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1960 The : An Historical Study . Leonard '60 Illinois Wesleyan University

Recommended Citation Leonard '60, Richard C., "The Greek Language: An Historical Study" (1960). Honors Projects. Paper 3. http://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/grs_honproj/3

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GREECE 400 B.C. \

Dialects 1---' Attic- Arca0-0- CJ- L-J Ionic Cypr lan c::J Doric t£�;�r CJ an) o Narth1Ae3tr--""l Th s alian o Greek L-.J and Boetian Richard C. Leonard

Tim GREEK LANGUAGE: AN HISTORICAL ST1JlJY

prepared under the spon-

sorship of Dr. Cho.rles H.

�I.'hrall, as a requirement

for graduation with Honors

in Greek at the Commence-

ment of June, 1960.

T'/ L f Illinois Wesleyan University

Bloomington, Illinois

May, 1960

/ IIIJCK M1i!MOIIlAL LIlIIIAIi:Y lLU'IOIS WESLEYAN!IISH'Y UMV 'fEE GREEK LfllWUAGE: AN HISTORICAL STUDY

Richard C. Leonard

CONTErlTS

Map of , 400 B.C. Frontispioce

I. Introductory remarks 1

II. The Indo-European 4

III. Early ; the 9

/ IV. Formation of the 1(0''1'11 20

V. 2'7

VI. Greek in English 40

Bibliography 1

Ie Introductory

This is deS.LguCiu so that it can without dif-

f iculty not only by those have 8 tudj_ed the Greek language but

also by those with only a limited knowledge of the Greek .

Accordingly, although all Gre words in the Greek a1pha-

bet, most of them are transliterated in parentheses, especially

where the Greek letters do not resemble their English equivalents.

Furthermore, most quotations of texts are provided with in-

ter1inear cl'aIlLslations so that the arrangement of is appar-

ent to those who cannot translate the Greek themselves.

In Section VI. the usual method of is explained,

s the English words of Greek derivation 1isteci in that section

were transliterated according to t!lat method. However, t method

used the viritel' differs slightly, as he fe that in certain

cases the usual transliteration tends to give an incorrect of

the actual pronunciation of the Greek word. For example, the

letter is usually transliterated as whereas act- u ( ) I, " u£11 s of Iet te r 'if D.S S orr,ei; hing 1 the German �, oc-

cas :tonally as in chute 0 's system of transl ion � is glven along \'lith the on the follonlng two

and can refer to it whenever necess reading this

paper.

no a tternpt has been to deal with the acc of in

terms of cruLl:sliteration. In ancient t three ac

acute " , c irclunflex '"' amI the ' -- denoted a ( ) ( ) ( ) c :tn pitch, i1' function at 8 is to iate

spell , o:r� 80me cases to indicate s

in 8 from an , as th the c over

vovlel c tions. jThe Greek A.lphabet

Capital Small Viriter's I,etters Letters 'l'ranslitera tion Pronunciation

A

Beta b b' sometimes B � -' - r , ()g g as in got; sometimes y soft, byI'Oroing air through it; n as in

finger before , orX 1, �

Delta d d', sometimes th as in weather

. e e as in get E dz dz as in adz '. � H 'I') (!j a as in late e th th as in hothousel e i i as in pit, ee as in r :reet

I� k k K A A 1 1 },Iu m m .M fA n n 'V Uu N '=' X a8 in fix (not as in ,.... � xylophone)

0 0 0 as in obey 0 - --" 7T P II 1: p P l' l' '» 2 <1"( ) Sigma s s as in sit

I: ,. T t u T u Upsilon u, {13 u as in chute, b1tt more T often a8 German u l , oj> ph ph as in mop handle kh kh as blockheadl X X

(1) ot th as in , ph as f in fat, nor a8 in German according to ChadV!lck, ,Tonn, The DecTj5nermentof Ioinear 12, p (2) at the end of a word

(3) transliterated as H 1n cases where the ish trans- 11terat10n is y 3

Hal ','Jri tor! s Le ters Letters Harne !11ransll tion prommcintion

Psi ps as in tipsy, not 'Y 'I' in psychology as LV Omoga (5 o as in note {} v v or orobably -'w as F Tn povler4

( Rough h h Breathing

,['he Greek alphabet has been in constant use since the eighth

century B.C., and Vias derived from the . Greek

colonists in Ita.ly gave the Romans a modtfied vers1�on of the Gre

alphabet, which became the Roman alphabet in vlh:tch EnGlish is virit-

ten.

The principle source for the information contained in this

paper is The Greek L,unguage, by F. C. Atkinson (London:

l�aber and Faber, 19:5::\), hereinafter referred to as "Atkinson."

,F'or information on other sources referred to, consult the bib110-

graph�l �

Of the importance of the study of the Greek language little

need be said; the final section of this paper ShOllld be evidence

enough. The greatness of Greek is in no small meas-

ure due to the fJ,daptability of the language with which the

expressed themselves,: and as western civilization owes much to

that of , so it is indebted to the vehicle of that

civilization.

D and the rough are not considered part 4) of the( Greek alphabet. fell out of use around .C., since in most cases it was superfluous; Similarly, we350 drop the w in power spell it�, ;1ith sour. • The

Greek is a member of the Indo-European family of languages.

TherE) are seven other branches represented by currently spoken languages: (1) Ger",anic-- extinct Gothic; modern German, ish,

Dutch and the Scandinavian languages: (2) Balto-Slavic-- Lith- uanian, Polish, Russian and the southern Slavic tone;ues (3) Ary- an-- ancient Vedic and Sanskr:tt; modern Hindi, Bengali and Per- sian (4) Italic-- ancient Oscan and Umbrian; and the mod- ern Romance languae;es such as French, Spanish, Italian and Ruman- ian (5) Celtic, once widely spoken but noVi confined to the Brit- ish Isles and Brittany (6 ) modern Armenian modern Albanian. (7) There have been Indo-European lane;uages belonging to none of these groups, as is the case ;vith certain languages of the ancient Hit- tite Empire.

Indo-European languages have, of course, certain cOEimon char-

acteristics and even certain vJords � For example, our English word �hel' is the equivalent of Sa nskrit pitar, Greek ITaTl)p (pa­ ter), Latin pater, German yater, Prench pere, Armenian �, and

Old Irish athir. In each case a COl,"!non Indo-J�ur'opean has been altered according to certain linguistic tendencies.

In Indo-European "'O.H!:"A·"IC,VS a word normally consis t8 of three elements: a root, which carries the princtpal meaning of the word, plus 8. ix and ending, each of which conveys certain informfl- t ion about how the vlOrd is be used. For example, the Greek

., !t Vlord IWplOU (kuriou) "of a lord" may be divided into a root (KUpl-) signifying a noble person, 9. suffix (-0-) indicating the masculine

, means "lady"), and an ending indicating the (Iwpla (-u) 8enetive case. In lanGuQGes such as Enelinh tho inflec- tions, or chane8S in suffix ending, have been lost. VIe ern- ploy pl'epositions, emphasis, and \Iord order to ex-

press Vias formerly conveyed by . We make no change in the Vlord itself, except to add::!. in the plural. 'l'he following table Viill illustrate the difference between an in- flected and a non-inflected language ef the Indo-]�uropean group:

- a lord speaks

I t' A" (ho k��ur�ou" ' ) - the Vlord of a lord o 0"(05 I{UP'OU

Ao.AiI KUp(� (lalei ,{ur�o1" . -) - he speaks to a lord

Ii , (blep1:l kurion) - I s ee a lord ��i.TTw l<°PIO'V (lalEd, lrur�e) - Lord, speakl A�A(.I, 1< tip I (- " . The five cases of Greek (neminative, genetive, dative, accusa-

tive and vocative, in the order listed above), ,lith five more

forms in the plural, are able to do v:hat in English recl'uires an

extensive rev;ol"lking of the sentence {I

Certain English nouns illustrate the use of suffix and end-

to a ted For example, the ytor'd aetorts can be

divided :into a root (act-) plus a suffix (-01'-) signifyin8 mas­

culine gendel' (as opposed to actress) and an (-�) indi- eating possession.

r'e have been us nouns as examples of ; the 8it-

uation is similar in the case of verbs � 0 Indo-Eln�opean

W.�i"vO, of which Greek is a good , expressed person,

number', va :tee, e meod through inflections of the verb,

\'lhereas in these are 88ed means of

, orGel', relative c18.us8s, and, to ft:-1.r less an extent

thiln in verb , inflections (con ) . 6

reader \/Ih.o IN to explore this matter further is 1'"'0ferrocl to a Gre Grammar.

It should be adlled that the use of sl-l.f'fixes and endings in Tndo-European and other inflectional languages differs fron tllG method of agglutinative languages, such as Bantu, �Tapanese,

Korean and tbe Ural-Altaic family. In agglutinative languages the various addenda to the verb stem have moaning even when standing alone, and can be shifted around in different combina- tions or piled up in long and complicated forms baseel on a singlo stem. This is not true of inflectional languaGes; the inflections of a word have no neaning apart fron sten, and each inflect- ional element is limited to a certain usage and position relative to the stem.

