[16] Slovak histori- of Stephen’s baptism is unknown: Györffy argues that ans, including Ján Steinhübel and Ján Lukačka, accept [16] Stephen was baptized soon after birth, while Kristó Györffy’s view and propose that Stephen administered proposes that he only received baptism just before his fa- Nyitra (now , ) from around 995.[23][24] ther’s death in 997.[18] He was given his baptismal name in honour of the first martyr, Saint Stephen. Upon his father’s initiative, Stephen married Gisela, the daughter of Henry the Wrangler, Duke of Bavaria (r. Stephen’s official biography, written by Bishop Hartvik 955–995) in or after 995.[5][25] This marriage established and sanctioned by Pope Innocent III, narrates that he “was the first family link between a Hungarian ruler and a [19] fully instructed in knowledge of the grammatical art” Western European ruling house,[26] because Gisela was [3] in his childhood, implying that he studied Latin. His closely related to the of the Holy Ro- two other late 11th-century biographies do not mention man Emperors.[18] According to popular tradition pre- Stephen’s grammatical studies. They only state that he served in the Scheyern Abbey in Bavaria, the ceremony “was brought up by receiving an education appropriate took place at the castle of Scheyern and was celebrated [3] for a little prince”. Kristó says that the latter remark by Bishop Adalbert of Prague.[22] Gisela was accom- only refers to Stephen’s physical training, including his panied to her new home by Bavarian knights, many of [3] participation in hunts and military actions. According whom received land grants from her husband and settled 2.1 Grand Prince (997–1000) 3

in Hungary.[27] The arrival of these heavily-armed war- riors strengthened Stephen’s military position.[28] Györffy writes that Stephen and his wife “presumably” settled in Nyitra after their marriage.[27]

2 Reign (997–1038)

2.1 Grand Prince (997–1000)

See also: Grand Prince of the Hungarians

Grand Prince Géza died in 997.[15][29] Stephen convoked an assembly to Esztergom where his supporters declared him grand prince.[30] Initially, he only controlled the northwestern regions of the Carpathian Basin; the rest of the territory was still dominated by tribal chieftains.[31] Stephen’s ascension to the throne was in line with the principle of which prescribed that a fa- ther was succeeded by his son.[28] On the other hand, it contradicted the traditional idea of seniority, according to which Géza should have been succeeded by the most senior member of the Árpád dynasty, who was Koppány at that time.[28][32] Koppány, who held the title Duke of Somogy,[33] had for many years administered the regions of south of .[29][26] Koppány's execution after his defeat by Stephen Koppány proposed to Géza’s widow, Sarolt, in ac- cordance with the pagan custom of levirate mar- riage.[30][34][35] He also announced his claim to the [30] of Kéza's Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum and the Illu- throne. Although it is not impossible that Koppány [43] had already in 972 been baptized,[30] most of his support- minated Chronicle, “knights of Swabian origin” who settled in Hungary either under Géza or in the first years ers were pagans, opponents of Christianity represented [31] by Stephen and his predominantly German retinue.[36] of Stephen’s reign. On the other hand, Lukačka and A charter of 1002 for the Archabbey other Slovak historians say that Hont and Pázmány were even writes of a war between “the and the “Slovak” noblemen who had joined Stephen during his rule in Nyitra.[44] Hungarians” when referring to the armed conflicts be- tween Stephen and Koppány.[37][36] Even so, Györffy says Koppány was besieging Veszprém when he was in- that Oszlar ( extquotedblAlan extquotedbl), Besenyő ( formed of the arrival of Stephen’s army.[38] In the en- extquotedblPecheneg extquotedbl), Kér and other place suing battle, Stephen won a decisive victory over his names, referring to ethnic groups or Hungarian tribes in enemies.[35] Koppány was killed on the battlefield.[26] His Transdanubia around the supposed borders of Koppány’s body was quartered and its parts were displayed at the duchy, suggest that significant auxiliary units and groups gates of the forts of Esztergom, Győr, Gyulafehérvár of Hungarian warriors—who had been settled there by (, ) and Veszprém in order to threaten Grand Prince Géza—fought in Stephen’s army.[38] all of those who were conspiring against the young [35][45][46] Kristó states that the entire conflict between Stephen and monarch. Koppány was only a feud between two members of the Stephen occupied Koppány’s duchy and granted large Árpád dynasty, with no effect on other Hungarian tribal estates to his own partisans.[47][29] He also prescribed leaders.[31] Koppány and his troops invaded the north- that Koppány’s former subjects were to pay tithes to this ern regions of Transdanubia, took many of Stephen’s monastery, according to the deed of the foundation of forts and plundered his lands.[36] Stephen, who “was for the which has been preserved in the first time girded with his sword”, according to the a manuscript containing interpolations.[48][36] The same Illuminated Chronicle[39] placed the brothers Hont and document declares that “there were no other bishoprics Pázmány at the head of his own guard and nominated and monasteries in Hungary” at that time.[49] On the Vecelin to lead the royal army.[40][36][41] The latter was other hand, the nearly contemporary Bishop Thietmar of a German knight who had come to Hungary in the reign Merseburg stated that Stephen “established bishoprics in of Géza.[42] Hont and Pázmány were, according to Simon his kingdom”[50] before being crowned king.[49] If the lat- 4 2 REIGN (997–1038) ter report is valid, the dioceses of Veszprém and Győr are years after the coronation, Pope Gregory VII (r. 1075– the most probable candidates.[51] 1085), who claimed suzerainty over Hungary, declared that Stephen had “offered and devotedly surrendered” Hungary “to extquotedbl (that is to the Holy 2.2 Coronation (1000–1001) See).[58][55][57] In a contrasting report, Stephen’s Greater Legend states that the King offered Hungary to the Virgin See also: King of Hungary and Coronation of the Hun- Mary.[57] Modern historians—including Pál Engel, and garian monarch Miklós Molnár—write that Stephen always demonstrated When ordering the display of one part of Koppány’s his sovereignty and never accepted papal or imperial suzerainty.[26][54] For instance, none of his charters were dated according to the years of the reign of the con- temporary emperors, which would have been the case if he had been the German monarch’s vassal.[59] Fur- thermore, Stephen declared in the preamble to his First Book of Laws that he governed his realm “by the will of God”.[60][59] The exact date of Stephen’s coronation is unknown.[56] According to later Hungarian tradition, he was crowned on the first day of the second millennium, which may refer either to 25 December 1000 or to 1 January 1001.[61][15] Details of Stephen’s coronation preserved in his Greater Legend suggest that the ceremony, which took place in Esztergom, followed the rite of the coronation of the German kings.[62] Accordingly, Stephen was anointed with consecrated oil during the ceremony.[62] Stephen’s portrait, preserved on his royal cloak from 1031, shows that his crown, similarly to the Holy Roman Emperor’s diadem, was a decorated with gemstones.[63] Besides his crown, Stephen regarded a spear with a flag as an important symbol of his sovereignty.[63] For instance, his first coins bear the inscription LANCEA REGIS (“the king’s spear”) and depict an arm holding a spear with flag.[63] According to the contemporaneous Adémar de Chabannes, a spear had been given to Stephen’s father by Emperor Otto III in a token of Géza’s right to “enjoy the most freedom in the possession of his country”.[64] Stephen is styled in various ways—Ungarorum rex (“king of the Hungarians”), Pannoniorum rex (“king of the Pan- King Saint Stephen’s modern sculpture in nonians”) or Hungarie rex (“king of Hungary”)—in his [55] quartered corpse in Gyulafehérvár, the seat of his mater- charters. nal uncle, Gyula the Younger, Stephen demonstrated his [52] claim to reign all lands dominated by Hungarian lords. 2.3 Consolidation (1001–c. 1009) He also decided to confirm his international position by [53] adopting the title of king. However, the exact circum- Although Stephen’s power did not rely on his stances of his coronation and its political consequences [55] [54] coronation, the ceremony granted him the inter- are subject to scholarly debate. nationally accepted legitimacy of a Christian monarch writes that Stephen received the who ruled his realm extquotedblby the Grace of God crown “with the favour and urging”[50] of Emperor Otto extquotedbl.[65] All his legends testify that he established III (r. 996–1002),[55] implying that Stephen accepted an archbishopric with its see in Esztergom shortly after the Emperor’s suzerainty before his coronation.[54] On his coronation.[66] This act ensured that the Church in the other hand, all of Stephen’s legends emphasize that Hungary became independent of the prelates of the he received his crown from Pope Sylvester II (r. 999– .[67][68] The earliest reference to an 1003).[54] Kristó[56] and other historians[57] point out archbishop of Esztergom, named Domokos, has been that Pope Sylvester and Emperor Otto were close allies, preserved in the deed of foundation of the Pannonhalma which implies that both reports are valid: Stephen “re- Archabbey from 1002.[66] According to historian Gábor ceived the crown and ”[50] from the Pope, Thoroczkay, Stephen also established the Diocese of but not without the Emperor’s consent. Around 75 in 1001.[69] Stephen invited foreign priests to 2.3 Consolidation (1001–c. 1009) 5

