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Home , Bent Pyramid, Hawara, History of architecture, Khasekhemwy, Lisht, Meidum

ZA HI HAWASS EDITED BY Secretary General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities and Director of the Excavations

PROJECT EDITORS Laura Accomazzo Valeria Manferto De Fabianis

GRAPHIC DESICN Paola Piacco

WHITE STAR PUBLISHERS THE TREASURES OF THE PYRAMIDS Contents

INTRODUCTION Page 5 CHAPTER 8 by H.E. Mrs. Suzanne Mubarak THE ROYAL MORTUARY ENCLOSURES OF ABYDOS AND HIERAKONPOLIS by Matthew Adams and O'Connor Page 78 THE PYRAMIDS Page 12 by Zahi Hawass CHAPTER 9 THE STEP PYRAMIDS CHRONOLOGY Page is by Ali Radwan Page 86 CHAPTER I CHAPTER 10 WHY A ? PYRAMID RELIGION THE PYRAMIDS OF THE FOURTH DYNASTY by James P. Allen Page 22 by Rainer Stadelmann Page 112

CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER \ \ THE QUEENS' PYRAMIDS OF THE FOURTH DYNASTY AT GIZA THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE PYRAMID by Zahi Hawass Page 138 by Vassil Dobrev Page 28 CHAPTER 12 CHAPTER 3 THE SATELLITE PYRAMID OF AN OLD KINGDOM PYRAMID by Zahi Hawass Page 150 by Mark Lehner Page 32 CHAPTER 13

CHAPTER A THE MYSTERY OF HETEPHERES

THE ARCHITECTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE EGYPTIAN ROYAL by Zahi Hawass Page 152 by Zahi Hawass Page 46 CHAPTER 14 CHAPTER 5 THE SECRET DOORS INSIDE THE GREAT PYRAMID by Zahi Hawass Page 156 THE ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS OF THE PYRAMID COMPLEX by Zahi Hawass Page 50 CHAPTER 15 THE CHAPTER e by Zahi Hawass Page 160 THE PREDYNASTIC PERIOD CHAPTER \6 by Renee Friedman Page 54 THE ROYAL BOATS AT GIZA by Zahi Hawass Page 164 CHAPTER I

THE OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DYNASTIES CHAPTER a AT ABYDOS AND SAQOARA THE by Giinter Dreyer Page 62 by Mark Lehner Page 172

10 CHAPTER IS The Publisher would like to thank: H.E. Farouk Hosny - The Egyptian Minister of Culture, THE TOMBS OF THE HIGH OFFICIALS AT GIZA Nabil Osman - President of the Egyptian Information Center by Peter Der Manuelian Page 190 Attiya Shakran - General Director of the Press Center, CHAPTER 19 M. El-Damaty - Director of the , Cairo, Mena House Oberoi Hotel, Cairo, THE 'UNFINISHED' PYRAMIDS OF THE FOURTH DYNASTY Gamal Sbafik of the Cairo Press Center, by Michel Valloggia Pag. 224 The curators and assistants of the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, CHAPTER 20 Rajiv Kaul, Guido Paradisi and Fabio Calamante - photographers' iiss/staiifs. THE PYRAMIDS OF THE FIFTH DYNASTY by Miroslav Verner Pag. 236 CHAPTER 21 The Editor would like to thank Mark Linz and Neil Hewison of the American University in Cairo Press. He also wants to thank Essam Shehab of the Giza Inspectorate, and THE SURPRISING BLOCKS. Mohamed Ismail, Mobamed Megahed, Brook Myers, and Sahar Mabroukfrom the by Zahi Hawass and Miroslav Verner Pag. 260 Technical Office of the Supreme Council of Antiquities. CHAPTER 22

THE PYRAMIDS OF THE SIXTH DYNASTY by Audran Labrousse Pag. 264 CHAPTER 23 10-11 THE DECORATIVE PROGRAM OF THE OLD KINCDOM PYRAMID COMPLEXES Scene showing the ' geese,' by Zahi Hawass Page 282 Egyptian Museum Cairo, Old CHAPTER 24 Kingdom.

THE TOMBS OF THE FIFTH AND SIXTH DYNASTIES AT by Karol Mys'liwiec Page 286 CHAPTER 25

THE PYRAMIDS OF THE MIDDLE KINGDOM © 2003 White Star S.r.l. by Dieter Arnold Page 326 Via C Sassone, 22/24 13100 Vercelli, Italy CHAPTER 26 www.whitestar.it

All rights reserved. No pan ol this publication may be THE TOMBS OF THE NOBLES IN THE MIDDLE KINGDOM reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, by David P. Silverman Page 348 photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. CHAPTER 21 ISBN 88-8095-233-1 ROYAL AND PRIVATE STATUES OF THE OLD AND MIDDLE KINGDOMS Reprints: by Hourig Sourouzian Page 366 12 3 4 5 6 07 06 05 04 03