'Ihe various branches of the Indo -European family not

only the charactel'istic of inflection, but also certain lec- tions themselves.. Atkinson gives trlese examples. 1 A hypot;het-

.ieal COHllTIOn tive singulaxl ending ?r-as occurs in such varied forms as ISthu.aniEtD rank-os Hof Latin familias "of , Ii \ I the family', Irish nIDa of the woman" and Greek (eklde- el

sias) "of th.e ." Eeeluplication of the verb stem in tense be observed in Sanskrit mamnat�,

(m8mona) a:nd IJatin memini, all involvine redv.pllcation of the

root -iGmen- ato think, 11

lTo trace of the parent Indo-European language survives to-

day; forms , hOWfm,')r, been bypothet :tcally reCOI1S tructed

not S yzhlch have oc in various

OD, P .. -"-1: ( 1 ) 7

the Indo-European Such forms nrc preceded an

asterisk, as with *-�s -it-men.... above II

history of tho various branches of the Indo-European family trates the fact that the matters of language and race Elre entirely separate; a normal human of any race can speak any language of vlorlc1 pl�ovided he learns it as a

;:rouns child. Language is, howevor, affected by social condi- tions; the , for , is product of SO� cial cODcl:ttions in E:rlc;lnncl In the perioa fol1oYling the Norman conquest. The Prench-s!)ealring rulers and Anglo-Sazon-speaking

populace had to cOYln:ml1icate vlith one another, Elnd the ond re­ sult of this need for mutuEll in lligibility ViElS a combination

their two languages. strong nationalistic ling can pre-

sorvo a oven when social conditions favor its combina- tion language or perhaps its comple disappearance.

revival of as the everyday speech of is a case in point, as are the preservation of the Irish and Welsh in spite of the orts of English to impose their on tho conquered peoples.

There vias, apparently, no Indo-European race, nor any Inclo-

European empire to s use of as Roman

ire did in the case of Latin. Probably Indo-Europoan was

propagated ory bands Vihose language supers those of peoples in VIhose lands they settled. '1'his seems to have

been the case ; the Basque language of the PyreneGs is

a t • -European

s an home 5.n • Being s one bands

opee the OVin .s of ; these dialects came s contact v!ith other oples e

vIas not; or •

The oldest extant literature in an Indo-European language

is the Sanskrit Rig-Veda, a collection of hyw.J:ls dating from the

twelfth century B.C. or earlier. 1'he , who produced this

literature, were inhabitants of who had migrated fl�om

s outheas tern Europe, via l;'inor, around B.C. 2000 III. Early tory GX'8 ,

The period vfhich Greek developec1 as a separate Indo-

European seems to 2100-1600 B.C. Greek

",,cas brought into Greece from the north; around 2000 B.C. Greek- speaking peoples began to move from the valley toward trle

Aegean. Upon reaching the sea, they came into contact with the l[;inoans of , and with the l'Iycenaeans, who vlere a part of the

Minoan civilization. Possibly the Mycenaeans had been an earlier

Greek migration which had absorbed the Minoan culture of the ori- ginal inhabitants of Mycenae.

The four main dialect groups of the Greek language were (1)

Hc-Ionic (2) Aeolic (3 ) Arcado-Cyprian, and (4) West Gl'eek. Possibly these dialects were the result of four separate invasions from the north. '1'he Ionis. were probably the first to reach

Greece; they so themselves in historic times, and Ionian is the name give to Greeks ancient Porsian and the pentateuch.

Our name Greek comes from Graeci, a small tribe of iru8 with nhom the Romans first came into contact. The , a part of

�'lest Greck dialect group, vlere the last migration; they set- tIed around the Peloponnesus and drove the previously-established

Arcadians into the center of the is thnms • For tho areas in ,:hich the several dialects wero spoken, consult the accompanying map.

The people speaking the different dialects were not isolated from one anothel�; moreover, from early times VIas a deal of COmr:l0rce between Greece ann the Greek must been 1.nfluenced ian, Carian, Tscean and other non-

( 1) t of the ial in this section 1s ken from on, 11-2.6 and 65-197. l"P' 10

Indo"'European languaGes or Asia I'ilinor. l\.ncient recor;ds 8hov"1 that the speakers of these languages had lCY10Wn the original l1on-

Greek lD.habitants of Greece:J the , and 0

The Greeks must have come into contact with them also, and no doubt absorbed characteristics of their lanGuages into the Greok.

It Vias the influence of these languages which enabled Greek to build a wealth of and expression, and made i.t pos- sible for Greek to become the greatest vehicle of world litera- ture. In selecting at random five passages of Greek literature from to , Atkinson fOlmd a proportion of from onA i.n thirteen to one in seven VJords not of Indo-European origin. "'['hus the Greek language tends to confirm evidence obtained from other sources that points to the fact that the Greeks borrowed much of their religion and particularly their ideas of from older , that they came down from lands remote f'rom the sea, and that to some extent they absorbed the peoples in whose territory they settled. Greek is a language predominantly

Indo-European, which yet shoVis clear traces of the impact of' an­

o cient cultures upon the Greek and manner of' life."�

The period of the cUalects lasted until the time of

, the Great of (356-323 B.C.), vihen the KOIV'I1 (koine) or

common Greek arose a8 a viOrld-language based principally on the

Attic dialect. A remnant of the Doric dialect spoken in I,aconia

is thought to have persisted to the present day in the Tsakonia11

'7 dialect spoken in the region.o

(2 ) on, p.26

(3) The reader Vlill perhaps recall LaDlpito, the Spart�fln women i11 Aristophanest Lysistrata. Her Laconian d ct is often re11- dered in English as a Scottish 1/

The ie-Ionic dialect �us spoken in of the , (in Asia i:jinor), :ma the of Chio8,

Samos and . One prominent characteristic of tic-Ionic

Vias the change of an original long ex (a as in father) to a sound represented by (is, equivalent to English lone; a as in late). 11 " Examples are (histemi) "I stand", from an original root I

"mother", from an original root ':-matr. Another characteristic

VlaG the substitution of the combination E.W (eo) for ceo (ao), as 1n for (Uios) "a people.ll The letter (digamma, Ae.�S Aaos f pronounced like English v or was lost very early in Attic- 'II) Ionic.

Attic and Ionic differ in a number of respects. Certain combinat;ions contract into one vovJel in Attic, but rem9.in uncontracted in Ion1c. Cl'he combination crcr (ss) in Ionic is of­

ten TT in Attic, as in (glC5tta) for ...... a. ". ,,4 yA�TTG( y>,..{, The noun term1nation -1')10- is found in Ionic other clialects,

J but in Attic appears a8-&I,o-, as in �a(nAt:lo'5 (basileios) "royal.l!

.Attic influence becomes apparent in Ionic inscriptions around the fifth century B.C. and increases from t time ol1ward. tic came to be the language of educated people became

the cultural center of Greece; hence the Attic dialect has been

abunc.lantly preserved for us in literature, whereas the other

dialects are lmown to us chiefly through inscriptions preserved in various Greek cities.

The Aeolic dialect group had three main subdivis Les-

Notice that vfords glot tal glossary, derived from(4) the Greek, same difference in speJ.lingo 12.

bian, s on tho is of L08b08 and in is, on tho rnnln- land of Asia }'iIinor; rrhessalian, spoken in eastern ; and

Boetian. These last tVIO were overlaid with Northwest Greek. A- mong the characteristics of Aeolic was a tendency to replace C( viith 0 in conjlmction with p, as in ppoXu') (brokhus) for �:X05

"short." 1'11ere Vias a tendency to replace a dental consonant (T, with a labial respectively) before front , 0, e) (rr, {3, / , as in (pessures) for "four", and BU\ol�\ (Bel- TT&o-O'LJpeS T&o-o-apC-S .- phoi) for ll.&A

l! It In Lesbian an d'< T,lessa Iian, the preoosltion ana ) up .'avo:/ ( ,/ � I talms the form 0" (on); the propos ition cora (apo) "from" had the

, I form

as verbs in as in (kalemi) for (kaleo) "I caU", -J-lI, i\&A'i')/"I' l

]A peculiarity of Thessalian was the tendency to identify a

with Eo, resulting in such forms as ole for o,� "through." Long

o is alvlays represented by ov, never by w. often the final vow-

01 of' a preposition is cut off, ,1 proe08S known as apoc •

particle of.., meaning i!and" 01' a weak "but", is replaced by a form ,...�.,5 'Phe Thessalian dialect appears as late as the first century

B.C •.

Most extant Lesbian inseriptions date from the late fourth

century B.C. Lesbian shows il08 is, or los 8 of the r01.lgh brea th-

ing (equivalent to English h).

The Boe tlan dialect was s (,I'on!" influenced Nor t

s most characteristic was the ift of ':11'1010

I (5) Is iC8.11CG to t that tJ-a: res Italla.n rna mais, bo "but"? 13

tern to Itions 0 fTrnlS f, e,l became I o:t be- \10\"101 s c " came (..).1 came v the Gc rman 0ventu- 01 ( 2!:)

• vowel U, hov/ever, never became rounded as it did Eol \1 � . vlC, it came to the German u; in Boetian,

U is sometimes spelled Ovor indicating that it had a sound IOU, like the name of our English letter �. The folloViing is an example of Thessalian Aeolic, an in8crip- tion from Phalanna ill Pelasgiotis. It dates fI'om the fifth cen- tury B.C., befoI'e the intI'oduction of the Ionic alphabet; hence

E. stands a180 for and for w. Kote the presence of the di- 11, 0

the substitution of 1< for in 1<11) "any", and the (F), T

.' � " substitution of 1'01' 1n appe1sai for ' rr T ( . arrOTl-IcrGt, arrrrl-HI"ClI ) (apoteisai) "to repay."

A . If ever of the citizens any one appropriates os . I(f, K/� FCtMcr.:rIH:'Ta�J N or A'( ,07/ Fct

common moneys having and not is able to repay the ••.

