PRG.178.'20(N) .. _3 :-,_:»000

VOLUME II

ANDHRA PRADESH

Part VI-Village Survey Monographs

Serial No. 20

A MONOGRAPH on MAREDUMAKA VILLAGE

( TALUK, KRISH~A DISTRICT)

EDITOR A. SEKHAR

OF THE INDIAN AD:-'IINISTRATIVE SERVICE

Superintmdent of C,nsus Operations, AlIdhra Prlldesh, H)'derabad

Price: Rs, 6.70 P. or 15 Sh. 3 d, or $ 2.42 c. CENSUS OF 19St-VOLUME ll-PART VI-LIST OF VILLAGE SURVEY MONOGRAPHS-A. P.

Name of ,------'------~ . District Taluk 1'l'0. Name of village Brief details of what the village represents (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Srikakulam Pathapatnam 1 Kallata Kapu Savaras-A Scheduled Tribe l'arva\hipuram 2 Kallitit Savaras-A Scheduled Tribe 3 Lakkaguda:j: Jatapus-A Scheduled Tribe 4 Kannapudoravala!a:j: A village in jute growing area 5 Gadabavalasa, hamlet Gadabas-A Scheduled Tribe of Gumma:j: Bobbili 6 Karada:f: A Bobbli Samsthanam village Srikakulam 7 Mofusbandar:j: A fishermen's village

V;sakhapatnam Srungavarapukota 8 Kondiba:j: Dombs-A Scheduled Caste Paderu 9 Gandha:j: Konda Dhoras-A Scheduled Tribe 10 Lamthampadut Kondhs-A Scheduled rribe Chintapalle 11 Annavaram:j: Samanthus-A Tribe 12 l\1akavaram Kammatas alias Ojas-A Scheduled Tribe 13 Jerrela:f; Bagatas-A Scheduled Tribe East Godavari Yellavaram 14 Kondapalle Koya Doras-A Tribe 15 Kovilapalem Konda Reddis-A Scheduled Tribe Razole 16 Pasarlapudilanka:j: A typical East Godavari delta village

West Godavari 17 Unagatla":j: A dry agricultural village surveyed in 1917 & 1936 by the Department of Economics, University of Madras. A study of the progress made in the life of the people during 1936-62 is done l'olavaram 18 Puliramudugndem:j: Koyas-A Scheduled Tribe 19 Gudivakalanka A settled village in bed area Vijayawada 20 :Maredumaka*'''' A settled Krishna delta village Gunt::r Guutur 21 Malkapuram A typical tobacco growing village NelJore Kandukur 22 Ayyavaripalle A sheep and cattle rearing village Kovur 23 Yelamanchipadu A settled wet agricultural village Rapur 24 Devaravemuru Several workers in m,ica industry reside in this village Sullurpet 25 Rettamala:j: Noted for boat l:.uilding industry, It also represents Yenadis, a Scheduled Tribe Chittoor Punganur 26 Palyampalle:j: Lambadis-A Scheduled Tribe 27 Theltupalle, hamlet A village surveyed in 1916 by the Department of Eco­ of Nellimanda nomics, University of Madras. A study of the pro­ gress made in the life of the people during 1916-62 is done Madanapalle 28 Panchalamarri A village depending on tank and well irrigation 29 Gangireddipalle A sheep and cattle readng village Cuddapa Jammal~madugu 30 P. Sugamanchipalle Noted fQr Cuddapah slabs

Anantapur Kalyandrug 31 Bhairavanitippa:j: A dry village changing to wet cultivation under the Bhairavanitippa project Adoni J2 Mantsala:j: A place of religious importance (Mantralayam) Atmakur (Indepen- 33 Byrlutigudem:j: Chenchus-A Scheduled Tribe dent Sub-Taluk) Chevella ' 34 Peddamangalaram Economy dependent on the supply of vegetables to Hyderabad Medak Narsapur 35 Sivan"gar:j: Tanning industry 36 Habshlpur Handloom industry Nizamabad Banswada 37 Banjepalle agricultural village on the bank of lake Bodhau 38 Pocharam:j: An agricultural viliage noted for cultivation Armur 39 Kotha Armur:j: An agricultural village partly irrigated by Nizam Saga i Canal. A comparative study of the progress made nr the life ofthc people between 1929 & 1962 with reference to the economic investigations made by Sri S. Kesava r yengar is done Adilabad Utnur 40 Bhurnur:j: Gands & Pradhans-Scheduled Tribes 41 Vemayakunta:j: Mathuras-A Tribe 42 Laindiguda:j: Kolams-A Scheduled Tribe Lakshettipet 43 Malkepalle:j: Thotis-A Scheduled Tribe Manthani 44 Kishtaraopet Naikpods-A Scheduled Tribe Narasampet 45 Mattewada:j: Kovas-A Scheduled Tribe Ramannapet 46 Tallasingaram:j: A toddy tappers' village