Printed in Italy by Officine Grafiche De Agostini INDEX AND BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 392 Color separation by Fotomcc, Turin

I I Chapter 4

The Architectural Development of the Egyptian Royal Tomb

by Zahi Hawass

T„he kings of the First Dynasty were buried in elements of later complexes; the tomb, enclosure , Over the course of the next hundred years, the theiAhr ancestrae l cemetery at Abydos. There is also a the stelae (corresponding to the upper ), the major elements of the complex evolved group of large, elaborate First Dynasty tombs at funerary complex (lower temple), and boats. Thus, into the standardized elements of the Old Kingdom

Saqqara, near the Early Dynastic of lneb-hedj; the basic elements of the royal tombs, which pyramid complex. Much of this development can be the current Egyptological consensus is that these continued to develop throughout Egyptian history, traced in the complexes of Snefcru, first king of the tombs belong to high officials, but it is also possible were already in existence at this time. Fourth Dynasty, at Meidum and Snefcru that these are royal cenotaphs or cult centers. A number ol the Early Dynastic tombs at Saqqara built four pyramids; one each at Seila and Meidum, The tombs of the First Dynasty at Abydos are have mounds, and in one case a stepped platform, and two at Dahshur. He built the Seila pyramid as a located in an area called the Umm al-Qa'ab, which over the burial shafts. The tombs at Abydos are also representation of the primeval mound, associated with means 'mother of pots.' These Early Dynastic tombs thought to have been covered with mounds. These a royal residence in the area, not as a tomb. The mark a significant change in from those are thought to represent the primeval mound on Meidum pyramid was built as a step pyramid in the of the Predynastic Period, when tombs were simple which the creator god stood to bring the universe beginning of his reign and left unfinished for reasons oval or rectangular graves. The tombs become more into being. we do not know. started a new pyramid and more elaborate, with pits and chambers lined with The Step Pyramid complex of represents a complex at Dahshur in about the fifteenth year of his

mud or, in some cases, wood In addition to the major step forward in royal funerary . reign( this was designed to be the first true pyramid- burial chamber, there were also chambers for grave Djoser and his chief , Imhotcp, brought the However, for structural reasons, the angle of slope goods. Surrounding the tombs of the First Dynasty two elements of the Early Dynastic complex, tomb had to be modified part way up, which gave the were small subsidiary tombs for attendants thought to and valley enclosure, together into one monumental pyramid its distinctive 'bent' profile. This complex was have been sacrificed to accompany each king into the complex, and translated the mud brick and perishable then abandoned, and a new true-pyramid complex in afterlife. materials into stone. The mound above the burial North Dahshur was completed and used for the king's On the east side of each tomb limestone stelae shaft became a towering step pyramid, rising in six burial were , bearing the name of the king in a sn&h (a stages to a height of 60 meters. The complex at Meidum contains some of the rectangle bounded at the bottom by the The components of Djoser's complex are; basic elements of the pyramid complex; a wall, which representation of a niched facade). Most of the 1 The enclosure wall with the colonnaded encloses a small satellite pyramid to the south and an kings of the Second Dynasty were buried at Saqqara, entrance offering to the east, and a causeway leading but the last two kings of this dynasty, Peribsen and 2. The pyramid toward the flood plain. There are also tombs of , were buried at Abydos. 3. The northern temple officials and family members near the pyramid. At a distance of about two kilometers from the 4. The south tomb The complex contains all of these Early Dynastic tombs in Umm al-Qa'ab, is a group of 5. The south court elements, plus a lower temple at the eastern end of large enclosures associated with the funerary cults of 6. The hib^td court the causeway These elements now become standard, the kings,- the earlier enclosures also had subsidiary 7. The southern altar and can also be seen in Sneferu's northern pyramid burials associated with them. These are thought to 8. Temple T complex at Dahshur. We also have evidence for a have once contained structures built ol 9. The northern temple pyramid city associated with this complex. perishable materials. David O'Connor of the 10. The northern altar Thus, by the time ol Sneferu's son and successor, -Yale Expedition recently found a fleet of 11. Pavilion of the south Khufu, the basic elements of the pyramid complex twelve boats moored neared the complex of the 12 Pavilion of the north were in place The Early Dynastic mound has become Second Dynasty king, Khasekhemwy (although not 13. Boundary markers a straight-sided pyramid. The royal stelae have necessarily belonging to this king). The funerary become the upper, or mortuary, temple Djoser's south complexes associated with the Second Dynasty tombs tomb, sftf-festival court, and Temple T become the at Saqqara have not yet been located. Wc are now satellite, or ritual, pyramid and its court. Djoser's making a new plan of these tombs, in cooperation complex also contains W-fesiivat , altars, and with Giinter Dreyer of the German Institute,- we have the pavilions of the north and south. These separate already begun to clean these tomhs in preparation for develop into rooms and niches inside later this new plan. pyramid . Khufu adds three queens' pyramids Through study of the royal tombs and associated and an elaborate, planned cemetery for royal relatives enclosures at Abydos, one can identify the basic and officials to the elements of the pyramid complex. architectural components, and correlate them with the Evidence lor harbors associated with the complexes of