Hungary to evangelize his kingdom.[68] Associates of the Transylvania and seized Gyula and his family around late Adalbert of Prague, including Radla and Astrik, ar- 1002[81][82] or in 1003.[15][80] The contemporary Annals rived in Hungary in the first years of his reign.[70][71] The of Hildesheim[82] adds that Stephen converted his un- presence of an unnamed “Archbishop of the Hungarians” cle’s “country to the Christian faith by force” after its at the synod of 1007 of and the consecration of conquest.[80] Accordingly, historians date the establish- an altar in in 1012 by Archbishop Astrik show ment of the Diocese of Transylvania to this period.[82][69] that Stephen’s prelates maintained a good relationship If the identification, proposed by Kristó, Györffy and with the clergy of the Holy Roman Empire.[8] other Hungarian historians, of Gyula with one Prokui— who was Stephen’s uncle according to Thietmar of The transformation of Hungary into a Christian state [83] was one of Stephen’s principal concerns throughout his Merseburg—is valid, Gyula later escaped from cap- [72] tivity and fled to Boleslav the Brave, Duke of Poland (r. reign. Although the Hungarians’ conversion had al- [80] ready begun in his father’s reign, it was only Stephen who 992–1025). systematically forced his subjects to give up their pagan [73] rituals. His legislative activity was closely connected [Duke Boleslav the Brave’s] territory [74] with Christianity. For example, his First Book of Laws included a certain burg, located near the from the first years of his reign includes several provi- border with the Hungarians. Its guardian was sions prescribing the observance of feast days and the lord Prokui, an uncle of the Hungarian king. [75][76] confession before death. His other laws protected Both in the past and more recently, Prokui had [77] property rights and the interests of widows and or- been driven from his lands by the king and his [76] phans, or regulated the status of serfs. wife had been taken captive. When he was unable to free her, his nephew arranged for If someone has such a hardened heart— her unconditional release, even though he was God forbid it to any Christian—that he does Prokui’s enemy. I have never heard of anyone not want to confess his faults according to who showed such restraint towards a defeated the counsel of a priest, he shall lie without foe. Because of this, God repeatedly granted any divine service and alms like an infidel. him victory, not only in the burg mentioned If his relatives and neighbors fail to summon above, but in others as well. the priest, and therefore he should die uncon- —Thietmar of Merseburg: Chronicum[84] fessed, prayers and alms should be offered, but his relatives shall wash away their negligence by fasting in accordance with the judgement of the priests. Those who die a sudden death About a hundred years later the chronicler Gallus Anony- shall be buried with all ecclesiastical honor; mus also made mention of armed conflicts between for divine judgment is hidden from us and Stephen and Boleslav the Brave, by stating that the lat- unknown. ter “defeated the Hungarians in battle and made him- —Laws of King Stephen I[78] self master of all their lands as far as the extquotedbl.[85][86][23] Györffy says that the chronicler’s report refers to the occupation of the valley of the river —a tributary of the Danube—by the in the 1010s.[86] On the other hand, the Polish-Hungarian Chronicle states that the Polish duke occupied large ter- ritories north of the Danube and east of the Morava as far as Esztergom in the early .[86][87] According to Steinhübel, the latter source proves that a significant part of the lands that now form Slovakia were under Polish rule between 1002 and 1030.[87] In contrast with the Slo- vak historian, Györffy writes that this late chronicle “in which one absurdity follows another” contradicts all facts known from 11th-century sources.[88] The Illuminated Chronicle narrates that Stephen “led his army against Kean, Duke of the Bulgarians and Stephen’s forces seize his uncle, Gyula the Younger Slavs whose lands are by their natural position most strongly fortified”[89] following the occupation of Gyula’s Many Hungarian lords refused to accept Stephen’s country.[90] According to a number of historians, includ- suzerainty even after his coronation.[45] The new King ing Zoltán Lenkey[90] and Gábor Thoroczkay,[69] Kean first turned against his own uncle, Gyula the Younger, was the head of a small state located in the southern whose realm “was most wide and rich”,[79] accord- parts of Transylvania and Stephen occupied his coun- ing to the Illuminated Chronicle.[80] Stephen invaded try around 1003. Other historians, including Györffy, 6 2 REIGN (997–1038)

important local economic centers.[104]