*:j:Surveyed by the Indian Institute of Economics, Hyderabad-A. P. **Present Monograph (29th) :j:Monagraphs so fur published 10' t I" £ u' E

N CENSUS 1961 - VILLAGE SURVEYS STATE LOCATION OF VILLAGES SURVEYED IWUT HN ZONE)

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'r~pved U tI'tt: ~c;. 01 ..... SI.Iplr,jlllel'l';~l of Ottt,w ()p4tnl.,...., "'~",,~od {A_ ' .1 10.6ijCENSUS PUBLICATIONS, A~DHRA PRADESH

(All the Census Publications of this State bear Vol. No. II)

PART I-A (i) General Report (Chapters I to V)

PART I-A (ii) General Report (Chapters VI to lX)

PART I-A (iii) General Report (Chapters X to XCI)

PART 1-8 Report on Vital Statistics

PART I-C Subsidiary Tables

PART II-A General Population TabJ es

PART II-B (i) Economic Tables (B-1 to B-IV J

PART II-B (ii) Economic Tables [B-V to B-IX]

PART II-C Cultural and Migration Tables

PART III Household Economic Tables

PART IV-A Report on Housing and Establishments (with Subsidiary Tables)

PART IV-B Housing and Establishment Tables

PART V-A Special Tables for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes

PART V-B Ethnographic Notes on Sched uled Castes and Sched uled Tribes

PART VI Village Survey ~1onographs (46)

PART VII-A (I) ")

PART VII-A (2) -~­ Handicrafts Survey Reports (Selected Crafts) I PART VII-A (3) )

PART VII-B (I to 20) Fairs and Festivals (Separat~ Book/or each District)

PART VIII-A Administration Report-Enumeration I r. Notfor sale PART VIII-B Administration Report-Tabulation )

PART IX State Atlas

PART X Special Report on Hyderabad Ci ty

District Census Handbooks (Separate Volume for each Dutrier) SUPERVISION AND GUIDANCE

Sri P. S. R. AVADHANY, B. A., Deputy Superintendent of Census Operations

First Draft

Sri V. RADHAKRISHNA, B. A., B. COM. Research Assistant

Field Investigation Scrutiny and Tabulation

1. Sri V. Radhakrishna, B. A., B. COM. 1. Sri P. Pattayya, B. sc., Research Assistant Manager

2. Sri V. D. Chary, B. A. 2. Sri P. Simhachalam I Economic Investigator 3 . Sn· Md . J ama1 u 11 a h JrAssistant Compil(rs