Chapter •) I 46 46 bottom 47 In this genera] view oj the Djoser The imposing structure oj the pyramid oj pyramid complex ai Sahara, the Step King Khufu oj the Fourth Dynasty Pyramid dating to the Third Dynasty dominates the Giza Platen and represents can be observed. an architectural ability new again reached during thtfollmoing dynasties

both Khufu and his son have also been round, Saqqara plateau, near the First Dynasty tombs there. dtvinity of the king, and thus assured the safety and and traces of Khufu's palace have recently been At Giza, in addition to the remains of a prosperity of the country It has been said that the uncovered. Ongoing excavations at Giza are yielding monumental building which may he Khufu's palace, pyramids built : the complex administration traces of the workers who built the pyramids: the we have found traces ol an Old Kingdom settlement needed to manage these enormous projects helped to tombs of the pyramid builders, the workmen's tamp, under the modern village that lies at the foot of the create tins ancient civilization The king would have and the workmen's installation, where the workers plateau. This settlement was about five square had his primary residence near the pyramid site so who built the pyramids received took and rations, and kilometers, and I believe that this is where the royal that he could supervise the most important project of perhaps slept, administration was based. Textual evidence from the his reign. The current work at Giza is clarifying the issue of Fifth Dynasty also supports this interpretation^ the Khulu's pyramid required a large number ol men where the king lived while his pyramid was being Abustr Papyri, found in the pyramid complex ol to move and place over 2,600,000 cubic meters of built It used to he thought that the capital, the royal Kaki, mention a palace of Djedkarc Isesi stones, yet the number of artisans required was residence, of the king was at Memphis itself. which was located near his pyramid. relatively few. This ratio of stone-movers to artisans However, the Egypt Exploration Society excavations The pyramid was the national project of the would change, however, over the next two dynasties at Memphis under David Jelfreys have found no nation; every household participated in this as decreased the volume of stone by making evidence lor a settlement dated to the Archaic Period monumental task by sending workers and food to help the pyramids smaller and using smaller stones, mud or the Old Kingdom. They have, however, found the king. The construction of the pyramid and its brick, or loose rubble fill, while they increased the traces ol an Archaic settlement at the foot of the complex magically provided for the rebirth and number of beautiful wall reliefs with which the

OSwptff * 47 temples were decorated. For example, it is estimated Fourth Dynasty complex Unlike the Giza pyramids, that the pyramid of the Fifth Dynasty's first king, the pyramids of , , Neferirkare Kaki, Userkal, contains only one-thirteenth of the bulk ol and Niuserre all have their entrances at ground level, Khufu s pyramid. Indeed, the 2,600,000 cubic meters and the interior layout is different. The sarcophagus is of raw stone in Khufu's pyramid is almost equal to all placed near the west end of the chamber and the the raw stone of all the pyramids of the Fifth and chamber are decorated with designs of a palace Sixth Dynasties combined. On the other hand, the ia^ade, an veneer, and later, the Pyramid Filth Dynasty at Abusir had, Texts. The temples become larger (providing more according to German Egyptologist Ludwig Borchardt, wall surface for the reliefs), and contain numerous 10,000 square meters ol wall reliefs. The decreasing rooms and magazines. The courts of the upper