2.4 Active foreign policy (c. 1009–1031)

Stephen defeats Kean “Duke of the Bulgarians and Slavs”

say that the chronicle’s report preserved the memory of Stephen’s campaign against Bulgaria in the late 1010s.[91] Likewise, the identification of the extquotedblBlack Hun- garians extquotedbl[92]—who were mentioned by Bruno of Querfurt and Adémar de Chabannes among the oppo- nents of Stephen’s proselytizing policy—is uncertain.[93] Györffy locates their lands to the east of the river Tisza,[94] while Thoroczkay to the southern parts of Transdanubia.[69] Bruno of Querfurt’s report of the Black Hungarians’ conversion by force suggests that Stephen conquered their lands at the latest in 1009 when “the first mission of Saint Peter”[95]—a , Cardi- nal Azo—arrived in Hungary.[96] The latter attended the A statue of the king in Miskolc meeting in Győr where the royal charter determining the borders of the newly established Bishopric of Pécs was issued on August 23, 1009.[95] The Diocese of was also set up around 1009.[97][95] According to Thoroczkay, “it is very probable” that the bishopric’s establishment was connected with the conversion of the —an ethnic group of Khazar origin—[98] and their chieftain.[99] The head of the Kavars—who was either Samuel or his father— [100] married Stephen’s unnamed younger sister on this occasion.[99][101] The Aba clan was the most power- ful among the native families who joined Stephen and supported him in his efforts to establish a Christian monarchy.[102] The reports by Anonymous, Simon of Kéza and other Hungarian chroniclers of the Bár-Kalán, Ruins of the Pécsvárad Abbey Csák and other 13th-century noble families descending Stephen’s brother-in-law, Henry II, became King of Ger- from Hungarian chieftains suggest that other native fam- [59] [102] many in 1002 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1013. ilies were also involved in the process. Their friendly relationship ensured that the western bor- Stephen set up a territory-based administrative ders of Hungary experienced a period of peace in the first system,[80] establishing counties.[103] Each county, decades of the .[106][59] Even when Henry headed by a royal official known as a count or ispán, II’s discontented brother, Bruno, sought refugee in Hun- were administrative units organized around royal gary in 1004, Stephen preserved the peace with fortresses.[103] Most fortresses were earthworks in this and negotiated a settlement between his two brothers-in- period,[104] but the castles at Esztergom, Székesfehérvár law.[59][107] Around 1009, he gave his younger sister in and Veszprém were built of stone.[105] Forts serving marriage to Otto Orseolo, (r. 1008– as county seats also became the nuclei of Church 1026), a close ally of the Byzantine Emperor, Basil II organization.[104] The settlements developing around (r. 976–1025), which suggests that Hungary’s relation- them, where markets were held on each Sunday, were ship with the was also peaceful.[108] 2.4 Active foreign policy (c. 1009–1031) 7

On the other hand, the alliance between Hungary and the new route, connecting Western Europe and Holy Roman Empire brought her into a war with Poland the Holy Land through Hungary, which bypassed his lasting from around 1014[109] until 1018.[110] The Poles old capital.[120][121] Stephen often met the pilgrims, con- occupied the Hungarian posts along the river Morava.[111] tributing to the spread of his fame throughout Europe.[122] Györffy and Kristó write that a Pecheneg incursion into Abbot , for example, wrote in a letter to Transylvania, the memory of which has been preserved in Stephen that “those who have returned from the Stephen’s legends, also took place in this period, because of our Lord extquotedbl testify to the king’s passion “to- the were close allies of Boleslav the Brave’s wards the honour of our divine religion”.[123] Stephen brother-in-law, Grand Prince Sviatopolk I of Kiev (r. himself also established four hostels for pilgrims in Con- 1015–1019).[109][112] stantinople, , and .[124]

[S]uddenly awakaned by some revelation, [Almost] all those from Italy and Gaul [Stephen] ordered a courier to hasten in one who wished to go to the Sepulchre of the Lord day and night to Alba in Transylvania, and at Jerusalem abandoned the usual route, which gather all those living in the country within was by sea, making their way through the the fortifications of the city as fast as he could. country of King Stephen. He made the road For he foretold that the enemies of Christians safe for everyone, welcomed as brothers all he would come upon them, the Pechenegs, who saw and gave them enormous gifts. This action then threatened the Hungarians, in order led many people, nobles and commoners, to to plunder their estate. Scarcely had the go to Jerusalem. messenger completed the orders of the king, —Rodulfus Glaber: The Five Books of the when behold the unexpected onslaught of the Histories[125] Pechenegs devastated everything by burning and plundering. Through the revelation of God, which was granted because of the merits of the blessed man, the souls of everyone were In addition to pilgrims, merchants often used the safe saved by the shelter of the fortifications. route across Hungary when travelling between Con- [120] —Hartvic, Life of King Stephen of Hungary[113] stantinople and Western Europe. Stephen’s legends also wrote of 60 wealthy Pechenegs who travelled to Hungary, but were attacked by Hungarian border [126] Poland and the Holy Roman Empire concluded the Peace guards. The king sentenced his soldiers to death in or- of Bautzen in January 1018.[112] Later in the same der to demonstrate his determination to preserve internal peace.[126] Regular minting of coinage also began in Hun- years, 500 Hungarian horsemen accompanied Boleslav [127] [120] the Brave to Kiev, suggesting that Hungary had been gary in the . Stephen’s silver dinars bearing included in the peace treaty.[112] The historian Ferenc the inscriptions STEPHANUS REX (“King Stephen”) Makk says that the Peace of Bautzen obliged Boleslav the and REGIA CIVITAS (“royal city”) were popular in con- Brave to hand over all the territories he had occupied in temporary Europe, as demonstrated by their counter- feited copies unearthed in .[127] the Morava valley to Stephen.[111] According to Leodvin, the first known Bishop of Bihar (r. c. 1050 – c. 1060), Stephen convinced some pilgrims and merchants to set- Stephen allied with the Byzantines and led a military ex- tle in Hungary.[120][123] Gerard, a Benedictine monk, who pedition to assist them against extquotedblbarbarians ex- arrived in Hungary from the between tquotedbl in the Balkan Peninsula.[114] The Byzantine and 1020 and 1026 initially planned to continue his journey Hungarian troops jointly took “Cesaries”, a town iden- to the Holy Land, but decided to stay in the country af- tified with by Györffy[115] and other historians. ter his meeting with the king.[122] Stephen also estab- Leodvin’s report suggests that Stephen joined the Byzan- lished a number of Benedictine monasteries—including tines in the war ending with the their conquest of Bulgaria the abbeys at Pécsvárad, Zalavár and Bakonybél[128]—in in 1018.[116] However, the exact date of his expedition is this period.[129] [115] uncertain. Györffy argues that it was only in the last Stephen’s conflict with , a chieftain in the re- year of the war that Stephen led his troops against the [115] gion of the river Maros—which is described in the Long Bulgarians. Life of Saint Gerard—is also dated by many historians Bishop Leodvin also wrote that Stephen collected to the very end of the 1020s, although Györffy[86] and of a number of saints in “Cesaries”, including Saint other scholars put it at least a decade earlier.[130] The George and of Myra.[116] He donated conflict arose when Ajtony, who “had taken his power them to his triple-naved, new basilica dedicated to the from the Greeks”, levied tax on the salt transported to Holy Virgin[117] in Székesfehérvár.[118] He also set up a Stephen on the river.[131] The king sent a large army led here.[119] Stephen transferred his cap- by Csanád against Ajtony, who was killed in battle.[132] ital from Esztergom to Székesfehérvár. His decision His lands were transformed into a Hungarian county and was influenced by the opening, in 1018 or 1019, of a the king set up a new bishopric at Csanád (Cenad, Ro- 8 2 REIGN (997–1038)