3. Sri K. S. S. , M. A. Economic Investigator

4. Sri A. R. K. Murthy, M. A., Economic Investigator

Photographs Maps and Drawings

1. Sri V. Radhakrishna B. A., B. COM. 1. Sri M. Krishna Swamy, A rtist-Draught sman 2. Sri V. D. Chary, B. A.

FOREWORD

Apart from laying the foundations of demography in this subcontinent, a hundred years of the Indian Census has also produced 'elaborate and scholarly accounts of the variegated phenomena of Indian life-sometimes with no statistics attached, but usually with just enough statistics to give empirical underpinning to their cqnclusions'. In a country, largely illiterate, where statistical or numerical comprehension of even such a thing as age was liable to be inaccurate, an understanding of the social structure was essential. It was more necessary to attain a broad understanding of what was happening around oneself than to wrap oneself up in 'statistical ingenuity' or 'mathematical manipu­ lation'. This explains why the Indian Census came to be interf::sted in 'many by paths' and 'nearly every branch of scholarship, from anthropology and sociology to geography and religion'. In the last few decades the Census has increasingly turned its efforts to the presen­ tation of village statistics. This suits the temper of the times as well as our political and economic structure. For even as we bave a great deal of centralisation on the one hand and decentralisation on the other, my colleagues thought it would be a welcome contL nuation of the Census tradition to try to invest the dry bones of village statistics with flesh-and-blood accounts of social structure and social change. It was accordingly decided to select a few villages in every State for special study, where personal observa­ tion would be brought to bear on the interpretation of statistics to find obt how much of a village was static and yet changing and how fast the winds of change were blowing and from where. Randomness of selection was, therefore, eschewed. There was no intention to build up a picture for the whole State in quantitative terms gn the basis of villages selected statistically at random. The selection was avowedly purposive: the object being as much to find out what was happening and how fast to those villages which had fewer reasons to choose change and more to remain lodged in the past as to discover how the more cnormal' types of villages were changing. They were to be primarily type studies which. by virtue of their number and distribution, would also give the reader a 'feel' of what wai going on and some kind of a map of the country.

A brief account of the tests of selection will help to explain. A minimum of thirty­ five villages was to be chosen with great care to represent adequately geographical. occu­ pational and even ethnic diversity. Of this minimum of thirty-five, the distribution was to be as follows:

(a) At least eight villages were to be so selected that each of them would contain one dominant community with one predominating occupation, e. g., fishermen, forest wor_ kers, jhum cultivators, potters, weavers, salt-makers, quarry workers etc. A village should have a minimum population of 400, the optimum being between 500 and 700. IV

(b) At least seven villages were to be of numerically prominent Scheduled Tribes ()f the State. Each village could represent a particular tribe The minimum population should be 400, the optimum being between 500 and 700.

(c) The third group of villages should each be of fair size, of an old and settled character and contain variegated occupations and be, if possible, multi-ethnic in compo­ sition. By fair size was meant a population of 500-700 persons or more. The village should mainly depend on agriculture and be sufficiently away from the major sources of modern communication such as the district administrative headquarters and business centres. It should be roughly a day's journey from the above pl;:l.ces. The villages were to be selected with an eye to variation in term3 of size, proximity to city and other means of modern communication, nearness to hills, jungles and major rivers. Thus there was to be a regional distribution throughout the State of this category of villages. If, how­ ever, a particular district contained significant ecological variations within its area, more than one village in the district might be selected to study the special adjustments to them.

It is a unique feature of these village surveys that they rapidly outgrew their original terms of reference, as my colleagues warmed up to their work. This proved for them an absorbing voyage of discovery and their infectious enthusiasm compelled me to enlarge the inquiry's scope again and again. It was just as well cautiously to feel one's way about at first and then venture further afield, and although it accounts to some extent for a certain unevenness in the quality and coverage of the monographs, it served to compen­ sate the purely honorary and extra-mural rigours of the task. For, the Survey, along with its many ancillaries like the survey of fairs and festivals, of small and rural industry and others, was an 'extra', over and above the crushing load of the 1961 Census.

It might be of intere5t to recount briefly the stages by which the Survey enlarged its scope. At the first Census Conference in September 1959 the Survey set itself the task of what might be called a record in situ of material traits, like settlement patterns of the village; house types; diet; dress, ornaments and foot-wear; furniture and storing vessels; common means of transport of goods and passengers; domestication of animals and birds; markets attended; worship of deities, festivals and fairs. There were to be recordings, of course, of cultural and social traits and occupational mobility. This was followed up in March 1960 by two specimen schedules, one for each household, the other for the villag e as a whole, which, apart from spelling out the mode of inquiry suggested in the September 1959 conference, introduced groups of questions aimed at sensing changes in attitude and behaviour in such fields as marriage, inheritance, movable and immovable property, industry, indebtedness, education, community life and collective activity, social disabilities, forums of appeal over disputes, village leadership, and organisation of cultural life. It was now plainly the intention to provide adequate statistical support to empirical 'feel', to approach qualitative change through statistical quantities. It had been difficult to give thought to the importance of 'just enough statistics to give empirical underpinning to conclusions', at a time when my colleagues were straining themselves to the utmost for the success of the main Census operations, but once the Census count itsel f was left behind in March, 1961, a series of three regional seminars in Trivandrum v