Jht pyramid of Amenembrl ill al size of the pyramids and hence, the reduced need for temple, which are oriented north to south in the Dahshur, Middle Kintjdom. workmen, was probably not economically motivated, Fourth Dynasty, are now oriented cast to west. The kings of the Fifth Dynasty also built sun temples in an area about one kilometer north of Abusir. These complexes consist of a large, squat and an altar in an open court, an upper temple, causeway, and lower temple. These temples were dedicated to the worship of the sun god, Re. Two of these temples have been found and excavated so far,- we have textual evidence for six of them. After the chaos of the First Intermediate Period, the kings of the Middle Kingdom were once again buried in pyramids. The first king of the Twelfth Dynasty, Amenemhet I, built his pyramid at , near the entrance to the Fayum. In the core of his pyramid, he used rough blocks of limestone and a fill of mud brick and debris. Included in this debris, and also in the lining and blocking ol the substructure, were inscribed blocks from the pyramid complexes of Khufu, Khafre, and . These blocks may have served to magically link this king with his divine predecessors, Amenemhet Is complex is clearly based on the Old Kingdom prototype, with, however, some details that reveal theTheban origin of the family. Some of because the increasing number of relicts would have the standard features are present: upper temple, necessitated hiring many more skilled artisans who causeway, and lower temple, but the causeway was commanded a higher wage than the workmen who unroofed, like the processional ways of the Tbeban moved the stones. tombs of the kings who preceded him. Another It is at the end oi the Fifth Dynasty that the so- Theban element is the fact that the pyramid and its tailed I'vumid Te\h appeal on the inside walls ol temple are on terraces. There was no satellite the pyramids chambers—the first example being the pyramid, and family members were buried in pyramid ol Unas at Saqqara. The are or shaft tombs within the pyramid enclosure. A small magical spells inscribed in vertical on the chapel lay in front of the entrance to the substructure walls of the antechamber and burial chamber of the in the north face of the pyramid, and the king was pyramid. The spells are designed to help the king buried in a chamber that lay at the bottom of a shaft ascend to the sky, to illuminate the relationship of the on the vertical axis of the pyramid—this shaft is king to the gods, and to ensure the divinity of the another Theban element. The Middle Kingdom king, In the following dynasty these precise carvings decoration that has been retrieved from this complex grace the burial chambers of both kings and queens. is difficult to tell from the Old Kingdom intrusive The pyramid complexes of the Filth Dynasty, in fragments, as the later artists appear to have tried to addition to their expanded decorative repertoire, copy the older models as faithfully as possible. The make some changes to the specific details of the causeway was decorated with scenes ol foreigners,

Cbtljlttr 4 148 y\ re /? / /('( I it r¿il . | V / J> Í'Í>C / o/> m e>? t

funerary estates, royal officials, and gods. A horizontal passage at the bottom of the shaft leads and the chambers used for the burial and equipment Amenemhet Is son and successor, Senusret 1, built to a vaulted chamber, at one end of which is a deep of several queens. There are two entrances, and the his pyramid near that of his Father. For the core of the whose bottom has never been reached. The corridors are quite complex. They may, in addition to pyramid itself, his architects used an ingenious system horizontal passage continues through an antechamber their practical purposes, model the underworld. In of spines and cross-walls, but the pyramid was to the burial chamber cased in , in which was 1997,1 was able to visit this pyramid with Dieter unstable, and only a mined mound remains today. found a red granite sarcophagus and an alabaster Arnold. It was amazing to explore these labyrinthine Like his father, he placed an entrance chapel against offering table. A passageway runs around the burial corridors myself. the north face, from which a descending passage leads chamber, providing for the symbolic journey of the Amenemhet Ill's Dahshur complex had an upper to the burial chamber, far beneath the ground (and king's spirit and also helping to associate him with temple, causeway, and lower temple. Structural now under the water table). All nf the Twelfth , whose cult was becoming increasingly more problems, however, caused the king to leave this site Dynasty kings placed their burial chambers deep in important during this period. and build a second pyramid at in the Fayum. the earth, as part of an effort to link themselves with In this complex are a number of maslabas and one The layout of this pyramid and its enclosure is very Osiris, king of the underworld, subsidiary pyramid which may be a satellite pyramid. different from its predecessor at Dahshur. The Senusret Is complex contains most of the The enclosure wall of the complex was niched, like substructure here is truly a , with dead-end elements that had become standard by the end of the 's. Included in the complex were an upper corridors, and passageways hidden in the ceiling. The Old Kingdom: upper temple, causeway (originally temple, causeway, and lower temple, none of which burial chamber itself is carved from a single piece of uncovered but later roofed), lower temple (which has have been adequately explored. At the foot of the quartzite. Inside was the king's quartzite sarcophagus, never been found), and a satellite pyramid in the plateau is Senusret Ms pyramid town, a planned a second, smaller sarcophagus, and two canopic southeast corner of the inner enclosure. Nine queens' settlement which tells us a great deal about daily life, chests, pyramids lie inside the outer enclosure wall, at least under royal protection, in the Middle The pyramid complex of Amenemhet III at surrounding the main pyramid. Large statues of the Kingdom. Hawara is the largest of the Middle Kingdom king in the red and white crowns were placed in Senusret III moved back to Dahshur, and built his enclosures. It is oriented north to south. It was niches along the inside of the causeway. Another pyramid again of mud brick with limestone casing. approached via an open causeway from the east. The decorative innovation found in this complex is the The substructure consists of a hidden entrance to the upper temple is completely unique, and was called The addition of monumental strekfc containing the king's west, a descending passage leading to an Labyrinth1 by visitors in ancient times. Unfortunately, names to both faces of the inner enclosure wall The antechamber, magazine, and burial chamber of granite most of this structure has now been destroyed, enough wall was also niched, harkening back to the Third containing a granite sarcophagus. Against the remains only to tell us that it was a vast complex of Dynasty enclosure of Djoser and the Early Dynastic northern face of the pyramid is an entrance chapel, small courts and shrines. Fetrie found the remains of a walls at Abydos and Saqqara. and to the east is a small upper temple. The pyramid large granite statue of the king close to the pyramid. The succeeding kings, Amenemhet 11 and enclosure was expanded later in the reign, and a Other statue fragments of gods, the king, and offering Senusret II, built pyramid complexes that are second temple was added to the south. A causeway bearers, were recovered from this area. significantly different, referring perhaps more to the leads from the southeastern corner of the expanded The kings of the New Kingdom were aware that Third Dynasty step pyramid enclosures than to the enclosure; no lower temple has yet been found. neither the huge monuments of the Fourth Dynasty late Old Kingdom models In any event, each of the Surrounding the main pyramid are the superstructures nor the maze corridors of the late Twelfth Dynasty next kings built a unique complex which incorporates of seven small pyramids, underneath are the shaft had protected the royal burials. Thus, beginning some of the standard elements with experimental tombs of a number of royal women, in which a with 1 of the Eighteenth Dynasty, the features. Amenemhet lis pyramid is at Dahshur, and is number of inscribed artifacts and jewels were found kings built only their mortuary temples in the open, set in a rectangular, east-west enclosure. The pyramid Just outside the southwest corner of the pyramid in the floodptain along the west bank. In place of a itself was built as a skeleton of stone filled with sand enclosure is a building of mud brick and a fleet of six valley, or lower temple, they used the temples at and then cased with fine white limestone; it is now in wooden boats, each six meters long. In a vain effort to protect their ruins. The entrance to the substructure is in the north Fragments of from the upper temple include and treasures, they hid their actual tombs in a face, and leads to a burial chamber which contains a the king at an offering table, a Itinerary menu, remote valley further to the west, the Valley of the sarcophagus of . This complex has been offering bearers, scenes of gods, officials, and the Kings. Towering above this series of desert wadis is a neglected by archaeologists: little is known about the butchering of sacred cattle Bits of relief from the pyramid-shaped peak, known as the Qurn, Thus, the layout of the upper temple, and the lower temple has southern temple show the king in his ifJ-festival robe. royal burials continued to be surmounted by the never been found, although an open causeway leads Josef Wegner has recently discovered a second tomb powerful symbol of the pyramid. In one sense, the down to the edge of the floodplain. for Senusret III at Abydos, which may have been the New Kingdom came full circle, back again to the Senusret II moved back to the Fayum, and built a kings actual burial place, tombs separated from their cult centers that were pyramid primarily of mud brick within a square Amenemhet III built two pyramids, one at seen in the First Dynasty, Each period introduced enclosure The substructure of this pyramid is very Dahshur and the other in the Fayum, The Dahshur changes in the funerary cult, but the primary unusual, and is the first to try to hide the entrance in pyramid was built of mud brick Underneath is a maze importance of the pyramid remained, from its an attempt to foil tomb robbers. This substructure is of corridors cased in white limestone which includes beginnings as a mound of sand over the first royal entered via a shaft on the south side of the pyramid. the king's burial chamber, a number of small chapels. tombs, to the towering peak that protected the last.