, •• _ KOlva XtpJZfAllTtX �[)(]O'V I(QI p.[z,] <5UV,fE,T[a], cnrrrc:.[7rraU TO II If citizen spends public money VJhich is in his DOS-

session and is unable to I'eimburse •••,,6

Here is hov! tho above ar in Attic:

A lavJ. If of the citizens any one appropriates common � , , \ , � , / TWV a

Arcado-Cyprian was spoken only Arc and on the :ts land of ; this dialect was furthest removed from At tic.

Some peculiarit of Arcado lan are the replacement of T " / I ore I; the 8ubstttutlon of I(a� for Il If and lTO, for l

( (\) ven anti. trans in on, p ..170 own (7) It

r pr(:3pOS i1� ,

Attic forms begin to appear in 4uc"""ian inscriptions in the third B.C.; considerable Doric and in- fluence is also present, since Arcadian was surrounded by t11e

Vlest Gree], dialect. 1'he following inscription is from I;lantinea

datos fl"om the fifth centul"Y B.C. Note the ps ilos is in

') I c I with the it viould (hose01). Ocr2,OI; 00"£01 and 0 stand for and l'espectively, und the is pre- So 1') W

sent. TrE.. is a shortened form of TT£6� (peda, for Attic ;tt.T�

"with").

With whomever the condemns 01' by investigation ')\ / '-' '\ /." I ov c, Ocrf:OI av X P&1: ) €.

The inscription would ar in Attic as follows:

d '1\ I I 'lo\ I I a'll TO Xp't)

, , \ ,'2, � • OIl{Hc\S ___ TC!S _0 OVQ"as,,/ 8

':Phe ian branch of Arcado-Cyprian vIas 'written not In

Gl'eek t in a s ic 8 to bho :is lcmd .

The s Vfi-lS del' d from an iot

on, pp .. 17'7-178 (8 ) 15

extreme tLYlVJ:te • A vov:el 8

to tween tv/o adjacent consonants, since s no of re sent [l consor;nnt without attaching a vowel to it to fOl1n1 the " ,

;' in the example below, the word �ac:rIAeU$ () "king" is 9 written pa si Ie use. Between the vowel I and a succeeding vowel, a consonant equivalent to English was inserted (writ­ I ten 1 as in German .ia I; hence in the example I

In addition to its viriting system, Cyprian had other pe- culiarities, such as the occas ional use of � (x) in place of (g), the replacement of the preposition , ; 'f'upon' t with ,\ y '::'Tn U, the substitut10n of the forms (duvano) and for 6Ufa.vw &�JKW the present stem of cS(,!;Wf' "I give." The 11 out I of use after 300 B.C., c[hen the Attic 1<0171" spread to Cyprus.

The 1nscription beloYI tes from between 449 B.C., vihen the Athenians vfithdrew from Cyprus, and 391, ion (Ic1alium) lmitec1 vlith Citium. It consists of an ment

tVleen the city of J�dalion and the ician Onasilos for care of the wounded dur the siege of 110n by the and

Oitian8.

,/ \ I on:. "ral' 1TT6AI'�" 'E.5d.A101' KaTE. o te ta po to Ii ne e ta Ii 0 ne ka tefOPiOY vo 1'0 ko ne

\ , - I IV TOI I 1<0.') I

(9) This is of course, 8. tr8.nslj.teration s lables of s us iot s IE>

.1 o:VO -

lell pO ro se ka se pO to Ij� 88 e ta Ii e ve 8(:; a no ....

" / , ) , TOV OVCl!TIKV TOV yOV 'Ovt1(,.,AOV lTpOV Uc.t.- leo ne o na si no to no na si 1m po 1'0 ne to ni ja- 10 " \ \ I ,I, H:.. ]ao-eat p�V I�CIS IH1!TlyVC\.1"OS I te ra ne ae toTO,) se ka si ke ne to se i ja sa ts i

, ' , , � ,I , a.v, B TOS IV TOS porraS ,0.1 /"ctXal 1I(1ACl.- to se a to 1'0 po se to se i to. i ma ka i i ki ma-

, ,/ � &.vo'} Cl'Vc:.V f41

"ljlhen the city of Idalium Vias besieged by and Gitians.in the year of office of Philocyprus son of Onasagoras, King Stacicyprus and the city of Idalhull directed Onasilus son of Onasicyprus the ph;rsician and 10 his brothers to attend the men Ylol.U1ded in the fighting." (The remainder tells hoVi Onaailos Vias paid.)

at Greek divides int·o two major dialects, Northwest Groek and Doric, both having subdiviaions. Those of Northv!est Greek included Phocian, 111est Locrian and Elean. In the third century

B.C. the Aetolian league, an alLtance of city-states, produced

/ ., j , a A1 i nV.-" o·f 1';orc-, �h 3les' t l,ree � 1( prlnclpa y,1 or ClJ.p oma 1lC ",ur- I�OIV'l1' 11 " " 1 poses. Attic influence is detected in Phocian inscriptions as early as the middle of the fourth century B.C., but tbe North-

1 vlest KOIV71 persisted to the second century A.D.

In Northwest Greek, ex occurs in many cases "here other di-

t I � I alec ts have E, as in lC'pO) for 1 t..poS (hieros) "temple II and

Adverbs of place are formed with

,� " ratber than -au, as In for lJ'OU 11'lhere." T is retained be- -&1 rrl:,.l fore and not replaced by leading to such forms as I cr, OI�WTl for cSrOW!Tl

position af "ords of conditional Ber�ence at th£ a

is unique among thE) dialects; in Northwest 0-re one �f lnCts" 01,I T'S' �

on, lip. (10) 180-181 17

" / , I ,I , tead of 0.1 10:. ollo), tllV tic) [lnll (. KL TIl) TIS ( ITI)

" . . . Tb,is sion is prominent in inscriptions, vIhich are usual concerned with governmental

decrees �

The example below is from Delphl and dates from the fifth century B.C.; 11 [lnd Ware not present, but the dialect employed a represented by the letter !.:' which Vias e(lUiv�llent to the rOUGh breathing mark.

The wine not do carry from the track: if but ever

.... � TO I((X. To FO'VOY tAt. �pt:-..... 't:. U 5p6/'1o'u, 0.',' O&. one carries, let him appease the to whom ever .ptipe.l, hl}..o.f�CTTO T6veC.�-vhol 1<0: it is mixed and let him thoroughly sacrifice , , I

In Attic the above inscription would appear as follows:

\. 0"'\ ,,1 ,\ " I > , � � t.J( TOV ttl.V oc Tl5 Tov OIYOY fA" e'Vetl(� OpOfAOU. , ,?, I t.V�tl<'r')'l '1\0.\,0.:0-t\ " e. W TOV \ e' COY ur elY 1(t.pCl"'''''''V&ra.,

\ I \, I I I .I1CII fAt.ra.eUO-Cl.rw 1<<:<1 dnOTI

(11) Atldnson, 9.183

(12) oVin transla t ion 18

the dialect of Ar["olis; and that of the Dorlc :tS�LLL.llc\�", Crotog

ia The most distinctive of the Do- ric alects is Cretan. In this dialect tho form of the prepo- sition is is represented hy indicating t1o'lt lTpo'S lTqn{; A v, it had come to be pronounced far back in the mouth. Final <; is often assimilated into the firBt letter of the next word,

I , I as in TaB euyOil:-pClS (tath thugateras) for TOS Buyo,t.pa, II the daughters."

'fhe example of Doric presented below is from Argos, dating from about 500 B.C. No Attic rendering has been attempted; an

English translation must supply several vlOrds and rearrange this

Ciuaintly phrased document (or 80 it seems to us). In the first sentence, for example, the Vlords -a mag:ts, tra te being inquires --into mus t be inserted after if anyone; in the Gl'eek, of course, the

meaning would be clear duo to the inflections, but in English

the mus be changed to mal{e any sense. 'rhe symbol t � representing the rough breathing is used. I:iost of the words differ in spelling from the Attic; her po.x� (ha bola) "the coun- I c il" is '; J30UA-D (he ) in '"nc, TOV" I'pa(T(J"r'!l.TOY ( ton grass- � - maton) "of the bills" is (ton grammaton , and ,wvyparrarw" 'll - )

lTOn:.A�TO (potelato) "let it enf orce Ii would be rrpocrn:,A2.G"&TW (oros­

/ telosat5), a combination of "toward" and the imperative of npos

Tt.At.W "execute, comple 1113

Of treasures the ones of the Athena, if an;lone, either ,/ [e]�(TQVpSV [TOV] Tc1<; 01 TI) 'A BovClla, [f. the council the around Ariston, or the ones joining together, \ I TOllS TaJv �OA6.v '1lvJ QV

As near as I can (13) 1. e., "havj.ng" (14) or court or to laY! the 1)1118, cause .' .' A I e f. SII<.fITOITO f TOV ypacrcrl"'(J(TOY h'tVGI<(l of the deDos it or of the action of the as Gembly. let.hilll flee -' ,.. "',\ � , TCXS (1"0" , I«na et

'Aeavo.lav. "rJith regard to the treasures of Athonaoif any magistrate demands enquirY into the conduct of the council under the presidency -of l\riston or of the body of officers or of any other treasury official, or if any suit is entertained or brought by anyone because of the submission of the pro­ posals_or because of the action of the assembly, he shall be banished and his property confiscated to Athena. The council which is in office shall enforce this or be them­ selves liable to Athena."15

Atkinson believes that "generally spoaking, they (i.e. tho dialects ) wore not so far apart as to prevent the speakers of one group from u:nderstanding those of another without undue dif- 16 ficulty .11 The Attic poets seem to have considered Doric clialects "rougb and ridjoculousll; Arcadian Vias probably considered l"USt ic and Arcado-Cyprian seems to have tho rnost pecu- liar vocabulary, and an Athenian Vlould have found the dialect of

Crete difficult at first . W,"0 i _ t'n�l",Q. , h��O\fJever, < the situation sem:1S camparable to that the present-clay English-s peaking v:orlcl;

A Vermont farmer can converse, if he should care to, v'ith a native of Charleston, south Carolina, and a l'iclv:esterner can reael Burns or the Australian author Eevil Shute .