'(May 1961), Darjeeling and Srinagar (June 1961) restored their attention to this field and the importance of tracing social change through a number of well-devised statistical tables was once again recognised. This itself presupposed a fresh survey of villages already done; but it was worth the trouble in view of the possibilities that a close analysis of statistics offered, and also because the 'consanguinity' schedule remained to be canvas­ sed. By November 1961, however, more was expected of these surveys than ever before. There was dissatisfaction on the one hand with too many general statements and a growing desire on the other to draw conclusions from statistics, to regard social and eeonomic data as interrelated processes, and finally to examine the social and economic processes set in motion through land reforms and other laws, legislative and administra­ tive measures, technological and cultural change. Finally, a study camp was organised in the last week of December 1961 when the whole field was carefully gone through over again and a programme worked out closely knitting the various aim'} of the Surve together. The Social Studies Section of the Census Commission rendered assistance to State Superintendent3 by way of scrutiny and technical comment on the frame of Survey and presentation of results.

This gradual unfolding of the aims of the Survey prevented my colleagues from adopting as many villages as they had originally intended to. But I believe that what may have been lost in quantity has been more than made up for in quality. This is, perhaps, for the first time that such a Survey has been conducted in any country, and that purely as a labour of love. It has succeeded in attaining what it sec out to achieve; to construct a map of village India's social structure. One hopes that th~ volumes of this Survey will help to retain for the Indian Census its title to 'the most fruitful single source of information about the country'. Apart from other features, it will perhaps be conceded that the Survey has set up a new Census standard in pictorial and graphic documenta­ tion. The schedules finally adopted for this monograph have been printed in Appendix III to Kotha Armur Village Monograph (S1. No. 39).

NEW ASOK :MITRA July 30, 1964 Registrar General, India

PREFACE

In the Foreword, the Registrar General, India, has kindly explained the scope and philosophy o()f the Village Surveys taken up as one of the important ancillary studies of the 1961 Census.

In this State, 46 villages were selected for the survey, of which 9 villages fell under the cate­ 'gory of villages each with one dominant community with one predominant occupation, 21 villages representing Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Castes (17 villages with Scheduled Tribes, 3 villages with Tribes not Scheduled, viz., Samanthus, Koya Doras and Mathuras, and 1 village with a Scheduled Caste, Dombs) and 16 villages were villages each of fair size, of an old and well settled character containing variegated occupations and multi-ethnic in composition. The village Maredumaka (No. 20 in the State Map before the inner title page gives the location of the village) covered by the present monograph falls under the third category.

The selection of villages of the optimum population size of 500 and also satisfying all other criteria such as to be at a distance of a day's travel from the taluk headquarters and so on, was none too easy. Several villages selected had to be of a much large size than prescribed as otherwise it waS difficult to choose a village to satisfy the main purpose for which the village was selected for survey. Similarly, some interior tribal villages that were selected were necessarily smaller than the optimum population si",e prescribed. The villages were selected carefully having an eye on regional distribution and ecological variation, but it has not always been possible to select villages so remote as to be a day's journey from important centres of communication or administrative headquarters of a district. With the developed communications and the fast means of transport it was somewhat difficult to locate all villages uninfluenced by developmental activities. There were of course, some villages, particularly in the Agency tract which took not one day but several days to reach from the district headquarters. All the same, it is expected that the villages now .. selected truly represent a cross-section of the rural population of the State.

In this State, we started off with our Village Surveys according to the original scheme of things, under which it was expected that one Investigator should be able to cover a village in about a week Or 10 day's time. Naturally a very simple skeleton schedule was adopted under which m::tinly the social and religious customs and habits were studied in a general sort of way. We covered quite a few villages under this old scheme and the present village of Mared umaka covered by this monograph was one such village surveyed in 1960 itself canvassing the old skeleton sehedules, a set of which is given as Appendix II to the Monograph No. 45, Mattewada Village. As explained in the Foreword, the scope of the survey t on expanding and ultimately on the basis of the canel usions arrived at the Study Camp held in New Delhi in December, 1961, a very detailed set of Village Survey Schedules was drawn up. When we started canvassing this formidable set of schedules, we found that an Investigator was not able to cover more than one household per day. The progress was painfully slow. Even put­ ting extra Investigators, it took several weeks to cover a village completely. As several villages had already been covered by the time the scope of Survey was enlarged, we were able to cover only a limited number of villages canvassing this set of larger schedules which is given as Appendix III to the Mono­ graph No. 39 Kotha Armur Village. An attempt, however, was made to resurvey a few of the villages already covered so as to bring them under the new method. Fortunately, Maredumaka is one such resurveyed village. But the limitation of time made it difficult to resurvey all the rest as proposed. Therefore, the Village Survey Monographs presented for this State will show two distinct patterns-one as covered under the old method and the other under the new expanded method giving very much more detailed statistical information. VIU