Cfcafiter 4 I 49 RISE AND RUN - CASING "Pyramid Construction: New Evidence Bibliography: —, "Boat Graves and Pyramid Origins: New Discoveries Arnold, D., "Maneuvering casing blocks of pyra­ Discovered in Giza," in H. Guksch and D. Polz Spencer A. J., Early Egypt, London: at Abydos, Egypt," Expedition 33/3 (1991), pp. 5-17. mids," in John Baines, et al. (eds.), Pyramid Studies (eds.) Stationen Beiträge zur Kultur-geschichte Ägyptens Press, 1993. O'Connor, D. and M. Adams, "Moored in the

and Other Essays presented to I. E. S. Edwards, London, Gewidmet R. Stadelmann, Mainz, 1998. Desert: Digging an Ancient Armada," Archaeology 1988, pp. 12-24. Maragioglio, V, and C. Rinaldi, LArchitettura della ABYDOS (May/June 2001), pp. 44-45.

Isler, M-, "Concerning the concave faces on the piramidi menfite, vols. 2-8. Turin and Rapello, 1963-77. Amelineau, E., Les Nouvelles Fou^lles d'Abydos I-III, Great Pyramid," JARCE 20, no. 27-32 (1983). Petrie, W. M. F., The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh, , 1895-1904. Photo credits:

Lally, M., " a pyramid," JARCE 26, no. London, 1883. —, he Tombeau d'Osiris, Paris, 1899. 78, 79, 80 top, 80-81 Giulio Veggi/Archivio White Star 207-218 (1989). Smith, W. S. The Art and Architecture Of , Petrie, W. M. F, The Royal Tombs of the First Dynasty I-II 81 top, 82-83, 83 David O'Connor