(15 ) Atkinson, p.190

(lE) ) Atkinson, p.196 J3! 0 FOT'rnat ion of

Attic becaJ:le the standard lit lanGuage of Greece in the fifth and fourth centurie.s G.C. ']'his classical Attic vias, hO'wever, language of the educated, was paralleled by a

I spoken Attic; the or world-language of the Eellenist1c I�OIV'll

was a natur[(l development of the spoken or vernacular At-

t1c, influenced by the other dialects and also by non-Greek

/ languages. 'fhe literary was a comprom1se betvleen the '(OIV"

spoken and the literary Attic. I

I . been types of basee on other dialects, such as the 1:orth- I(OIV" / 1 . Vies t 1<01"'11. I-io\vever, S l.nce Ii.,.,Cl1ens VIas literary center of

ITellen1c Greece, 1t was natural t Attic should assume

prominence. 11111e other dialects resist its influence blJ.t in

most cases eventually gave only the Doric of the agricul-

4-,-,ura1 com:�:lunl'CJ.es. H 0'f' -.Dfl,COn1.a seO.mB t 0 1�'laV0 SU'Vl\TJ�",.,.c,.f!.2J,. __Vv�

/ 'Cwo main causes brought KOIV'I'l Greek, based principally on

Attic, 1nto prom1nonce as a world-languago. first these

was the political situat10n of the Uediterranean world in the

several centuries precedinG the Christian era. conquests

of introduced Greek culture and language

trJroughollt a wide area in the eastern I'j�Bditerranean region, and

the subsequent conques t of Greece be.' brought Greek ci vtl1-

sation tnto the Dest. Roman Empir.e peoples of d5.-

verse nationalities, and a CQlT1ElOn found

these peoples were to Itve ther under one

See p. 16 (1)

(2) See p. 10 , 03 , could fulfil tho role of

a vlorld-lan8uage 0

The Gerrnanic lan[juages-- G8rt1an�" Dutch, :�nBl1.sh and the

Scandinavian tongues-- have moved farther apart, whereas the several Greek dialects fused into the t(OI'll�. 110 gre8.t conquer- or has 8.risen to unite 8.11 the Germanic-speaking oples,· as

Alexander did for the Greeks.

The second nain cause for the promi.nence of Greek was "the

intrinsic worth and greatness of itself ••,�h8.tever

the impetus given to the establisp.ment of the 18.11gU9.ge by Alex- ander, it could never have maintained itself vrere it not pos-

sessed of power and flexibility sufficient to Flake it acceptable

and accepted by the various races amonc; tihich it became estab-

lished,Il0 genius of Greek thinkors and Vlritere was such that

fttheir Vlorlc found a response In the human mind vJher'ever it came

to be known

, The 10(011111 es tabl itself as the language of everyday

life in Asia , C,rl'l'!ne, and other areas; it

\'Jas the of COfiUrrerce throughout the Graeco-Roman \'lOrld

and the of the , exe for the Roman

army which us Lat In places Greek side by 5 side with 10c8.1 languages. It was the of learning;

eks VJere the school te2\chers of , n:tlile both

Gre La tin YJ ere in the st, Gl'eek alone was

in the East.

Atkinson, p. (3) OD, (4) p.265 19:19-20-- "Pilato 0 a (5 ) it ,1Jesus of Nazareth, the

this t • for place cruc:t­ city; and it was wrlt I;fltln, Gre came tnto such 'Ill us e that Beven nntivAS COYlC(H'!wd to iT' OVIn trad:l t us od foY' PlJ.r pos 8, even address ing a na tive audience , and even v!hen us ing tho

6 na tive they frequently adapted forms mot ifs ."

'r he Bible , trans lated from the Hebrew , is the f01'e- most example ; it was prepared for the ,T ews outs ide Pales tine , mos t of vIham had adopted Greek as the ir spoken language .

Oulturally, Home came to be as much a of Gr eece as VI ere the nat ions of -the East . Homan literature on

Greek mode Is , and al though Homan Vir' i tel'S retained La tin, they used 8. large number of Gre words . Rhythmic verse may have entered La tin by way of Greek, having been a Semitic deve lop- ment . Homan Sene.te and imperial governors had decrees pub- lished in Gre ek; \"l ell-l(110V1D pass in speare 's Julius

Oaesar true to actual conditions , since e.l1 uc ated Homans

7 Gr eek. Paul , iI! vfI�it ing to the church at Rome , vJrote in

Gre ek, as did the 1'01' Me.rcus Aurelius in c (121-180 ) his Me ditat ions .

There VIas no violent bree.k between the Attic verne.cule.r and

/ the it became ; in develop:tng into a vJol")ld-language , how- 110lVTt eV!!lr , ie Greek a S01' of ications .. of

se were the rosult of the abs orption of other dialects .

Ionic influence in the KOIVr) is , for' example , the us e

(6 ) , }l oses , ;::E:.':e'..:::;==:.::.:t;:.i==-=-c Culture , p ,,45 Cicero say ('7) spoke Gre ek. vlhat effect? an I tell you t, I'll no 'er look you i' the fac those that toad him sr:iled at one another but f'o:[1 mine o\:'crn par·t , was to me . Ii 23

/-"OV- (non- ) te of thE! Attic �Tt.p- (ho1oer- ) "other

If "one -eyed . 'I'he influence of Eomer , Yi hose dialec t \"as Ionic , nay

I be respons ible for a num ber of vlords used in the 1<0IV1") . "ost

Groek is res pons ible for such forns as TrI�fW (piadzCi) for the

I Attic 'lTl&fW "press , squeeze", the use of (X in place of £. being a

characte ristic of that dialect . cPhe probable soft pronUl1clation

of f3,i Ijlnd S in the vernaculal' IH)fV� are mos t like ly due to Doric

inf luence; ljorthwes t Greek contributed, among other things , the

c" � I I ·l p ,,8 accus ativo plural eneang In -�s, as .en T�(f"uap&5 fol' T€'(l'"Uapas '�oul' .

and lal'ge , however, Attic prevailed over the other dialects •

. , Attic spelli.ng becamo tho standal'd , as in IAl.W$ (hileos ) "gl'ac ious ", > a - -lowS .

tine s l'eplaced those 1n as 1n 6f.IK'VDW for "ShOVI, -UIAI , �dl

out ." as point 'tJ appeal's often in place of the DOl'ic long a, In l O 11 pou'\" fol' & �oA� . At tic inflections generslly pl'evailed . I Some changes 1n the formation of the KOlv11 wel'e non-d lalect-

lc Y "'Jere necess because of the neVI role the

VI[1S coming to perform. At tic grarmnar was simp lifIed

� made less s tl'lct ir, the I

numbcr of , with the

-Twrra'V, was on crease . s of the l'ont

d ts ",v era in cons tant as sociatio:rj., as VIas the case \"lith the

S old:le rs of ! S , pl'onounced ctiSInS u:nintelli-

I;7ost of the terial present0c1 t point comes om (> I}l "" A G:r'?lmmar Gre iJ?8S tamen t - -- tor:tcaT Hesea·rch-,-pp.-61- 6b. . certain \v ords as GO";/ p"," A (see ) carried the s pe 11 :tnto the KOlvtl. p. (10) J If Ie to all Here •

Ie the new world-language could not be expected to mas ter all its subtleties . In bee D. cosmopo litan suited to the praetical affairs of life throughout the Gr eoco-Roman

/ vl orld, tho los t f 1ne dis t inc t ions of me anine 0 1<017/'1) " A lerge number of '1lords received nevI meall ings in tho K01V1j . (fUVCXiWi� ( silnagoge ), formerly "a coming-toge ther" er lta88embly" ,

came to 1';1e &n ltreligious me etingH , hence HS'Jrnagogue . n a:vClI

(anaklino ), formerly "lean (some thing) agains t" , 01' in the pass- , ive , "recline", became "recline at the me al!! , hence "dine ." �p w- Ttfw (erotao ), formerly "ask (a ques tion)", came also to meen

"ask (for somethins )" or "beg ." (1"Xo>'" (skhole ), formerly "lei­

sure time" , became "school ."

Some words undenient modifications in form . AU){v;'ov (lukhnion )

"lamp -stand" became AuJiv(CX in the I< OIV" , sender fron neu-

ter to feminine . "builcUng , habitation" be came Oll�O&Of-"�I"ux 011(00 0tA" , , / I / form the diminutive of Tt./(VOV "child!! , lost its <:rT1'JI

Although the Gre ek dialects dis appeared h; the period of

the , many cities of the terranean area developed char- I(OIV,]

acteristic manners of expl'essj.o:tl; se local variations were not , hewever, dialects , but be compared v(ith the s ch of

�ifferent cities in the 1)13 vi orld , such as Bes ton,

Br eoklyn, Ch:tc , Lendon, New Or leans or 1,:e Ibeurne •

Gr eek:1 for examp le , had its peculiar:Lti es , some of \'1 11ich VJ ere t110

< ( us e of of (XI the Ine plural nOl1iinative arti- 01 <1 c in lna for , ad Jectives -'I) l.l(!l(jT0'i toa ) tt eachlt , and the indicat ive in e of the 8ub,iunc tlve . purthep- mope , },�.elcu.uUl' inn manner was some\vh at uJ:lV! J.e ldy and capricious , as seen in such vl opd compounds as KCCT(l(VWTlr�I:.VOs (katanotidz:omenos )

"tupning al'ound agains t" , fpom l&IV (parasu(n )gGpaphein ) "to break contract with" , a combination of TTap� "from bes ide", ,"&v "tOGe ther vl ith" and yp& 4>I'-IV 11 t 0 VII'i te • "

, In extant examples of the vernacular 1<01%111 , many va1'iations are due to the diffe rence in education of the VIl'iteps , and to the ip porson8. 1 idiosyncracies . Ins cript ions , be ing usually gov- ernment decre es , e;ene rally have a more formal speech.