Certain limitations to our efforts to achieve this ambitious task may have to be recognised•. While the Investigators who were put on the job of canvassing the schedules were not specialists in any­ particular field, they were carefully chosen for their academic qualifications, experience in Community Development Organillation or their ability and aptitude to move closely with the rural and tribal folk, to find out facts and record truthfully the first hand information. It is open to the specialists in a particular field to scan the material presented here and formulate their own hypotheses for further refined investigation.

The present monograph deals with Maredumaka, a multiethnic village in Vijayawada Taluk. in the fertile Krishna delta of . Kammas are economically and socially the dominant community in the village though they occupy the second place in the matter of numerical strength, next to the Scheduled Caste population. Agriculture is the main occupation for a majority of the people in the village. Kammas are enlightend agriculturi sts adopting several of the lastest methods of farming, by using manures and chemical fertilisers, improved implements and seeds. Indeed Maredu­ maka, is one of t be progressive and prosperous villages in the Krishna District. A special study has been made in this monograph about the socio-economic conditions of Kammas in relation to other crmmunities living in the village.

The village was first surveyed by Sarvasri K. S. S. Raju and A. R. K. Murthy, Economic Investigators in February, 1960. Later in March, 1966 this village was resurveyed by canvassing the enlarged schedules by Sarvasri V. Radhakrishna, Research Assistant and V. D. Chary, Economic Investigator. The Tables were prepared under the guidance of Sri P. Pattayya, the then Tabulation officer and present Manager. The first draft of the report was prepared by Sri V. Radhakrishna,. Research Assistant. Sri P. Pattayya also scrutinised the first draft of the report. The report was finalised by Sri P. S. R. Avadhany, Deputy Superintendent of Census Operations. The credit for the preparation of maps and line drawings goes to Shri M. Krishna Swamy, the Artist-Draughtsman. Sri K. K. Sarma, Computor assisted in reading the proofs.

A. CHANDRA SEKHAR Superintendent of Census Operations, Andhra Pradesh. CONTENTS

Pagel' Foreword lll-V

Preface vii-viii

Chapter I THE VILLAGE 1-8

Introductory - Topography - Climate and rainfall - Flora -Fauna­ Administration and Communications, etc.-Residential pattern-Size and Composition of Household-Source of water - Schools-Crematorium­ Panchayat-Library-Markets - Settlement history of the village- Mig­ ration: Between 4 to 5 decades ago;'; Between 3 to 4 decades ago; Betwem one to two decades ago-Immigration: ; Brahmin; Christian; Goundla; ; Kummari (Potter); Mangali (Barber); Muslim; VaisJa; Viswabrahmin (Goldsmith) ; Uppari; f"anadi and f"eruAula

Chapter II THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 9-36

Ethnic composition-Sex ratio-Age groups- Marital status-Literacy: Ealij.; Brahmin; Christian; ; Kamma; Kapu ; Kummari; Madiga; A/an­ gali; Vaisya; Viswabrahmin; Yanudi-Household heads-A note on ~ach caste: Christian; Kamma; Sub-divisions; The word 'Kamma'; The word 'Chowdari' ; Surnames; Brahmins among Kammas; Golla; Baltja; Chakali; raisya-Caste and social hierarchy-House types-Houses and number of rooms-House construction: Daba lliu ; Rendu Nit.lalla Pllka-Collection of raw material­ Cost of construction-Maintenance of the house-Sanitation and venti­ lation- Drainage system-Lighting-Ceremonies connected with house construction- House-warming- ceremony-Dress: Men's wear; Women's dreH; Dress of bo.ys and girls; Special dress-Hair style-Ornaments: Orna­ ments of the waist, hands and fingers; Ornamenlo' of the neck; Ornaments of the ear and nose; Household goods-Domestic utensils - Fetching and storing of water-Staring-Other articles-Statistics of material culture relating to the surveyed households-Food- Use of oils-Meat and fish- Frequency of taking food-Tea and coffee-Drink-Smoking-Statistics relating to consumption habIts-Trends of change: Housing; Dress; Ornaments etc. ; Domestic utensils; Food and drinking habits-Others