Lauer, J.-P., "Sur le choix de l'angle de pente dans les 2nd ed, revised by W. K. Simpson, (Mem. Egypt Expl. fund 18,21), London, 1900-1901. 84, 85 Giulio Veggi/Archivio White Star pyramides d'Égypte," Bulletin de l'Institut d'Égypte 37 Harmondsworth, 1981. Dreyer, G., Umm el-Qaab I, Das prädynastische Königsgrab (1956), pp. 57-66. Stadelmann, R., Die ägyptischen Pyramiden, Mainz, 1985. U-j in Abydos und seine frühen Schriftzeugnisse

Lauer, J.P., "Observations sur les pyramides," BdÉ 30 (Archäologische Veröffentlichungen 86), Mainz, 1998. THE STEP PYRAMIDS (Cairo, 1960). Photo credits: Dreyer G., et al., "Umm el-Qaab, Nachuntersuchungen Text by Ali Radwan

Robins, G. and C. C. D. Shute, "Determining the 52, 53 Araldo De Luca/Archivio White Star im frühzeitlichen Königsfriedhof. Vorberichte slope of pyramids," GM 57 (1982), pp. 49-54. (preliminary reports)," Mitteilungen DAIKairo (MDAIK) Ali Radwan is a Professor at Cairo University where 38, 46, 49, 52, 54, 56 (Mainz, 1982-2000). he teaches Egyptian Art and Archaeology. He was

Photo credits: THE PREDYNASTIC PERIOD the former dean of Cairo Uninersity and excavated 33 top Archivio White Star Text by Renee Friedman SAQQARA at Abusir.

33 bottom Araldo De Luca/Archivio White Star Emery, W B., Great Tombs of the ist Dynasty I-III,

34, 35 Giulio Veggi/Archivio White Star Renee Friedman is the Heagy Research Curator in Excavations at Sahara, Cairo, 1949,-London, 1955-58. Bibliography: 36, 37 Alberto Siliotti/Archivio Geodia the Egyptian Department of the British Museum and — The Tomb of Hemaka, Excavations at Sacjcfara, Cairo, 1938. Allen, J. P., "Funerary Texts and Their Meaning," in

38 Mark^ehner Director of the Hierakonpolis Expedition, specializ­ Aha, Excavations at Sahara, Cairo, 1939. S. D'Auria, P. Lacovara and C. H. Roehrig (eds.),

39 Alfio Garozzo/Archivio White Star ing in Egypt's Predynastic Period. Educated at the Lauer, J. Ph., "Histoire monumentale des pyramides Mummies and Magic-. The Funerary Arts of Ancient Egypt,

43, 45 Marcello Bertinetfi/Archivio White Star University of , Berkeley, she has excavated d'£gypte," Bibliothfyue dttude 39, Cairo, 1962. , 1988, pp. 38-49. at a number of sites in Egypt, including Giza, Altenmüller. H., "Bemerkungen zur frühen and

Mendes, Tell el-Muqdam, and Hierakonpolis, where Photo credits: späten Bauphase des Djoserbezirkes in Saqqara,"

THE ARCHITECTURAL DEVELOPMENT she has worked since 1983. She has co-authored and 62 Araldo De Luca/Archivio White Star MDAIK 28 (1972), pp. 8-12.

OF THE EGYPTIAN ROYAL TOMB edited several books including Egypt Uncovered 63 Günter Dreyer Barsanti, A., "Ouvertüre de la pyramide de Zaouie't

Text by Zahi Hawass (1998), The Followers of Horns (1992), and Egypt and 64 top RMN el-Aryan," ASAE II (1901), pp. 92-4.

Nubia: Gifts of the Desert (2002). 64 center and bottom Günter Dreyer Cwiek, A., "Date and Function of the So-called Minor

Bibliography: 66 Araldo De Luca/Archivio White Star Step Pyramids," GM 162 (1998), pp. 39-52.

Edwards, I.E.S., The Pyramids of Egypt, rev. ed., New Bibliography: 67 top Günter Dreyer Dreyer G. and W. Kaiser, "Zu kleinen York, 1985. Adams, B., Predynastic Egypt (Shire 7), 67 center Araldo De Luca/Archivio White Star Stufenpyramiden Ober-und Mittelägyptens," Hassan, S., The Sphinx: Its History in the light ojRecent Aylesbury, 1988. 68-69 and 68 bottom Günter Dreyer MDAIK 36 (1980), pp. 43-59, Taf. 68-77. Excavations, Cairo: Cairo University, 1949. --- , Ancient : Garstang in the City of Nekhen (ESA 69 bottom left Araldo De Luca/Archivio White Star Dreyer G. and N. Swelim, "Die kleine

Hawass, Z., 'The Khufu Statuette: Is It an Old no.3), SIA Publishing, 1995. 70 and 71 private collection Stufen pyramide von Abydos-Süd (Sinki)," in Kingdom ?" Melanges Gamal Eddin Mokhtar. Adams, B and K. Cialowicz, Protodynastic Egypt 72-73 private collection MDAIK 38 (1982), pp. 83-93, Taf. 11-14.