ian army,[141] returned to Germany “without an army and without achieving anything, because the army was threat- ened by starvation and was captured by the Hungarians at extquotedbl.[140] Peace was restored after Conrad had ceded the lands between the rivers Lajta and Fischa to Hungary in the summer of 1031.[142]

At this same time, dissensions arose be- tween the Pannonian nation and the Bavarians, through the fault of the Bavarians. And, as a result, King [Stephen] of Hungary made many incursions and raids in the realm of the Norici (that is, of the Bavarians). Disturbed on this account Emperor Conrad came upon the Hungarians with a great army. But King [Stephen], whose forces were entirely insuf- ficient to meet the Emperor, relled solely on the guardianship of the Lord, which he sought with prayers and fasts proclaimed through his whole realm. Since the Emperor was not able to enter a kingdom so fortified with rivers and forests, he returned, after he had sufficiently avenged his injury with lootings and burnings on the borders of the kingdom; and it was his Modern statute of Bishop Gerard of Csanád and his disciple, wish at a more opportune time to complete Prince Emeric (both were canonized along with King Stephen in the things he had begun. His son, King 1083) Henry, however, still a young boy entrusted to the care of Eigilbert, bishop of Freising, received a legation of King [Stephen] which asked for peace; and solely with the counsel mania), Ajtony’s former capital, which was renamed af- of the princes of the realm, and without his ter the commander of the royal army.[132] According to father’s knowledge, he granted the favor of the Annales Posonienses, the Venetian Gerard was conse- reconciliation. crated as the first bishop of the new diocese in 1030.[133] —Wipo: The Deeds of Conrad II[143] Stephen’s brother-in-law, Emperor Henry, died on 13 July 1024.[134] He was succeeded by a distant relative,[135] Conrad II (r. 1024–1039), who adopted an ac- tive foreign policy.[136] Conrad II expelled Doge Otto 2.5 Last years (1031–1038) Orseolo—the husband of Stephen’s sister—from Venice in 1026.[136][122] He also persuaded the Bavarians to pro- Stephen’s biographer, Hartvic, narrates that the King, claim his own son, Henry, as their duke in 1027, al- whose children died one by one in infancy, “restrained the though Stephen’s son, Emeric had a strong claim to the grief over their death by the solace on account of the love Duchy of Bavaria through his mother.[135] Emperor Con- of his surviving son”,[144] Emeric.[145] However, Emeric rad planned a marriage alliance with the Byzantine Em- was wounded in a hunting accident and died in 1031.[120] pire and dispatched one of his advisors, Bishop Werner of After the death of his son, the elderly King could never Strasbourg, to Constantinople.[117][137] The bishop seem- “fully regain his former health”,[146] according to the Il- ingly travelled as a , but Stephen, who had been in- luminated Chronicle.[145] Kristó writes that the picture, formed on his actual purpose, refused to let him enter into which has been preserved in Stephen’s legends, of the his country in the autumn of 1027.[117][137] Conrad II’s bi- king keeping the vigils and washing the feet of paupers, is ographer, Wipo of Burgundy narrated that the Bavarians connected with Stephen’s last years, following the death incited skirmishes along the common borders of Hungary of his son.[147] and the Holy Roman Empire in 1029, causing a rapid de- [138][139] Emeric’s death jeopardized his father’s achievements terioration in relations between the two countries. in establishing a Christian state,[148] because Stephen’s Emperor Conrad personally led his armies to Hun- cousin, —who had the strongest claim to suc- gary in June 1030 and plundered the lands west of the ceed him—was suspected of an inclination towards River Rába.[138][140] However, according to the Annals .[149] According to the Annals of Altaich of Niederalteich, the emperor, suffering from conse- Stephen disregarded his cousin’s claim and nominated quences of the scorched earth tactics used by the Hungar- his sister’s son, the Venetian Peter Orseolo, as his 9

civil wars, pagan uprisings and foreign invasions.[155][156] The instability ended in 1077 when Ladislaus, a grandson of Vazul, ascended the throne.[157]

3 Family

King Stephen at the funeral of his son, Saint Emeric heir.[150] The same source adds that Vazul was captured and blinded, and his three sons, Levente, Andrew and Béla, were expelled from Hungary.[150] Stephen’s legends writes of an unsuccessful attempt upon the elderly king’s life by members of his court.[147] According to Kristó, the legends refer to a plot in which Vazul participated and his mutilation was a punishment for this act.[147] That Vazul’s King Stephen and his wife Gisela of Bavaria founding a church ears were filled with molten lead was only recorded in at Óbuda from the later sources, including the Illuminated Chronicle.[147] In the view of some historians, provisions in Stephen’s Stephen married Gisela, a daughter of Duke Henry the Second Book of Laws on the “conspiracy against the king Wrangler of Bavaria, who was a nephew of Otto I, and the kingdom” imply that the book was promulgated Holy Roman Emperor.[158] Gisela’s mother was Gisela of after Vazul’s unsuccessful plot against Stephen.[151][76] Burgundy, a member of the Welf dynasty.[22][159] Born However, this view has not been universally accepted.[76] around 985, Gisela was younger than her husband, whom Györffy states that the law book was issued, not after she survived.[22][159] She left Hungary in 1045 and died 1031, but around 1009.[152] Likewise, the authenticity as Abbess of the Niedernburg Abbey in in Bavaria of Stephen’s decree on tithes is debated: according to around 1060.[160] Györffy, it is duly attributed to Stephen, but Berend, Although the Illuminated Chronicle states that Stephen Laszlovszky and Szakács argue that it “might be a later “begot many sons”,[161][162] only two of them, Otto and [152][48] addition”. Emeric, are known by name.[65] According to Kristó, Otto was born before 1002 and was named after Emperor Ten villages shall build a church and endow Otto III.[65] He died as a child.[162] it with two manses and the same number of bondmen, a horse and mare, six oxen, two Emeric who received the name of his maternal uncle, Em- [65] cows, and thirty small animals. The king shall peror Henry II, was born around 1007. His Legend provide vestments and altar cloths, and the from the early 1100s describes Emeric as a saintly prince [162] bishop the priests and books. who preserved his chastity even during his marriage. —Laws of King Stephen I[153] According to Györffy, Emeric’s wife was a kinswoman of the Byzantine Emperor Basil II.[115] His premature death caused the series of conflicts leading to Vazul’s blinding [120][163] Stephen died on 15 August 1038.[154] He was buried in and civil wars. the basilica of Székesfehérvár.[150] A long period of in- stability followed his reign, which was characterized by Be obedient to me, my son. You are 10 4 LEGACY