/ Ex isting side -by-s ide vl ith other lanGuages, the Greek 1<01"1"] Vias naturally subject to their influence . Italic , Ce ltic and

Germanic lane;uages exerted pressure from Vl es l; and north, but the principle non-Greek influences came from As ia ; inde ed , Alex- and el" " c"8.mpaign had sparked a vi ide spread fus ion of Greek and

As iatic cultures . Tlebrew influence , for example , can be o"s erve(l in the case of 1TlI&Uf'ACC (pneuma ), which oric;inally meant simply nO. blast of vl ind" ; .Jewish used it to express the Hebrew word ruah "wind" or "spir:i:c ll , and thus TrV£uf'At)(cam e to 111ean "sp1- rit" in a religious sense.

The widespread llse of Greek resulted in the deve lopment of linguistic scholarship . ""' he seat of Greek leal'ning in the period

/ of the KOI"7) Vias not but Alexa:ndria in ]�Gypt , and it vIas

the vihich sought to purge As ianisms from the

Greek Alexandr:tan pedants, after some indecis ion as which dialect was to be the standard, finally settled on to

the literary Attic , wh ich regarded as the t s :in deve of Gre ., revival resulted in an artificial literary out of touch with the spoken I{OIVrl, although the Atticis ts VIrote in the 1<01'11" period; it had little effect on the further development of the v01'nacular , VJhich became , Vi i th certain modifications , the Greek of today . One s ig­ nificant contribution of the Alexandrian school, hOViever, ViaS the introduction of the sys tem of accents , around 200 B.C. , as an aid to non-Greeks attemptinG to leo.rn the language .

Gr eek continued to be widely spoken in the eastern iter- ranean region af r the cl e cline of Rome and the breakup of the wes tern half of the empire . It vias the offic ial language of the

"W:6tlLJtine until the fall of' ium in 1453 . v. literature

ear cos of Gre tU.l"6 are the Homer- ic epics , the and the Odysney. They are tten, ly,

living of the island of in the ninth cen- tury B.C., although in a poetic, not conversational, style . 1' he dialect of Homer is Ionic mixed with Aeolic , though later editors inserted many Attic isms . 'l'he Homeric epics form the fOlL'1dation of Greek literature , and epics were written in imitation of Ho- mer after the everyday speech had changed, thus producing an artj.- f icial epic dialect. heaiod the 130etian farmer, who lived in the eighth century B.C., produced vlOrks in imitation of Homer.

The seventh century B.C. brought an outburst of lyric in the works of Alcman of Sparta, and Alcaeus who wrote

the Le sbian dialect, and . L;lr ic and elegaic po- etr'y continued strong into the sixth century . wrote in the

Attic dialect, of RhegiUlTI in Doric-epic , and ognis of

in the style of Homer and siod . The ognis wrete politi- cal opinions , for vlhich lyric verse is not we ll suited; hence the

for a prose style became apparent.

The firs t philosophers also wrote in verse . 'l'hales , Anaxi- mander and Anaximenes introduced new terminology into the Greek

; none of their works have survived, however . Philoso- phers continued to write in verse until the middle of the fifth century 13.C .; (1'1.500) and the Elea tics embodied their increas.Lng.LY abs t

The lyric tradition continued ; the lyr:icists are of 11 (fl.[ioO ), Simonides (1'1.510), '.re lesil1!l

(fl.510), Cor inna (1'1.500), .LlilOCrOon (fl .500) , r·"l , \..L .'"";,'; ;;;'0)- ( • EsC and , . Boe t (1'1 .. ) , ) ? om others in s of ex- ( 1 according to Atkins on, is al'ti- , &1 s , ficial upon Ae olic , Doric HomerJ.c elements . One important feature of his work is the creation of compound word.s , indicat ing that he had caught the spirit of the Greek language , that he knew to use it in vlays to which it Vias particularly adapted.

Meanwhile a Gree1\: preBe style had arisen; Hecataeus of Mi- le the his torian (f1.520 ) Vias one of the firs t prose writers .

The vi orks of in the middle of the fifth century B.C. mark the change from poetry to prose as the vehicle for philo- sophic thought . At about this time lyr ic poetry lost its prom-

inence in Greek literature and Vias replaced by and prose.

We k'1 oVI little about the spol(e n language from Homer to the fifth century B.C.; vie have only the . Linguist-

ic chango occurred between Homer and He siod, but from the time of

Hesiod there was simply the adaptation of the Gr eek language to

suit various literary purposes .

The close of the Pel'sian VJars , which occupied the firs t quar-

tel' of the fifth century B.C., ushered in the Golden of Athe - nian culture . Drama had arisen in the sixth centlJ.ry but became

prominent in the fifth. Aes chylus (.525-456 B.C.) marks the he ight

of' Greek ; his language is far removed from speech

and s of failed to catch the

emotional t, ac to

Oll , would have been t. (496?-406 B.C.) car-

r on the ition of Ae senvJ..Lucl, btlt re on plot and action

p.219 ( 1 ) foT' his ct, s as compared

Aes In the s of c oven farther ; in his YJorks there is no ideal world , as in Aes- chylus , but the real world of his audience . After Euripedes , tragedy lingered on in a few minor writers and finally died out around 380 B.C.

"Perhaps there was suffic ient tragedy in real life ," remarks

Atkinson, "from which alone could provide relief .,, 2 Comedy at Athens increased in importance from the time of its introduc - tion in the first half of the sixth century B.C., but unfortunate-

little of the work of earlier comedy writers has been preserved . Iv�" , ..-

Comedy gives a better indication of the nature of everyday speech than does tragedy. "Course language , which is a frequent occur-

rence in comedy , is •••of great linguistic value , as obscene or semi-obs cene often long to the oldest stratum in a lanl3uage,

the u8e by the comic poets bec omes a factor of im- portance in the etymological study of the whole of the Indo-Europ­ ean family.,, 3 Arist ophanes (448?-380? B.C.) is the chief of the

Greek comedy writ'lrs ; l:lis :!jchool'maintained itself till 380 B.C.

TheJ;'e is a difference in subject matter between Qr.l'eek prose and verse; the former was thought fit only for practical subjects , the latter being the vehicle of idealistic thoughts. lIenee there is also a difference in vocabulary. Heraclitus , atest of the

Ionian school of' philosophers , Virote in prose around 500 B.C. :£'he hist orian (fl ) vias the master st wrote in style b'ised on predecessors . In a 11

(2) p.240 30

t his is SlEJ'PlJo and s , but h-is history canno t this 8 licity . (471?-

400? B.O.) flourished about twenty years after Herodotus . He wrote in the Attic dialect, but since his predecessor historians

Viere Ionic writers his style retains many Ionicisms . His sentences are somewhat clumsy.

'l'urning to , (5001-428 B.O.) used the same literary Ionic as Herodotus . Only a few fragments of the work of are extant . (460?-377? B.C.) was the first great medical Vlri tel' of Greece , and a large collection of literature has been falsely ascribed to him. The dialect of his authentic Vlr itings is similar to that of Herodotus . Hippo- crates later me dical writers developed medical terminology through the use of compounds , new stem-formations or ordinary words in a technical sense.

One of the most popular of all Greek prose vlr iters is Xeno- phon (434 ?-355? ,B. 0.), viho wrote in the Attic dialect. Ana - basis contains some of the simplest language in all Greek litera- ture, and has been widely read by students of Greek . Memo irs of Socrates is not as simple .

The orators of Athens produced prose from 440 to 320 B.C.

Antipho (4801-411 was the first of the great orators and 13.0.) a contemporary of Eur Thirty later came Lys ias

(4501-:5801 B.O.), considered in antiquity the producer of the purest tic oratorical prose . Isocrates ( B.O .)

Isaeus followed. most popular of orators \VUS Demos

( ?-322 B.C.), who produced balanced sentences, mOl'e oom- 31

those of his predecessors . orators as a have a continually flowing s in tho pure Attic dialect, both be ing neces due to the nature and role of oratory in Athens

the troubled years of its decline as a political power .

The high point in Greek philosophic literature Vias reached

with Plato ( ?-347 B. C .. ).. dialogues refle ct the actual conversational style of the times , indicating the widespread use of particles and their accompanying stures , unbroken flow of speech . Though Plato has no learned style , he uses or-

<:'r " in technical senses , such as £.IOOS an appearance, visual image ", v:hich he used in the sense of "class, sort", or q,ux,f (psiikhe )."l ife force", which he employed to mean 11 soul" or

"spirit (o f a man )." Plato 's successor -322 B.C. ) ( has a "terse and difficult" style , and he no attempt at flowery or oratorical languageo

/ T'he beginning of the I

the period.,,4

writers of the NeVI Comedy, be \v ith mellal.lU er ( 291 B.O.), such as of (flo ) and

ts of II .. 0 .. ) are o

deve scientific and mathemat

vr:cit 1-212 B .. C .. ), v!h ile in Doric (

(4) , p.48 32.