Chapter III SOCIAL CUSTOMS 37-51

General-Pregnancy-Food for the pregnant woman- Ceremonies before confinement-Birth and postnatal practices-Expenditure-Naming cere­ mony: lvIale names; Female names-Cradling ceremony-First feeding of the child-Tonsure ceremony-Initiating the child into alphabet - Upa­ nayanam-Puberty-Marriage; Marriage restrictions; Permissible partners; Ag~ at first marriage; Spatial distribution; Contravtntion of marriage rults ; Objec­ tion to inter-caste marriage; Marriage payments; Initial customs; Celebration of marriage; Consummation; Expenditure on marriage; Widow marriage-Separa­ tion and divorce-Death: Obsequies-Trends of change: Education; Proptrfy x

or business,. Beliefs and practices: Day, and month.,. Seeing,. Hearing; Evil eye; Dreams; Others

Chapter IV ECONOMY 52-76

General-Livelihocd classes-Workers and non-workers: Agriculture; Occu­ ption,. Business etc. Non-workers-Traditional Occup:'ltion-}v1ain occupa­ tion: Agriculture; Casual labour-Combination of occupations-Mobility of occupation-Occupational mobility-Aspiration-Soil-Irrigation-Land potential-Land revenue-Land value - Agriculture: Implements,. Agri­ cultural practices; Manures; Activities ()f Village Level Worker; Japanese method of paddy cultivation; Livestock: Cows and buffaloes; Sheep and goats: Pigs; Poultry: Cattle diseases-Sale of milk-Sale of agricultural produce­ Marketing-Land reforms and its effects-Other occupations: Casual labour; Attached agricultural labour-Main occupation and per capita house­ hold income and family type-Expenditure: Teachers; Village servant)" Trader (kirana); Trader (cloth); Trader (cattle); Cultiv'ltion; Pig rearing; Toddy tap­ ping; Carpentry; lvlasonry; Casual labour~' f11atchman; Hair dressing; Laundrying; Expenditure on education - Household budget - Case studies - Indebted­ ness: Incidence and causes of debt; Crtidit agency and rate of interest)· Communitywise position of indebte dness - Sale and purchase value of assets - Capital formation- Prosperity index-Trends of change

Chapter V CULTURAL LIFE AND VILLAGE ORGANISATION 71-101

General--Family-Trends of change-Leisure and recrea­ tion - Religion - Village deities: Ganganamma)" PotharaJu; Tirupatamma Tirunala; Temples : Ramalayam~l; Ramalayam-2-Festivals-Hindu festivals: Ugadi Srirama Navami; Vinayaka Chaviti; Dasaro; Dapavali; Sankranti; Sivaratri­ Christian festivals: New rear's Day,- Christmas-History of the Panchayat Samithi Elementary School-Roman Catholic Missionary School-Library­ Village Panchayat-Caste Panchayat-Village leadership-Illegal gratifi­ cation-Village politics - Other cultural activities - Bhajan Mandali­ Inter-village relationship - Inter-caste relationship: Bt"rth of a ,baby; Tonsure ceremony; Puberty; Marriage; Death-Inter-caste relationship among other castes : BaliJa; Brahmin; Chakali; Christian; Golla

Chapter VI SOCIAL REFORMS-AWARENESS AND ATTITUDE 103-110 In trod uction-Inheritance-U ntouchability-F amil y Planning-Statistics relating to Family Planning: Awareness; Age afthe head of the household­ Attitude towards Family Planning - Democratic decentralisation - Pan­ chayat Samithi - Panchayat Raj administration - Awareness of the functions of the Panchayat, Panchayat Samithi and Zilla Parishad: Panchayat; Panchayat Samithi and Zilla Parishad - Co-operation - Social awareness Attitude towards survey-Sanskritization

Chapter VII CONCLUSION . 111-112

Social life - Economic life

Appendix TABLES (1]-[110]

Glossary [111]-[112] Xl.