a child, descendant of rich parents, living due to a pagan uprising, prohibited pagan rites and de- among soft pillows, who has been caressed clared that all of his subjects should “live in all things and brought up in all kinds of comforts; you according to the law which King St. Stephen had taught have had a part neither in the troubles of the them”.[168][167] In medieval Hungary, communities which campaigns nor in the various attacks of the claimed a privileged status or attempted to preserve their pagans in which almost my whole life has been own extquotedblliberties extquotedbl often declared that worn away. the origin of their special status was to be attributed to —Stephen’s Admonitions to his son, King Saint Stephen.[169] In a letter of 1347, for example, Emeric[126] in their grievances against the Pannonhalma Archabbey to the king, the people of Táp stated that taxes levied upon them by the Abbot contradicted “the liberty granted to [170] The following family tree presents Stephen’s ances- them in the time of King Saint Stephen”. tors and his relatives who are mentioned in the article.[159][164][159] 4.2 The Holy King *A Khazar, Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarian lady. ** might have been the son of Stephen’s sister Stephen’s cult emerged after the long period of instead of her husband. anarchy characterizing the rule of his immediate successors.[171][172] However, there is no evidence that he became an object of veneration before his 4 Legacy .[173] For instance, the first member of his family to be named after him, Stephen II, was born in the early 12th century.[174] Stephen’s canonization was 4.1 Founder of Hungary initiated by King (r. 1077– 1095) who was a grandson of Stephen’s blinded cousin, Vazul.[175][176] His canonization was “decreed by apos- tolic letter, by order of the Roman see”,[177] according to Bishop Hartvik, suggesting that the ceremony was per- mitted by Pope Gregory VII.[178] The ceremony started at Stephen’s tomb, where masses of believers spent three days fasting and praying from 15 August 1083.[179] Legend says that Stephen’s coffin could not be opened until King Ladislaus held his dethroned cousin, Solomon, in captivity in a prison at Visegrád.[179] Healing miracles followed the opening of Stephen’s tomb, which are attributed by historian Kristó to mass psychosis and deception.[176] According to Stephen’s legends, his “balsam-scented” remains were elevated from the cof- fin, which was filled with “rose-colored water”, on 20 August.[179] On the same day, Stephen’s son, Emeric, and the bishop of Csanád, Gerard, were also canonized.[175]

A miniature of King Saint Stephen from the Illuminated Chron- [H]aving completed the office of icle the third day, everyone expected the favors of divine mercy through the merit of the Stephen has always been considered one of the most im- [165] blessed man; suddenly with Christ visiting his portant statesmen in the history of Hungary. His main masses, the signs of miracles poured forth achievement was the establishment of a Christian state from heaven throughout the whole of the which ensured that the Hungarians have survived in the holy house. Their multitude, which that night Carpathian Basin, in contrast with the , Avars and were too many to count, brings to mind the other peoples who had before them controlled the same [165] answer from the Gospel which the Savior of territory. Stephen, as Bryan Cartledge emphasizes, the world confided to John, who asked through also gave his kingdom “forty years of relative peace and [166] messengers whether he was the one who was sound but unspectacular rule”. to come: the blind see, the lame walk, the deaf His successors, even those who were descended from hear, the lepers are cleansed, the crippled are Vazul, were eager to emphasize their devotion to set straight, the paralyzed are cured... Stephen’s achievements.[167] Vazul’s son, Andrew I of —Hartvic, Life of King Stephen of Hungary[180] Hungary (r. 1046–1060), although he acquired the throne 4.4 His Admonitions 11

Stephen’s first legend, the so-called Greater Legend, was written between 1077 and 1083.[181] It provided an ideal- ized portrait of the king,[182] who dedicated himself and his kingdom to the Virgin Mary.[181] However, Stephen’s Lesser Legend—which was composed around 1100,[182] under King Coloman (r. 1095–1116)[181]—emphasized Stephen’s severity.[182] Stephen’s third legend was com- posed, also in King Coloman’s reign, by Bishop Hartvik, who based his text on the previous two legends.[181] Sanc- tioned in 1201 by Pope Innocent III, Hartvik’s work served as Stephen’s official legend.[181] Gábor Klaniczay writes that Stephen’s legends, suggesting that a monarch can achieve sainthood through actively using his royal The Holy Dexter: King St. Stephen’s intact right hand powers, “opened a new chapter in the legends of holy rulers as a genre”.[183] Stephen was the first triumphant miles Christi (“Christ’s soldier”) among the canonized having become disjointed and, his flesh having [184] monarchs. He was also a “confessor king” whose cult been reduced to dust, wholly separated, only was sanctioned, in contrast with earlier holy monarchs, the right hand, its skin and sinews adhering [185] even though he had not suffered martyrdom. to the bones, preserved the beauty of whole- Stephen’s cult spread beyond the borders of Hungary.[172] ness? I surmise that the inscrutability of Initially he was primarily venerated in Scheyern and divine judgement sought to proclaim by the Bamberg in Bavaria, but his relics were also taken to extraordinary nature of this fact nothing less , , Montecassino and .[172] Upon than that the work of love and alms surpasses the liberation of from the Ottoman Turks, Pope In- the measure of all other virtues. ... The nocent XI expanded Stephen’s cult to the entire Roman right hand of the blessed man was deservedly in 1686.[172] He declared 2 September exempt from putrefaction, because always as King Saint Stephen’s feast day.[163][172] As the feast of reflourishing from the flower of kindness it Saint was moved, in 1969, from 16 August,[186] was never empty from giving gifts to nourish the day immediately following the day of Stephen’s death, the poor. the latter’s feast was moved to that date.[187] Stephen is —Hartvic, Life of King Stephen of Hungary[192] venerated as the of Hungary.[172] He is re- garded as the protector of kings, masons, stonecutters, stonemasons and bricklayers,[188] and also of children The Holy Dexter was kept for centuries in the Szentjobb suffering from dangerous illnesses.[188] The canonization Abbey except during the Mongol invasion of 1241 and of Saint Stephen was recognized by Ecumenical Patriarch 1242, when it was transferred to Ragusa (, Bartholomew I of Constantinople in the year 2000.[189] In ).[190] The Holy Dexter was taken to Székesfe- the calendar of the Hungarian Roman Catholic Church, hérvár around 1420.[190] Following the occupation of the the feast is observed on 20 August, the day on which central territories of the by the his relics were translated.[172] In Hungary, a separate Ottoman Turks in the middle of the 16th century, it feast day (30 May) is dedicated to Stephen’s “Holy was kept in many places, including Bosnia, Ragusa and Dexter”.[172] Vienna.[193] It was returned to Hungary in 1771 when Queen (r. 1740–1780) donated it to the cloister of the Sisters of Loreto in Buda.[193] It was kept 4.3 His Holy Dexter in the St. Sigismund Chapel in the between around 1900 and 1944, in a cave near in Aus- Stephen’s intact dexter, or right hand (Hungarian: Szent tria in 1944 and 1945, by the Sisters of Loreto in Buda [175][190] Jobb), became the subject of a cult. A cleric between 1945 and 1950, and in the St. Stephen’s Basil- named Mercurius stole it, but it was discovered on 30 ica in Budapest since 1950.[193] An annual procession has [179] May 1184 in . The theft of sacred relics, celebrated the since 1938, except between 1950 and or furta sacra, had by that time become a popular topic 1987 when its celebration was forbidden by the commu- [191] of saints’ biographies. Bishop Hartvik described the nist government.[193] discovery of Stephen’s right hand in accordance with this tradition, referring to adventures and visions.[191] To the veneration of the Holy Dexter, an abbey was dedicated in 4.4 His Admonitions Bihar County.[175] The monastery was named Szentjobb [175] (Sâniob, Romania) after the relic. According to Stephen’s Greater Legend the King “him- self compiled a book for his son on moral education”.[194] Why is it, brothers, that his other limbs This work, now known as Admonitions or De institutione 12 6 REFERENCES