Bibliotheque d'Etude, Institut Francais d'Archeologie (Shire Egyptology 25), Great Britain, 1997. 73 top, center and bottom Araldo De Luca/ Dreyer, G., "Der erste König der 3. Dynastie," in H. Orientale no. 971,(1985). Darnell, J.C, Theban Desert Road Survey in the Egyptian Archivio White Star Guksch and D. Polz (eds.), Stationen, Fs. R

The Funerary Establishments oj Khufu, Khafra, and Western Desert, Volume i-. Gebel Tjauti Rock Inscriptions 74 Günter Dreyer Stadelmann, Mainz, 1998, pp. 31-34. Menkaura During the Old Kingdom, Ph. D. 1-45 and Wadi el-Hdl Rock Inscriptions i-45, Oriental 75 Araldo De Luca/Archivio White Star Dodson, A., "On the Date of the Unfinished

Dissertation University of Pennsylvania micro­ Institute Publications 119, , 2002. 76 top and bottom Araldo De Luca/Archivio of Zawyet el-Aryan," Discussions in film, Ann Arbor, MI, 1987. Friedman, R. et al., "Preliminary Report on Field Star Egyptology 3 (1985), p. 21.

"Histories, Mysteries of Man" in WM.F. Petrie, Work at Hierakonpolis 1996-1998," JARCE 36 76-77 Günter Dreyer Edwards, I. E. S., The Pyramids of Egypt, The Pyramid and Temples of Gizab, London, 1990. (1999), pp. 1-35. Harmondsworth, 1961.

--- "Pyramid Construction: New Evidence Friedman, R. and B. Adams (eds.), The Followers of Fakhry, A., ThePyramids, Chicago, 1969.

Discovered in Giza," in H. Guksch and D. Polz : Studies dedicated to Michael Allen Hoffman, THE ROYAL MORTUARY ENCLOSURES OF Faulkner, R. O., The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts,

(eds), Stationen Beiträge zur Kultur-gescbichte Ägyptens , 1992. ABYDOS AND HIERAKONPOLIS Oxford, 1969.

Gewidmet R. Stadelmann, Mainz, 1998. Friedman R., Egypt and -. Gifts of the Desert, Text by David O'Connor and Matthew Adams Firth, C. M., J. E. Quibell and J-Ph. Lauer, The Step —Jbe Pyramid of Ancient Egypt, Carnegie Institute, London, 2002. Pyramid, I, II, Cairo, 1935, 1936.

Pittsburgh, 1990. Hoffman, M. A., Egypt Before the , New York, David O'Connor is Lila Acheson Wallace Professor of Fischer, H. G, "Some Emblematic Uses of Hieroglyphs

Lehner, M., 'The Development of the Giza , 1979/1991. Egyptian Art and Archaeology at the Institute of Fine with Particular Reference to an Archaic Ritual Vessel," : The Khufu Project." MDAIK 41,1985. Midant-Reynes, B., The of Egypt: From the Arts, New York University. He is also a Professor in Ancient Egypt in The Metropolitan Museum Journal

Maragioglio, V., and C. Rinaldi., VArchitettura della First to the First Pharaohs, Oxford, 2000. Emeritus of the University of Pennsylvania and (1977), pp. 3lff, 181 (palette from Helwan). piramidi menfite. Vols. 2-8. Turin and Rapello, 1963¬ Spencer, A. ]., Early Egypt-. The Rise of Civilization in the Curator Emeritus of the Egyptian Section, University Friedman, F. D., "The Underground Relief Panels of

77. Nile Valley, London, 1993. of Pennsylvania Museum of Anthropology and King Djoser at the Step Pyramid Complex,"

Reisner, G. A., The Development of The Egyptian Tomb --- (ed.), Aspects of Early Egypt, London: British Archaeology. David O'Connor has excavated exten­ JARCE 32 (1995), pp. 1-42.

Down to the Accession of Cheops, , Mass., Museum Press, 1996. sively in Egypt and the Sudan, and his publications Goneim, M. Z., The Buried Pyramid, London, 1956. 1935. Shaw, I. (ed.), The Oxford , include Ancient Nubia: Egypt's Rival in Africa, Ancient Egypt: --, Horas Sekhem-Khetm the Unfinished Step Pyramid at

Smith, W. S., The Art and Architecture Of Ancient Egypt. Oxford, 2000. a Social History (co-author),- and several others. He is Sahara, I Cairo, 1957. 2nd ed., revised by W. K. Simpson, Wendorf, F. and R Schild, Settlement of the currently completing a book entitled Abydos-. The Greven, L, "Der in Theologie und Königkult der

Harmondsworth, 1981. Egyptian Sahara, vol. i-. The Archaeology of Nabta Evolution of a Sacred Landscape. Ägypten des Alten Reiches," ÄF 17 (Glückstadt, 1952).