Sic ref ct ic s s • the lect , Lt

the sec B.C .. , a ive oi' Pe ,

/ vJrote a tory of Rome the Attic KOI 'V 11; h'",,:1.3 resc:nn-

a New ,[' eatament more than it does that of 1' hucy- dides or Plato. Dionysiu8 of Halicarnassus (fl.30 B.C.) and

Diordus Siculus (fl.8 B.C.) wrote in an oratorical style , while

Strabo the ge ographer (63 B.C.?-24 A.D.?) Vlrote in a stylo -for the gonoral public .

come noVi to the two bodios of / literature most cl080- 1(01"11 ly related to tho speech of the common people of the Graeco-Reman world in the ; the and the papyri .

Four linguistic traditions flov! into the New Testament . (1) the mos t prominent is probably that of the Septuagint , apart fror;J which the NevI 1' estament v/Oulcl havo been largely unintelligible , However, unlll(8 Septuagint , the Hev, ,Peatame nt is a originally con- ce in Gre , not , He braisTma do oc cur .. Luke

1;5-2:38, containing the story of births of .r ohn the Baptist and ,Josus , is a notable ic-flavored 80ction; possibly Luke hoard the s told by one whose native tongue Vias , the

o" eve of Palestinian .Tevis , (2) Tho s of the t- orian8 is important Lujze -Acts, and the proface to the gospel is worthy of the great orators the period 1n 1ts smoothly floV/-

style , 1n sense of cre£tt force , 1s

of NeYI Te stamen t , ) of (3 Gre el{ o fou_nd an o'ut 1n the New Testament .

/ ljIuX11 , to , o A8l' pt al in the New Tes tament . Other words of th1s t;1Po are

recent led s that of the first

(0) See p. 31 33

, s to Hle an [lson , n in , C t::t1':10 and s tamc:nt; a.px,f ,

t causeH ; H, which came

arunceH as to tance of an

, \ ' c such as as 'J embly" , later "church " , and &tlKI\1'IQ"lct 0 I ,I ailol (hoi hagioi) "the holy ones ", later, "the saints", ac technical meanings for the first t in tho New Tos tament . (4) spoken language of the opla figures pI'or:linent in the composi- tion of the '}ieYI Test ; early , the authors receivers of the I-Ze\v i].\3stament 12ritin8s , were not rally of the educated classes , but were !!len of practical affairs .

The most literary of the vlritings found in the !{ew Tes l�al! are those of Luke , cOlnpr is ing Gospel nhich his name (lnd its continuation, the Acts of Apostles . tlon it that

was a ic , and presence of me dical terms and

st shovm .Tesus ! miracles of he aling in Luke !s I seem to support graceful style has been to; the Ion is from the story of birth of Je sus . A careful historian, Luke takes pains to relate

the event to contempor'ary l"\ t •

nappened in the those ywnt out > , t-v TatS 1)"'�P'US t:IH:.IVQI5 ���t\e!.v from Augus tus to be enrolled all the � \ Iure(U T1")V inhabited (world); (this enrollment first happened ,/ d . ( '\ .J... / ,f ,"/ oll ) were going all to led, each one unto

all

of �Tohn , 1:1'18 three c 1

tters , style 9 �rhe language is extremely simple and the vocabularly l:l:mited therefore re- petitive . ye t it is ;John above all the other New 'Te stament writers who stands in the tradition of the philosophical au':" thors ; indeed, it would iC1),1t to imagine a more prefeurl d book in simpler language than Gospel JO]:>Jl . The follo'VJ- ing example , the opening of the Gos pe 1, is perhaps an case, but will give a good indication of what the rest of the

is like .

In beginning Vias the VJord, and the vIard was toward the < , < , , o I-(ct I 1)v 'r01l lv apXf, 11V )..,6ioS, 0 AOi05 rrpos God God was the word. This one VIas in beginning -' , < , et.ov, KClI et. Os �v 0 )..6.r05 . OOTOS .Ji}v 'C:II apxii toward God .. All throurrh him be c ame , , / 6'-' ,," TOv Tfa'VTO- I' aUTOO") -rrpos et-6l1. ty'iV'f-TO) KCI} from him became not on0 thing o 'I .... ,,I d auro!} !:.1l:'P£TO oM;' &V . "In the be VIas the VJ ord, the lIord Vi as w God , the Viord was God . He Vi as in the beginning \,l ith God ; all things were through him, and without him VJaS not

anything W,"U<;:i•••

In his use of the nord A6iO� .J ohn has gone beyond the philos 0-

, e "prine H of with liv son ,

No tViO S c more than e of

, Paul 's is s he exhaus t of speech to him, but he OVln as he 80es . Ho

(7) Luke 2: (RSV ) (8) 1:1-3 (RSV ) 35'

Testament -\iv r iter can c po 12.1' t

Vf r:t t (I i/ioreovcr, of-ten s out Vi v: hich the or supply ; e from the t that he c1 ietnted his to a seere , some t in te o Sentences liko

follow are not unc omrllon:

A door for to me has opened great and active , and , , , , , , Bopa. yap lAol aV'&r.:!if.V IAt'(cH'11 (Cl.1 f:Vl.piTJS, 1<0.1 adversaries many . b.VT 11<(,1fAt 'llOI no>-AOI. "POl' a wide door for effectivtl work has opened to me , and there are many adversaries ."v

More typical is the example be low , which illustrates Paul 's ar- gumentative manner:

If and Ghrist is preached that out of dead he vms rais , '" ,I , !Jtni'l:,. T <:1.1 OTI ILK E i Si. Xp1fTT65 K 1')P 1'£'KPWV r.y�y&pTal, are s among you some that resurrection of· dead , c. '" , " , I � '£. v IV TIVl:$ ,OTI 'WaO"TCl

not is ?• If but resurrection of dead not is , ne ither " "I , ,1 , r' OVI(

Of the other New Testament vl ritel's , ment ion should of the author of' Re velation to ,John , Vias not tho same as the of Gas tors . contains 1 I; irregularit , indicat that its was none; too fami with rules of Greek grammar . Irregularities of' con-

(9) I Cor 16:9 (RSV)

(10) I Cor -lt1 ( ) , A / \ are as VIKWV ClUTO'>' who c , 0 'lfOlll!l'"W

\ 11 C , I ill make hin1 a pillar (accusat . ( ) ) �rhe various parts of the New 1J.1 estament VJ ere cor;rposed between

50 A.D., the per of Paul's first le tters , 150. The most important had appeared by 110 . The NeVI Te stament formed a base for the writings of the , netably ,T us tin 1,,13.1'- tyr (lOO?-l65 ?) and (185 1-254? ). The former possessed a style reminiscent of the New 'r estament in its directness and vi- tality, vJ hile the style of Or igen harks back to Ar istotle in its complexity and lack of spantane ity.

The papYl' i form one of the mos t interesting bodies of liter- ature surviving from the anc ient vlOrld, and al'e valuable from a linguistic standpoint . These everyday documents, pl'e served in the dry Egyptian climate , were vl ritten by all sorts of men, from government officials to farm hands . Private letters among the papyri exhibit differences in spelling , according to the education of the writers , and show that many expressions in the New Te sta- ment are stock phrases used by all le tter-writers .

'rhe papyri were produced during a thousand�year period from

300 B.C. to 700 A.D. They illus trate the natural changes which

/ were to transform the 1<0111'1') of the He llenistic into modern

Greek . Some of these changes were the use of for E

cone this sect with several from

papyri", The t of these from or 141 B.C. , and con-

sists of a tter of introduction written by a bus sman

(11) Reve .3:12

( l'�\\ )\ 37

has sent to transact re , been 80me sort

iness (0

Po to Philoxenos gre et If vou are V1811 and ., '''"I I , &1 £.ppW

i7l ' U1 , o.(Y1"JlS. tpPWITO. 1J'TOVij I(9' CPal'u:,'V��] . "Po lykrates to greeting. If you are things general aro go right, j.t will as we sire . As those things we wished, we have sent to you who is personally attached to us to consult you . Please therefore give him a hearing, in8 t1'uo t him oon- oerning those things he has come about . But above all take cape of you1'self that you may be in health . Goodbye . 29th year , Phamenoth .1! lo

The "29th ye ar" referre d to is either that of Philometo1', 152

B.C. , or Energetes II, 141 B.C . The vI ord '(t5lO'V"o wn" used to mean favn�v 1! ours" Vias in common usage ; New Tos tament parallels are found in Matthew 22 :5, I Corinthians 7:2, and I '1'he 88alonians 2:14 .

letter of introduction is comr:1on in the NeVi Testament ; Romans

16 :1-2 , I Corinthians 16 : 10-12, and Ephesians 6:21-22 are examples .

The following itation to dinner, dating from

(13) Milligan, orge , �t�i�o=n�s from � Greek Papyri, pp . 24 the sec A.D ..

'' In the of Claudius ionll , "in the house of Claudius

, , is parallelled in the lieVi '['e stament in 2 :49, £1-'

� � I TOI� TOU 1TOTPOS /Aov "in the of the father of me ", , "in father1s house."

Asks you fu�tonius to ptolemaios to dine by him unto 'EpWT? In:. 'AVTW'VIO(�J 1TTOAf-�IOI] OITT'VlJ(I"[a� lTap'aOTwl t.lS

cOUfh of the lord Sere.pis in the of Claudius Serapion I(A&I"1)'V TOO I'GlVcSE0/) ] :lapOlT'W(VDfl on the 16 fr om h)'U1" 9. Ti)l IS' lmo �pG\'i e! "Antonius , son of Ptolemaeus , invites you to dine with him at the table of the lord Serapis in the house of Claudius Serapion on the 16th at 9 o'clock. a14

The "9 o'clock" referred to would have been 3 p.m.; the "couch" in the interlinear trans lation has been rendered as "table" by

]\'ulligan, but in the Graeco-Roman world one reclined at a banquet .