morum,[195] was preserved in manuscripts written in the Hymn to King Stephen (Hungarian: Ének Szent István Ki- Late .[55] Although scholars debate whether rályhoz).[198][199] Levente Szörényi and János Bródy com- it can actually be attributed to the King or a cleric, most posed a rock opera, István, a király (“Stephen, the King”), of them agree that it was composed in the first decades of of the early years of his reign in 1983. A sequel to it, the 11th century.[55][196] Veled, Uram! (“You, Sir”), was composed in 2000 by [200] The Admonitions argues that kingship is inseparably con- Szörényi. nected with the Catholic faith.[55][196] Its author empha- sized that a monarch is required to make donations to the Church and regularly consult his prelates, but he is en- 5 See also titled to punish clergymen who do wrong.[55] One of its basic ideas was that a sovereign has to cooperate with the • Principality of Hungary “pillars of his rule”, meaning the prelates, the aristocrats, • the ispáns and the warriors.[196] Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1526) • History of Christianity in Hungary My dearest son, if you desire to honor the royal crown, I advise, I counsel, I urge you above all things to maintain the Catholic 6 References and Apostolic faith with such diligence and care that you may be an example for all those [1] Zsoldos 2001, p. 36. placed under you by God, and that all the clergy may rightly call you a man of true Chris- [2] Györffy 1994, p. 64. tian profession. Failing to do this, you may be [3] Kristó 2001, p. 15. sure that you will not be called a Christian or a son of the Church. Indeed, in the royal palace, [4] Hartvic, Life of King Stephen of Hungary (ch. 5), p. 381. after the faith itself, the Church holds second [5] “Stephen I”. Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Bri- place, first constituted and spread through the tannica, Inc. 2008. Retrieved 2008-07-29. whole world by His members, the apostles and holy fathers, And though she always produced [6] Kontler 1999, p. 51. fresh offspring, nevertheless in certain places she is regarded as ancient. However, dearest [7] Berend, Laszlovszky & Szakács 2007, p. 331. son, even now in our kingdom the Church is [8] Bakay 1999, p. 547. proclaimed as young and newly planted; and for that reason she needs more prudent and [9] Györffy 1994, p. 44. trustworthy guardians less a benefit which the [10] Sălăgean 2005, p. 147. divine mercy bestowed on us undeservedly should be destroyed and annihilated through [11] John Skylitzes: A Synopsis of Byzantine History, 811–1057 your idleness, indolence or neglect. (ch. 11.5.), p. 231. —Stephen’s Admonitions to his son, [12] Engel 2001, p. 24. Emeric[197] [13] Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 28.

[14] Györffy 1994, p. 46.

4.5 Artistic representation [15] Engel 2001, p. 27.

King Stephen has been a popular theme in art, espe- [16] Györffy 1994, p. 78. cially since the 19th century, with the development of [17] Berend, Laszlovszky & Szakács 2007, p. 329. Romantic nationalism. Paintings, such as The Baptism of Vajk by Gyula Benczúr in 1875, and many statues rep- [18] Kristó 2001, p. 16. resenting the King throughout Hungary and the neighbor- [19] Hartvic, Life of King Stephen of Hungary (ch. 4), p. 381. ing countries, testify to Stephen’s importance in Hungar- ian national thought. 's last complete opera [20] Györffy 1983, p. 132. from 1885, István király (“King Stephen”), was named for him. [21] Györffy 1994, pp. 79–80. Stephen I is also represented in a number of musical com- [22] Kristó 2001, p. 17. positions. His best known representation in music was [23] Steinhübel 2011, p. 19. Beethoven's King Stephen Overture. In 1938, Hungar- ian composer Zoltán Kodály wrote a choral piece titled [24] Lukačka 2011, p. 31. 13

[25] Kristó 2001, pp. 16–17. [60] Laws of King Stephen I (Stephen I:Preface), p. 1.

[26] Molnár 2001, p. 20. [61] Kristó 2001, pp. 22–23.

[27] Györffy 1994, p. 81. [62] Györffy 1994, p. 98.

[28] Kristó 2001, p. 18. [63] Györffy 1994, p. 97.

[29] Lukačka 2011, p. 33. [64] Makk 2001, p. 41.

[30] Györffy 1994, p. 83. [65] Kristó 2001, p. 23.

[31] Kristó, Gyula (2001). “Koppány leverése [Koppány’s de- [66] Thoroczkay 2001, p. 54. feat] extquotedbl. Szent István király [King Saint Stephen]. http://mek.oszk.hu. Retrieved 2013-08-17. [67] Thoroczkay 2001, p. 53.

[32] Kontler 1999, pp. 52–53. [68] Kontler 1999, p. 54.

[33] Engel 2001, p. 30. [69] Thoroczkay 2001, p. 58.

[34] Kristó 2001, pp. 18–19. [70] Berend, Laszlovszky & Szakács 2007, p. 336.

[35] Cartledge 2011, p. 11. [71] Thoroczkay 2001, pp. 55–57.

[36] Kristó 2001, p. 19. [72] Cartledge 2011, p. 14.