MAP S

Andhra Pradesh State Map showing the Location of Villages Surveyed Before inner title page

Location M'lp of Maredumaka Village XVll

Map of Maredumaka Village XVlll

Layout Sketch of Households by Caste/Tribe/Community in Maredumaka Village XIX

ILL USTRATIONS Figure }fo. Pages-

I Drinking water well XXI

2 An old Mala rna n XXI 3 A typical Kamma ryot xxii 4 A Golla family xxii 5 A Balija family xxiii 6 A Gou!1dla family xxiv 7 A Madiga family xxv R Ground plan of Daba IIlu xxv 9 A modern pucca building xxvi 10 Rendunittalla paka xxvi II Onti nittadi paka xxvii 12 ornaments worn by K"mma women xxvii 13 Domestic utensils of a 1\1ala household xxviii 14 Puri - a granary of paddy xxviii

IS Trenus of change in drc-ss XXIX

Ili Trends of change in dress XXIX 17 A Ros~ian made tractor with its owner Sri Surapaneni Kuchela xxx 18 Agricultural implements, the cart and the bullocks and their master xxx 19 Prize winning bullocks of the village xxxi 20 Haystack and its proud owner xxxi 21 Omitted 22 Ganganamma - Village deity xxxii 23 Potharaju - Village deity xxxii 24 Idol of xxxiii 25 Sri Musunuri Kutumba Rao Choudary Elementary School xxxiii

26 R. c. M. School XXXIV 27 Local youth xxxiv 28 Books arranged in the library xxxv

29 Members of the Panchayat XXXV 30 Elder Kammas of the village xxxvi 31 Prominent youth of the village xxxvi Xll

STATEMENTS

STATEMENT NO. Pag.s

I Variation of Rainfall in Inches 1870-1949 2

II Households by Population, Re Hgion and Caste 9

III Literacy Levels 10

IV Surnames and Calras of Kammas of Maredumaka Village 15

V Caste Hierarchy 17

VI Houses by Roof and Wall Material 21

VII Land Particulars 58

VIII Crop Calendar 59

IX Monthwise Description of Agricultural Operations 59

X Supply of Fertilizers etc., during 1965-66 through the Office of the Block Deve· lopment Officer, Kankipadu to the Agriculturists of Maredum3.ka Village 61

XI Sale of surplus agricultural Produce . 63

XII Types of Family by average annual Household Income Range 66

XIII Common Items of Expenditure 69

XIV Households with surplus and deficit Budget by Income Range 71

XV Family Budget of Sri Surap.lnen i Ihri pULl shottJ.m for the Y,aT 196:)-65 71

XVI Family Budget of Sri Akkineni GQP:lla Krishn:lyya for the Year 1965-66 72

XVII Family Budget of Sri Dandamudi Veeraragh:tvaiah for the Year 1965-66 72

XVIII Family Budget of Sri Guntabni Sanjeeva Rl.o for the Year 1965-66 73

XIX Type of Debt by Households and Amount 73

XX Calendar of Festivals observed by the People of Maredumaka Village 31-82

XXI Particulars of Students in Classes I to V for a Period of 28 Years i. e., from 1939 to 1966 36

XXII Number of Pupils on Roll in R, C. M. School as on 18-3-1966 87

XXII I Controlling Body of the Library 88

XXIV Part~culars of Members of the Panchayat, 1966 89

XXV Income and Expenditure of Maredumaka Panchayat, 1960-65 90-91

XXVI Two rival Parties during 1959 Elections for Village Panchayat 94 xiii

TABLES

TABU No. Pages

1 Area, Houses and Population (1] 2 Size and Composition of Households [I] :3 Households and Population by Religion, Sect/Sub-sect and/Caste/Tribe/Community [2] 4- Population by Age Group and Sex [3]-[4) 5 Population by Age Group and Marital Status [5] 6 Population by Age Group, Sex, Education and Caste/Tribe/Community [6]-[23]

