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Gender Inequalities in Pension Income

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Gender Inequalities in Pension Income Gender Inequalities in Pension Income: The case of England and Spain by Eva Martínez Cruz Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Sociology Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences University of Surrey Supervisors: Dr. Jane Fielding and Prof. Ian Brunton-Smith © Eva Martínez Cruz 1 August 2018 Declaration of Originality This thesis and the work to which it refers are the results of my own efforts. Any ideas, data, images or text resulting from the work of others (whether published or unpublished) are fully identified as such within the work and attributed to their originator in the text, bibliography or in footnotes. This thesis has not been submitted in whole or in part for any other academic degree or professional qualification. I agree that the University has the right to submit my work to the plagiarism detection service TurnitinUK for originality checks. Whether or not drafts have been so-assessed, the University reserves the right to require an electronic version of the final document (as submitted) for assessment as above. Eva Martínez Cruz 1 Summary This thesis explores gender role differences as indicators of inequalities in pension income, using the cases of England and Spain. It contains several layers of comparison both through using these two nations, but also by exploring birth cohort differences between those born before and after 1939, in order to better understand how context influences pension income inequalities between men and women. The main research strategy in this thesis has been a quantitative approach, adopted to provide a robust within-country analysis in England and Spain. The cross-country comparison on the other hand, adopts a qualitative dimension, where the aim is not to directly quantify the differences between the two countries, but to provide an indirect comparison that embeds the quantitative results obtained from the within- country analysis in a comprehensive contextual analysis of gender differences in pension income in the two countries. For the quantitative analysis, the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA) has been used for England, and the Survey of Health Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) for Spain, using retrospective and cross-sectional data in both datasets. The aim of doing a cross-national comparison from a qualitative perspective instead, has been to obtain a deeper understanding of gender inequalities in pension income considering more critically their cultural, institutional and historical contexts. This combined approach provides a robust understanding of how personal circumstances across the lifecourse impact gender differences in pension income in each country. It also critically assesses the role of a complex set of different contextual factors in measuring differences in pension income between men and women, delivering a detailed cross-country discussion. Gender inequalities in pension income are a complex issue, which are interlinked to both micro and macro factors. In this thesis, context plays a central role in understanding gender 2 differences in pension income. However, despite differences in the mechanisms by which current1 (2010-12) retired women have become disadvantaged with regards to pension income in England and Spain, the result is similar. The gender pension income gap is a problem in both England and Spain. This is higher in England than in Spain, although in Spain access to pension income is more of an issue, mostly for women, at least for the current (2010-12) generation of retirees. Women in both countries have been penalised by their respective pension systems, for not meeting or only partially meeting pension requirements. Policies imposed by governmental institutions, in particular in areas such as employment or family, have in some cases stopped women from meeting these pension requirements. The political institutions and systems of England and Spain as well as their labour markets cannot be the only factors blamed for pension income differences however. Specific lifestyles framed in traditional gender roles and family culture, are another key factors in explaining these differences. 1 This thesis analyses data collected in 2010 (SHARE) and 2012 (ELSA) so the word ‘current’ is accompanied by the years in brackets, unless it refers to real current times; in that case the year in brackets is not included. 3 Acknowledgements There are many people who have made writing this thesis both possible and enjoyable. Jane Fielding, my principal supervisor, has been an excellent supervisor supporting me through the dark times and without her emotional and practical support I would not have been able to finish this PhD. I am similarly grateful to Ian Brunton-Smith, my second supervisor. He joined the supervisory team at a late stage but without his knowledge, ideas and clarity of thought and time I would not have been able to finish this piece of work. I am indebted too, to Sara Arber, my first principal supervisor, for sharing her exceptional knowledge and understanding of my subject and her emotional and practical support. I also would like to thank the Economic and Social Research Council for funding this research and my fellow PhD students for their support, interest, encouragement and friendship. For their unconditional support I also would like to thank my mother and brother. Of course, none of this would have been possible without the support of my husband Matteo, who has supported me financially and in countless other ways as I have undertaken this project. My little girl Lucia and twins Mario and Oscar who have given me the strength to finish it. Last, but certainly not least, my friend Jamie, for his unconditional support in this project. This thesis is dedicated to the memory of my father. Without his support I would not have been able to go back to University and undertake this project. He would have liked to see this process through to its completion. 4 Table of Contents Declaration of Originality ....................................................................................................... 1 Summary ................................................................................................................................... 2 Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. 4 List of Tables .......................................................................................................................... 10 List of Figures ......................................................................................................................... 12 Chapter One: Gender and Pensions in England and Spain ............................................... 13 1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 13 1.2 The Political Economy of Pensions and the Gender Pension Income Gap ................... 15 1.3 Men, Women and the Private/Public Divide ................................................................. 16 1.3.1 Gendered Labour Markets ...................................................................................... 17 1.4 Understanding the Context of the Birth Cohorts Involved in this Study ....................... 17 1.5 Empirical Questions Arising: The Aim of this thesis .................................................... 20 1.6 Thesis Structure ............................................................................................................. 23 Chapter Two: Two Different Welfare and Pension Regimes through a Gender Lens ... 27 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 27 2.2 The Development of Current Welfare States and Welfare State Theory....................... 28 2.2.1 Spain, a Southern Conservative-Corporatist Regime ............................................. 32 2.2.2 England, a Liberal Regime ..................................................................................... 34 2.3 The Architecture of the Pension Systems of England and Spain: A Gender-Sensitive Analysis................................................................................................................................ 36 2.3.1 The Pension System in Spain .................................................................................. 37 2.3.2 The Pension System in England ............................................................................. 41 2.4 Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 48 Chapter Three: Family, Gender and Paid-Unpaid Work in Context ............................... 50 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 50 3.2 An Overview of Family Formations in England and Spain after World War II............ 50 3.3 Paid and Unpaid Work in Context: Family Policies ...................................................... 51 3.4 The Position of Women and Men in the Labour Market in Spain and England. A Comparative Perspective ..................................................................................................... 54 3.4.1 Women’s Participation Rates in the Labour Market in England and Spain ........... 56 3.4.2 Types of Working Opportunities for Women in England and Spain ...................... 57 3.4.3 Gendered Labour Markets
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