[37] Györffy 1994, pp. 83–84. [73] Berend, Laszlovszky & Szakács 2007, pp. 331, 333.

[38] Györffy 1994, p. 84. [74] Berend, Laszlovszky & Szakács 2007, p. 333.

[39] The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 39.64), p. 105. [75] Berend, Laszlovszky & Szakács 2007, p. 334.

[40] Györffy 1994, pp. 63, 83. [76] Györffy 1994, p. 135.

[41] Engel 2001, p. 39. [77] Cartledge 2011, p. 15.

[42] Györffy 1994, p. 63. [78] Laws of King Stephen I (Stephen I:12), p. 4.

[43] Simon of Kéza: The Deeds of the Hungarians (ch. 78.), p. [79] The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 40.65), p. 105. 163. [80] Kristó 2001, p. 24. [44] Lukačka 2011, pp. 32–33. [81] Sălăgean 2005, pp. 150–151. [45] Kontler 1999, p. 53. [82] Curta 2001, p. 145. [46] Györffy 1994, p. 85. [83] Curta 2001, p. 146. [47] Györffy 1994, pp. 85–86.

[48] Berend, Laszlovszky & Szakács 2007, p. 351. [84] The Chronicon of Thietmar of Merseburg (ch. 8.4), pp. 363–364. [49] Thoroczkay 2001, p. 52. [85] The Deeds of the Princes of the Poles (ch. 6.), pp. 31–33. [50] The Chronicon of Thietmar of Merseburg (ch. 29.), p. 193. [86] Györffy 1994, p. 142.

[51] Thoroczkay 2001, pp. 52–54. [87] Steinhübel 2011, pp. 19–21.

[52] Kristó 2001, p. 20. [88] Györffy 1994, pp. 107–108, 142.

[53] Kristó 2001, p. 21. [89] The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 41.66), p. 105.

[54] Engel 2001, p. 28. [90] Lenkey 2003, p. 37.

[55] Berend, Laszlovszky & Szakács 2007, p. 343. [91] Györffy 1994, p. 91.

[56] Kristó 2001, p. 22. [92] Life of the Five Brethren by Bruno of Querfurt (ch. 10.), p. 245. [57] Györffy 1994, p. 96. [93] Lenkey 2003, pp. 38–39. [58] Pope Gregory VII’s letter to King Solomon of Hungary, claiming suzerainty over that kingdom, p. 48. [94] Györffy 1994, p. 187.

[59] Makk 2001, p. 45. [95] Thoroczkay 2001, p. 60. 14 6 REFERENCES

[96] Lenkey 2003, p. 39. [133] Thoroczkay 2001, p. 62.

[97] Györffy 1994, p. 108. [134] Wolfram 2006, p. 40.

[98] Engel 2001, p. 22. [135] Wolfram 2006, p. 187.

[99] Thoroczkay 2001, p. 61. [136] Lenkey 2003, p. 90.

[100] Engel 2001, p. 29. [137] Wolfram 2006, pp. 197–198.

[101] Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 63. [138] Györffy 1994, p. 149.

[102] Engel 2001, pp. 40, 85. [139] Kristó 2003, p. 74.

[103] Engel 2001, pp. 40–41. [140] Wolfram 2006, p. 231.

[104] Györffy 1994, p. 119. [141] Kristó 2003, pp. 74–75.

[105] Engel 2001, p. 41. [142] Györffy 1994, pp. 149–150.

[106] Györffy 1994, p. 140. [143] The Deeds of Conrad II (Wipo) (ch. 26.), pp. 85–86.

[107] Györffy 1994, p. 133. [144] Hartvic, Life of King Stephen of Hungary (ch. 19), p. 390.

[108] Györffy 1994, p. 144. [145] Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 48.

[109] Kristó 2003, p. 71. [146] The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 45.69), p. 107.

[110] Lenkey 2003, p. 88. [147] Kristó 2001, p. 32.

[111] Makk 1993, pp. 48–49. [148] Györffy 1994, p. 169.

[112] Györffy 1994, p. 143. [149] Kontler 1999, pp. 58–59.

[113] Hartvic, Life of King Stephen of Hungary (ch. 16.), p. 388. [150] Györffy 1994, p. 170.

[114] Györffy 1994, pp. 145–146. [151] Laws of King Stephen I (Stephen II:19), p. 11.

[115] Györffy 1994, p. 146. [152] Györffy 1994, p. 136.

[116] Kristó 2003, p. 72. [153] Laws of King Stephen I (Stephen II:1), p. 9.

[117] Butler, Cumming & Burns 1998, p. 159. [154] Guiley 2001, p. 136. [155] Engel 2001, pp. 29–32. [118] Györffy 1994, pp. 146, 151. [156] Molnár 2001, pp. 25–27. [119] Engel 2001, p. 43. [157] Molnár 2001, p. 27. [120] Cartledge 2011, p. 16. [158] Engel 2001, p. 26. [121] Györffy 1994, pp. 147, 151. [159] Veszprémy 1994, p. 236. [122] Györffy 1994, p. 148. [160] Veszprémy 1994, p. 237. [123] Györffy 1994, p. 147. [161] The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 38.63), p. 104. [124] Györffy 1994, p. 150. [162] Györffy 1994, p. 168. [125] Rodulfus Glaber: The Five Books of the Histories (ch. 3.1.2.), p. 97. [163] Butler, Cumming & Burns 1998, p. 160.

[126] Kristó 2001, p. 28. [164] Kristó & Makk 1996, pp. 17, Appendices 1–2.

[127] Györffy 1994, p. 160. [165] Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 51.

[128] Berend, Laszlovszky & Szakács 2007, p. 352. [166] Cartledge 2011, p. 17.

[129] Györffy 1994, p. 110. [167] Lenkey 2003, p. 106.

[130] Curta 2001, p. 40. [168] The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 60.86), p. 113.

[131] Györffy 1994, p. 101. [169] Tringli 2001, p. 129.