Playa, New York, 2002. Hawass, Z., "A Fragmentary Monument of Djoser

Photo credits: Matthew Douglas Adams holds a dual Ph.D. in from Saqqara," JEA 80 (1994), pp. 45-56.

46 Giulio Veggi/Archivio White Star Photo credits: Anthropology and Egyptology from the University Helck, W, "Der Name des letzten Königs der 3. Dynastie

47 Marcello Berti netti/Archivio White Star 54, 55 Araldo De Luca/Archivio White Star of Pennsylvania. He is Research Scholar at the un die Stadt Ehnas," SAK 4 (1976), pp. 123-130. 48 Alfio Garozzo/Archivio White Star 56, 57 left Renee Friedman Institute of Fine Arts, New York University, and a —, "Gane," LÄ II (1977), pp. 391, n. 95.

57 right Araldo De Luca/Archivio White Star Research Associate of the University of Pennsylvania "Die Datierung der Gefäßaufschriften aus der

58, 59 Renee Friedman Museum. He has worked at Abydos since 1981 and Djoserpyramide," ZÄS 106 (1979), pp. 120-132.

THE ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS 60 The British Museum has been a project director there since 1991. He is —, "Sanacht"LÄ V (1984), pp. 375f. OF THE PYRAMID COMPLEX 61 Kenneth Garrett Director of the Abydos Settlement Site Project, and --, "Zum Statuensockel des Djoser," in I. Gamer-

Text by Zahi Hawass has undertaken excavations in the ancient town of Wallert and W.Helck (eds.), Gegengabe, Fs Emma Abydos. He is Associate Director of the Abydos Early Brunner-Traut, Tübingen, 1992, 143-150.

Bibliography: THE TOMBS OF THE FIRST AND SECOND Dynastic Project and has excavated many of north Hornung, E., "Exploring the Beyond," in E. Hornung

Badawy A., A I, Berkeley, DYNASTIES AT ABYDOS AND SAQQARA Abydos' Early Dynastic royal monuments. In addition and B. M. Bryan (eds.), The Quest for Immortality:

University of California, 1966. Text by Günter Dreyer to Egypt, Dr. Adams has also done archaeological Treasures of Ancient Egypt, , London and New fieldwork in , , and . The Brinks, J., Die Entwicklung der Königlichen Grabanlagen des York, 2002, pp. 33. author of several articles and reviews, his research AltenReicbes, , 1979. Günter Dreyer studied Egyptology, Assyriology Kaiser, W, 'Zu den Königlichen Talbezirken in Abydos interests include Egypt as a complex society, kingship Edwards, I.E.S., The Pyramids of Egypt, rev. ed., New and Ancient Near Eastern archaeology in und zur Baugeschichte des Djoser-Grabmals der 1. and the nature of the early state in Egypt, Egyptian York, 1985. and , where he completed his Ph.D. in 1978 und 2. Dynastie," MDAIK 25 (1969), pp. 1-21. socio-economic organization, and the archaeology of Fakhry, A., The Pyramids, 2nd ed., Chicago: University about temple donations in the early periods of --, "Ein Kultbezirk des Königs Den in Sakkara," settlement in Egypt. of Chicago Press, 1974. Egypt. He excavated with the German Institute of MDAIK 41 (1984), pp. 47-60.

Hawass, Z., 'The Pyramid," in D. P. Silverman and Archaeology at , , Wadi Garawi, —, "Zur unterirdischen Anlage der Djoserpyramide

D. Baird (eds), Ancient Egypt, London and New Abydos and Giza. He became assistant director of Bibliography: und ihrer entwicklungsgeschichtlichten York: , 1998. the German Institute in 1989, and director in 1998. Kemp, B., "Abydos: The Royal Tombs of the First Einordnung," in I. Gamer-Wallert and W. Helck

The Funerary Establishments of Khufu, Kbafra,_and He completed his Habilitation at Berlin University Dynasty," JEA 52 (1966), pp. 14-22. (eds.), Gegengabe, Fs Emma Brunner-Traut, Tübingen

Menkaura During the Old Kingdom, Ph. D. in 1997 on Early Writing from Egypt and is now O'Connor, D., "New Funerary Enclosures (Talbezirke) (1992), pp. 167-190. Dissertation University of Pennsylvanaia micro­ mainly conducting the excavations of the earliest of the Early Dynastic Period," Journal of the American Kees, H., Der Götterglaube im Alten Ägypten, Leipzig,

film, Ann Arbor, MI, 1987. Royal Tombs at Abydos. Research Center in Egypt 26 (1989), pp. 51 -86. 1941, pp. 214ff.

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