One final example of the papyri Vl ill be given in an English translation ; it cons ists of a le tter from a schoolboy to his fa-

> ther . In the Greek vel'S ion the doul)le, nega t i ve / oc curs ; 00 f-A'I'J the effect of this is simply to strengthen the expression , mak- ing it "certainly not" rather than simply "not ." The double

ive is common in the New Testament , espec in let-

of

"Theon to '[' he on his , tine; . You did a fine t You not ta}:en me along Viith you to the c to take me along v/ ith you to , letter, or s to you, or wish do go to , I won't take eforth ", you refuse to t t a ones , , you s

) , p .. If 't eat , f)"11 noy! t I for I

preserved in the papyri inc lude a letter hir-

girls ( A.D. ) , (l complaint ag;a�.ns t (l pries t (159 -

160 (l pub lic notice disclaiming the debts incurred (l A.D. ) , 1uayvlard son first or second centuries A.D. ), (In erder te return (

home for the census (104 A.D. , the report of a law suit (49 A.D. ), )

a marriage contract (170 A.D.), (lnd (In early Christian letter

four th century ) from one .Justinius to certain Papnuthius . A ( (l

mos t interest dOCLUlle nt cons is ts of a certif icate of membel'ship

in the Worshipful Gymnas tic Club of Nomads , presented to the boxer

Herminius on the occas ion of the forty-ninth perfOl�mance of the

fi\AV.V3stan Games , 22, 194 A.D. ; enc108 \J1,th the c81"'ti-

ficate is a letter from 1'01' '1'ibe1'iu8 P.C .-�57 A.D. ) (42

a gift of a crown the Club had ented

to upon his victor;7 in Br itain.

(15 ) 4D

VI. Gr eek in Engl ish

Of all the non-Germanic Indo -ELU' opean languages only Latin can claim a greater influence in English than Greek. La tin re- mained the language of the Church after the fall of the Homan

Empire in the West; it became the international language of

commerce , diplomacy and learning for western Europe , as the

/ Greek had been for the Graeco -Homan world in the heyday KOIVT]

of the . Latin was thus in direct contact vl ith

English in the early stages of the latter 's development , and

large numbers of Latin words have entered English either direct­

ly or indirectly through F'rench, a Lat in-based tongue .

Gr eek did not come into direct contact vl ith English until

the time of the Henaissance , which brought a revival of Greek

learning and literature ; since that time , however, English has

borroVled Gr eek words on a large scale . Usually these borrowed words are Latinized, both by transliteration from the Gre 0.1-

phabet and by substitution of Latin inflectional endings . K be-

comes c, as i n acaCla. 100 1' 0.1<0.1< , ,10( ; GIl be comes ae, becomes ch, X

u usually becomes y, and the ending -0, be c omes -us , as in Aes­

, " \ chylus for i6\(f"XUIIOS; ou becomes u and £( becomes .:!) O( becomes oe , / and final become s as in amoeba for in certain -1'\ -� , O!"OI�1\ ;

cases becomes v, and before 1<, ,or becomes vlh ile u y y, � X E, , I \ final -oY becomes as in evangelium for "gospel." -� , LIJGl.Y"(&A(O'V

Most words of Greek origin in the English language are com-

binations of two ,or more Greek words ; mos t of these comb inations

diet not exist as such ih the original Greek but were formed upon

incorporation into Lat in, English or wha tever language the new

WOI'd is entering . Such words are imUcated by an as tEl1�i8k in the 41

followin8 discussion . liiol'e over, Greek elements have often been combined with Lat in or Hords of other languages; such CO]1l- binations are called hybrids , and are indicated here by a double asterisk. The formation of hybrids from Greek and La tin elements

is not difficult , since the two languages are closely related, and have more words in common than either one has with, say, Ge r- man , or any other branch of the Indo -Eul'opean family .

In the va st maj ority of cases a Greek Vlord borrowed by Eng-

lish had already been derived from an older word in the original

Greek. 'f hrough the use of various su.ffixes nouns can be made from

.- verbs , and verbs from nouns . The verb rpcul>w 11 I write II , for exam- ple, gives rise to the noun I'P�r-f"(lC "letter" , vlhich in turn gives rise to the noun ypar-I"OoT�6S "secretary, scribe" , from v1h ich is de - / rived a verb YP (lCr't4C1Tt:.uw" to be a secretary" ; from the plural of yporro. comes the ad ,jective ipo.t-'t"OCTIK6s "knovIing one's letters ",

/ from which arises the vel'b 1pott-'I"OoTIK/:.U 0I"QI "to be a gralml1arian" ; als o from yp¢.fW arise the nouns 1pa.CP,)' "a drawing , a Ylriting" and 1po.l"r� "a line" , plus the ad jectives YPQlTT� "marked as with let­ ters" and 1PClII<6s "capable of painting" or "suitable for writing ."

What is most important as far as English is concerned is the com­ bining form of 1P�+W' which is -ypo.<\>IOC"- graphy" , a widely-used

form as will be evident from the examples presented below . For

this we will not attempt to trace the Greek elements in

English back to the ir origInal sources ; VIe will content ourse lves

Vii th reference to the nearest Gr eek equivalent , t from which

the English word is immediately derived.

Some words of Greek origin have long and involved .

"The noun chllrtes [?<6.pTTJSJ 'she et of papy-rus ' (the anc ient Vlriti ng

paper ) is interest for the varie of its development in li8h . It Vias borrowed by Lat in in tho form charta (cf.

Charta ). 'J.' he Lat in wOl'd passed through French te become the

English chart , and through Italian and Prench to produce the doublet card . A Latin diminutive chartula entered Engl ish through Old French to yield charter, and through Italian and

Prench to yield cartel . Other prench and Italian derivatives of the word developed into carton and its doublet cartoon . An Ital- ian derivative cartoccio entered English through French to fOl' m cartouche , an architectur al and archaeological term . A corrup- tion of cartouche produced a doublet , the more familiar word

11 1 cartridge . 1'hus the influence of Gr eek upon Englj.sh is a geod deal larger than it appears at first glance .

Of any particular body of words in the English language , probably centains the largest number of forms derivod from Greek, and the number of such words increases almost daily as neVi biological species are catalogued, new chem-

icals developed, and new techniques perfected. Nybakken lists about 885 Greek words from which approximately four thousand com­

2 binat i ons are derived. Religion is another area in which Greek words figure prominently ; Greek was the language of the early

Christ ian church and of the New 1' e stament writers .

The remainder of this section is devoted to a listing of

some English words of Greek or igin, organized in various cate-

gories . 1' he list is by no moans exhaustive , but attempts to

S13rve as an introduc tion to the Greek in English.

1. Words taken directly from Gr eek vJ ith no change except transliteration

(1 ) Burriss , Eli E. and Casson, Lionel, Lat in and Gr eek in Current Us e, pp . 200-201

(2) Nybakken, Os car E., Gr eek and Latin in Scientific 'rermin­ ology, pp . 148-223 " , \l foothold" -- bas

"opinion" , "d60ree "-- do ma b6it"0l g �)(c,{, "" -- echo

6u1S "a placing" -- thesis lbior Il idea" -- idea k>,,(/,,(1� "ladd6r"-- climax

l{bcr/"oS "world" -- cosmos

I "w i tnes s" -- tAapTvp 'IT�B05 "passion, emotion" -- pathos

Cl"1(f.Az"T671 "dried-up"-- skeleton

cp�pu1'� "throat " __ pharynx

XboS "void, first state of ths universell-- chaos / Xapal

2. Words slightly changed, usually due to La tinization

(/1 1&A05 "mes enger"-- ange� ?"r'0l�� "change " -- amoeba

I 1u/"VCA.crIOY "gyrrmas ium" -- g;'lmnasium O(

<:r4>cdpoC "ball" -- sphere

,I u/"VO$ Ilhynm" --

.pv>"OY "1'ace , tribe " __ phylum

3. derived from Greek VJords

�o"o:v" "plant"-- botany

"tongue"-- glossary iAIf.JIjIj<1.

LKI

/

- - lTP&<1VT1")S " Presbyterian ()"XOA� " isure time"-- school

4. Vlord combinations of Greek origin

1�t:.cp"A" "head" . lfOUS , lToc56S "foot" -- cephalopoda"

, .1 1fA OTVS "flat", 'LA, f'AllIS, ./t:."fAI1Ie� OS "worm" -- platyhe lminth1< I "wise" , "foolish" -- sophomore" t-'IilPO$ "friend , lover" , (l"Otj>rd "" -- philos ophy

5. Greek words widely used in forminc; compounds , us ing their combininc; forms as the first element of the new word

o.�rc5s "he , self, same" , combining form aOTo- "auto-" :

with f$(O') 0 'life" and -ypacp{o.. "a writ inc;" -- "

with - oS "writer , ins trument for wr itinc;"-- autoc;raph" iPb.q, with Latin mobilis "able to move"-- automobile''''

with -71oJAfex "law, principle"-- aut onomy

T"l)AE- "far off" , combininc; form "tele-" :

I with iPCLJAf'Cl. "letter" -- telegram" I with (}I

I wi th trueo) "feelinc;, emotion" -- telepa thyl' with .pW1l� ll " -- telephone?'