[132] Curta 2001, p. 142. [170] Tringli 2001, p. 139. 15

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• The Deeds of the Princes of the Poles (Translated and • Engel, Pál (2001). The Realm of St Stephen: A His- annotated by Paul W. Knoll and Frank Schaer with a tory of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526. I.B. Tauris preface by Thomas N. Bisson) (2003). CEU Press. Publishers. ISBN 1-86064-061-3. ISBN 963-9241-40-7. • Guiley, Rosemary Ellen (2001). The Encyclopedia • The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle: Chronica de of Saints. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 1-4381-3026- Gestis Hungarorum (Edited by Dezső Dercsényi) 0. (1970). Corvina, Taplinger Publishing. ISBN 0- 8008-4015-1. • (Hungarian) Györffy, György (1983). István király és műve [King Stephen and his work]. Gondolat • “The Laws of King Stephen I (1000–1038) extquot- Könyvkiadó. ISBN 963-9441-87-2. edbl. In The Laws of the Medieval Kingdom of Hun- • gary, 1000–1301 (Translated and Edited by János Györffy, György (1994). King Saint Stephen of Hun- M. Bak, György Bónis, James Ross Sweeney with gary. Atlantic Research and Publications. ISBN 0- an essay on previous editions by Andor Czizmadia, 88033-300-6. Second revised edition, In collaboration with Leslie • S. Domonkos) (1999). Charles Schlacks, Jr. Pub- Klaniczay, Gábor (2002). Holy Rulers and Blessed lishers. pp. 1–11. ISBN 1-884445-29-2. OCLC Princes: Dynastic Cults in Medieval . 495379882. OCLC 248424393. LCCN 89-10492. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42018-0. OL12153527M. (ISBN may be misprinted in the • Kontler, László (1999). Millennium in Central Eu- book as 88445-29-2) . rope: A History of Hungary. Atlantisz Publishing House. ISBN 963-9165-37-9.

7.2 Secondary sources • (Hungarian) Kristó, Gyula; Makk, Ferenc (1996). Az Árpád-ház uralkodói [Rulers of the House of Ár- • Bakay, Kornél (1999). “Hungary”. In Reuter, Tim- pád]. I.P.C. Könyvek. ISBN 963-7930-97-3. othy. The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume III: c. 900-c. 1024. Cambridge University Press. • Kristó, Gyula (2001). “The Life of King Stephen pp. 536–552. ISBN 978-0-521-36447-8. the Saint”. In Zsoldos, . Saint Stephen and His Country: A Newborn Kingdom in Central Europe – • Berend, Nora (2001). “Introduction to Hartvic, Life Hungary. Lucidus Kiadó. pp. 15–36. ISBN 963- of King Stephen of Hungary”. In Head, Thomas. 86163-9-3. Medieval Hagiography: An Anthology. Routledge. pp. 375–377. ISBN 0-415-93753-1. • (Hungarian) Kristó, Gyula (2003). Háborúk és had- viselés az Árpádok korában [Wars and Tactics under • Berend, Nora; Laszlovszky, József; Szakács, Béla the Árpáds]. Szukits Könyvkiadó. ISBN 963-9441- Zsolt (2007). “The kingdom of Hungary”. In 87-2. Berend, Nora. Christianization and the Rise of Chris- tian Monarchy: Scandinavia, Central Europe and • (Hungarian) Lenkey, Zoltán (2003). “Szent István Rus’, c. 900–1200. Cambridge University Press. [Saint Stephen] extquotedbl. In Szentpéteri, József. pp. 319–368. ISBN 978-0-521-87616-2. Szent István és III. András [Saint Stephen and An- drew III]. Kossuth Kiadó. pp. 5–118. ISBN 963- • Butler, Alban; Cumming, John; Burns, Paul (1998). 09-4461-8. Butler’s Lives of the Saints (New Full Edition): Au- gust. Burns & Oates. ISBN 0-86012-257-3. • Lukačka, Ján (2011). “The beginnings of the nobil- ity in Slovakia”. In Teich, Mikuláš; Kováč, Dušan; • Cartledge, Bryan (2011). The Will to Survive: A Brown, Martin D. Slovakia in History. Cambridge History of Hungary. C. Hurst & Co. ISBN 978- University Press. pp. 30–37. ISBN 978-0-521- 1-84904-112-6. 80253-6.

• Curta, Florin (2001). “Transylvania around AD • (Hungarian) Magyar, Zoltán (1996). Szent István a 1000”. In Urbańczyk, Przemysław. Europe around magyar kultúrtörténetben [Saint Stephen in the His- the year 1000. Wydawnictwo DIG. pp. 141–165. tory of Hungarian Arts]. Helikon Kiadó. ISBN 963- ISBN 83-7181-211-6. 208-401-2. 17

• Makk, Ferenc (2001). “On the Foreign Policy of 8 External links Saint Stephen”. In Zsoldos, Attila. Saint Stephen and His Country: A Newborn Kingdom in Central • A BBC report on Saint Stephen’s day celebrations in Europe – Hungary. Lucidus Kiadó. pp. 37–48. Hungary ISBN 963-86163-9-3. • His picture on the Hungarian 10,000 forint banknote • (Hungarian) Makk, Ferenc (1993). Magyar külpoli- • Procession of the Holy Right Hand of St. Stephen tika (896–1196) [Hungarian Foreign Policy (896– on Videoactive 1196)]. Szegedi Középkorász Műhely. ISBN 963- 04-2913-6. • extquotedblSt. Stephen (2) extquotedbl. Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Com- • Molnár, Miklós (2001). A Concise History of Hun- pany. 1913. gary. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0- 521-66736-4. • Stephen I, the First Christian Hungarian King (Cry- ingVoice.com) • O'Malley, Vincent J., CM (1995). Saintly Com- • (Hungarian) Kristó, Gyula (2002). Szent István panions: A Cross-Reference of Sainted Relationships. király (=King Saint Stephen). Vince Kiadó and Alba House. ISBN 0-8189-0693-6. Neumann Kht.

• Sălăgean, Tudor (2005). “Romanian Society in the Early Middle Ages (9th–14th Centuries AD) ex- tquotedbl. In Pop, Ioan-Aurel; Bolovan, Ioan. His- tory of Romania: Compendium. Romanian Cultural Institute (Center for Transylvanian Studies). pp. 133–207. ISBN 978-973-7784-12-4.

• Steinhübel, Ján (2011). “The Duchy of Nitra”. In Teich, Mikuláš; Kováč, Dušan; Brown, Martin D. Slovakia in History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 15–29. ISBN 978-0-521-80253-6.

• Thoroczkay, Gábor (2001). “The Dioceses and Bishops of Saint Stephen”. In Zsoldos, Attila. Saint Stephen and His Country: A Newborn Kingdom in Central Europe – Hungary. Lucidus Kiadó. pp. 49– 68. ISBN 963-86163-9-3.

• Tringli, István (2001). “The Liberty of the Holy King: Saint Stephen and the Holy Kings in the Hun- garian Legal Heritaga”. In Zsoldos, Attila. Saint Stephen and His Country: A Newborn Kingdom in Central Europe – Hungary. Lucidus Kiadó. pp. 127–179. ISBN 963-86163-9-3.

• (Hungarian) Veszprémy, László (1994). “Gizella”. In Kristó, Gyula; Engel, Pál; Makk, Ferenc. Korai magyar történeti lexikon (9–14. század) [Encyclope- dia of the Early Hungarian History (9th–14th cen- turies)]. Akadémiai Kiadó. pp. 236–237. ISBN 963-05-6722-9.

• Wolfram, Herwig (2006). Conrad II, 990–1039: Emperor of Three Kingdoms. The Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0-271-02738-X.

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