.1 c "" , combininc; form "hydro-" : vowp 0,sp o- with Latinocarbo "coal" -- hydrocarbon;Hf

' ' ,/ \ 'I 1t " Vl l t n ""t.I�TpOV 'amber -- hydroelectric" wi th cp6j305 , combining form -¢Of5�a: "fear" -- hydrophobia

6. Greek words 1i1idely used in forming compounds , us ing their combining forms as the second element of the nevI vlOrd

I tI , combining form -YP"

I Viith 131PAI0 71 ll book" -- bibliography / Vi

/ with Torr.oS "place"-- topography

t"\ / " with cpws,

with (;{plcrros tlbea t"-- aria tocracy , I with o.

with l? rench bureau "desk" -- bureaucratoH'

with ';�!-,05 "pe ople" --

>with IT"Aoiho,) "wealth"-- plutocrat·),

"word, pI' inc iple", comb ining form -logy" , c 01- A6io� -'\0tra !t 11 lection of k- nowledge" :

u ,. Vii th o.'VepwTT05 "man" -- " I with /31.0$ "manner of living" -- biology" / : with II earth" -- olo t· 1'1') ge g with !-'0P'MI" I "shape "-- ",. / with "God" -- 6&05

with La tin socius "companionn -- ""

'" with Xp�05 "time "-- chronology

Viith o/u)(" "life force , soul" -- psychology"

I >' v0tl0S "law , cus tom" , combining form -VOfL'o. "-nomy" :

with �a-TP0'jl "the s tars \I -- as tronomy

/ vd th "second" -- Deuteronomy �!'Ul&'pO� with T6il) "order , arrangement "-- taxonomy"

CPW1'1) II vo ice" :

, with "small" -- microphone" ","(paS v,r ith La tin radius 11

vdth (A. J. inventor )-- saxophone?H:> Sax Sax , 46

7. and other -words COl1x;l only used as pre - fixe s

O�I, .1/ "both, both sides , I wi th �l 05 "manner of living"'-- amphibian

I with 6t.ClTpW It "-- amphitheatre b-, b:v- lI not , withoutll :

VIi th p.op

• ,1 I vn th ClpXW ' , I rule" , combining form -apXt

.. / l' ''''lin . oppos i'1;e, agalns. t" :

with English aircraft-- antiaircraft,H:-

with e&

with

2:.1<,sa me as L8.tin � "out of, away from" , "formerly" : with A&(rrw "I leavo "-- eclipse

vlith (T"Tc;erl,) "standing , position"-- ecstacy

&(.1-, "'we ll , good." ·:

/ vl ith -(1-'7/0) "family" , "birth"-- " with )vf.."o,) "Vlord" , combining form -AOl'IOC "_logy" __ eulogy

vl ith

with 'A6ios llword, list1l -- catalogue

Vi Averl'; ll a loosingll -- catalys is

with c/ "who le "-- oAO'>

/ II form , semblance "-- metamorphos is !-"oP

with English film-- microfilm,Hf

with I�O'(/'�OS "worldll -- microcosmos':'·

" with cnd�lToS 11161tchor , obs ervor" -- micros cope';·

",6'1105 "ono ", combining forms I"'0V- "mon_" and tA0vo- "mono-II :

wi th ACrOS "word , saying" -- monologue;f

with English rail, from Latin regula-- monorail,Hf

� TIel'; "all" , combining form TIO'll- "pan_" :

wi th American-- Pan-American'''f

with 8�6S "godlt -- pantheon

.1 with opo/",a. "sight, spectaclelt -- panorama"·

1Tap� IIbeside , beyondlt : " Viith 1pacpw 1I I write It -- paragraph

with psychology-- "·

It 110'\65 "much, many" , combining form lToAv- " poly- :

with -(c:.ro,) "marriage " -- polygamous·;;·

with -(w-,l-a. ""-- polygon

" with -r,j.,".... "11 "voice ", comb ining form -Twv\«x..,' It _phony" _- polYfbonY'".

" npo , same as Lat in pro "bef ore " : I with A0105 "WOl'd"-- prologue / with "tent lt-- proscenium <:I'"K'rJ'""" TT'P�T05 "first", combining form irpWTO-lI proto-ll : " with 1TAil�ac"formll -- protoplasm

' vi i th T,slTOS "model, t;:lpe" -- prototype"

with o.lW1'� "a brinGing , a leadingll --

I I with JAtTPO'P "mmsure" , comb ining farm-fA 2..Tfll!lI-metryll- symme tTy

with ei

with ethyl , from "ether"-- tetl'ae thyl'" ell'8 'l)P/ ,- wi th tJ-&TpO"Y "measlu' e" - tetrameter" < / "over, above , beyond 1l : V"lTt.p

with I

Vlith sensetive , from Lat in sensus -- bypersensetiveiH:.

�rr6 "under , below" :

with .5�p,..\C� "skin" -- hypodermic':

with Xbv.5po) "cartilage , breast bone " __ hypochondr iac':'

8. Noun-forming suffixes with noun or ad jective bases com­ monly used in English

-&IOV "-eum" , signifying "place for" :

with "li1us e"- - mus eum MOUG""Gt

with Mozart-- Mozarteu.lJ1"''' (in Salzburg )

/ - 1 0: forming an abstract noun

(many examples in 6. above )

-1 (TfA6� "-ism" , denoting "belief in, doctrine of, character­ istic of't , and-l

) I •. with "not" and "God"-- atheism'; athe is t" 01:- eGOS ,Y, ,:" with Latin capitalis "of the head"-- capitalism';"capitalist'.,'""

, ( " vi ith IO&c.t. plus in -ali8 "suitable for, per� �j.ning to:-::- , .... , ldealism-:; " idea1is t

wlth I(I;;'I(AOS "circle , 1" __ cyclist"

with �,6-Af.I

vi ith Lat in 80ciali8 lI c ompanionable , soci0.1 "-­ soc

lI inho.bito.nt of, one as soc iated minerals:

with .50-VClJAI<; "powerll -- dynami te'-'"

with Wienno (Menno Simons , founder lle nnoni teo'"" 1-- with Denver' -- " -ITlf) H-it I! , t lon of" :

1 va, th , It ,joint ll ... - arthritis';:- o.pe p OY

9. Nov_'l.-f orming suffixes with verb bases

-

with oiptw "choose, select"-- heresy , \ I with QVQ I\VW "loose, break up "-- analys is

• ·'1 with Ilto set, place!! , stem thesis Tt611fA' eE. -- I -TlJ PIOY, similar to Lat in -torhun, "place for" , "act of II :

with l

with l

10 . Ad jective-forming suffixes with noun br bases

1 "-ic", signifying "pertaining to, belonging to" : -IKo5 with I,at in Germanus -- Germanic"" :'

; wi th CPU

(Very often this suffix is combined with -ist in 8. a­ bove, resulting in such forms as socialistTC; atheistic .)

, r ,1 . , ., -O£I "-oid" , from "form" , lnC1. l.Cat :.Lng' II I l_{e' ) , resembl me;' ". � Ol\� &IOOS , .I with ClIITT'l')P "star"-- asteroid"

with Latin humanus "human" -- humanoid""

11. Ad jective-forming suff ix with vel'b bases

I -TI 1(0<; "-tictI , denot IIfit for, able to, pertaining to" :

th "to a sign, signify" -- semantic"

12. Verb-fv�'lU-'-H6 rdth no em, or ad ject bases

-(�w "-ize" , incl "te Ii :; ll t o subject li , te ac t with" :

':';: with Diesel (Rudolf Diesel, inventor )-- dieselize ­

/ : with IA,!)X01l1) "machine \! -- mechanize':- ?' with phllosophy-- philosophize

,H< with Lat in vapor "vapor\! -- vaporize Arndt , ':\filliam F. and Gingrich , F. Yl ilbur , A Greek-English Lexicon of the New 'I' estament (Chicago : Unive rsity of' Chi­ cago pre;; , 195�

Atkins on, Bas il F. C., '17 he Gr eek Language (London : Faber and Faber, 1933 )

Burriss, Eli E. and Casson, Lionel, Lat in and Greek in Current Us e (New York: Prentice Hal l, 1940)

Chadwick, John, The Decipherment of (NevI York: Random House, 1958)

Dana , H. E. and lEantey, Julius R., A Manual Gra=ar of the Greek New Testament (NeVI York: lilacmillan , 1959 ) Encyclopedia Britallilica (Chicago : Encyclopedia Br italli�ica, 1956 ), Volume 10, "The Greek Language" by Frederick Henry IJarshall

Hadas , Mos es , He llenistic Culture (Kornings ide He ights : Columb ia University Press , 1959 )

Liddell, Henry George and Scott , Hobert , A Gre ek-English Lexicon (New York: Alnorican Book Co ., 1897)

Liddell, Henry George and Scott, Robert, An Intermediate Greek­ English Lexicon (New York: American Bo Co ., n.d. )

Mul ligan, George , Selections from the Greek Papyri (Cambr idge : Crun bridge Un ivers ity Press, 1910)

Nybakken, Oscar E., Greek and La tin in Scientific Terminology (Ames : Iowa S tate College Pres s, 1959 )

Hobertson, A. T., A Grammar of the Greek NeVi Testament in the Light of torical Resea;Qh (Hew York7Iioran, 191,5)---

We stcott, Brooke Foss and Hort , Penton John Anthony, The New Testament .!:� the Original Gr eek (Kew York : ],la cmillan, 1956 )

Wh ibley, Leonard, A Companion to Greek Studies (Cambridge : Cambridge Univers ity .P ress , 1931)