7 Population by Age Group, S~x and Education t24]-[25] 8 Household Heads by Caste/Tribe/Community, Age Group, Sex and Literacy [26]-(31] 9 Deaths by Marital Status, Age Group and Sex During Last 5 Years by Caste! TribefCommunity [32]-[33] 10 Deaths by Causes, Sex, Age Group and Caste/Tribe/Community • (34] II 1961 Primary Census Abstract [34]-[35] 12 Livelihood Classes (35) 13 Workers and Non-workers by Sex and Age Group [36] 14 Workers by Sex, Age Group and Occupations [37]-[38] 15 Workers engaged in Industry, Business, Cultivation and, Other Services belon­ ging to the Household by Age Group and Sex [39] 16 Non-workers by Age Group and Nature of Activity [40] 17 Households engaged in Cultivation, Industry or Business belonging to the Household I-H] 18 Traditional Occupation by Households [41 ] 19 Place of Occupation [42] '20 Occupational Mobility, Cause of Change and Contentment during 1959-60 by Caste!Tribe!Community [431 21 Occupational Mobility-Nature of Aspiration '[44] 22 Distribution of Households by Main Occupation and Caste/Tribe/Community [45]-[46J 23 Combination of Occupations (47) 24 Main Occupation, per capita Annual Household Income and Family Type [48]-[ 49] 25 Land Reforms and its Effects by Households and Caste/Tribe/Community [50) 26 Material Culture-Possession of Furniture by Caste/Tribe/Community and Households [51]-[52] ''2.7 Material Culture-Furniture acquired during last Five Years by Caste/Tribel Community and Households [53) 28 1\1aterial Culture-Possession and Use of Furniture and Consumer Goods and Services by Caste/TribefCommuni ty and Bouseholds [53]-[541 XIV

TABLE No. Pages.-

29 Material Culture, Consumer Goods and Services used during last Five Years by Caste/Tribe/Community and Household s [54] 30 Material Culture-Consumption Habits by Annual Household Income and Households by Caste/Tribe/Communi! y [55]-[56]

31 Budgetary Po~ition of Households by Main Occupation [57]-[58] 32 Annual Ex:penditure on Education by Caste/Tribr/Community • [59] 33 Average Annual Expenditure per Household by Income Group and Occupation [60]-[67] 34 Households with Surplus and Deficit Budget by Income Range [68] 35 Overall H()usehold Income and Expenditure Position by Caste/Tribe/Commu- nity and Households . [69]-[70] 36 Indebtedness by Annual Household Income and Number of Households [71] 37 Indebtedness by Cause, Amount and Hous::holds [71] 38 Number of Debtors by Caste/Tribe/Community [72] 39 Credit Agency and Rate of Interest by Number of HOl!seholds and Amount [73] 40 Sale and Purchase Vaiue of Assets during 1936-66 l74] 41 Capital Formation by Caste/Tribe/Community.and Households [74] 42 Prosperity Index during the last Ten Years (1956-66) [75] 43 Caste/Tribe/Community and Nature of Family [76] 44 Mother Tongue and other Spoken [77] 45 Association of Deity/Special Object of Worship by Caste/Tribe/Community [77] 46 Cultural Life of the Village [78] 47 Dietary Habits by Households and Caste/Tribe/Community [79]

48 Staple Food and Dietary Habits by Caste/Tribe/Community and Hou~eholds [80] 49 Habit of taking Tea and Coffee by Caste/Tribe/Community and Annual Household Income • [81] 50 Smoking and other Habits by Caste/Tribe/Community [82} 51 Contravention of 1hrriage Rules by Caste/Tribe/Community [82] 52 Objection to Inter-caste Marriages [83] 53 Attitude towards Marriage with Persons of different Caste/Tribe/Community but of the same Socio-Ecoll'Jmic Status [83] 54 Marriages by Spatial distribution and Caste/Tribe/Community [84]-[85] 55 Persons by Age at First Marria?e and Caste/Tribe/Community [86] 56 Marriage Payments [87J 57 Dowry Payments and Knowledge of Hindu Marriage Act by Caste/Tribe/ Community [88] 58 Information and Attitude towards Family Planning by Caste/Tribe/Community [88} xv

'TABLE No. Pages

59 Attitude tewards Family Planning with reference to Age of Head of Household by Caste/Tribe/Community (89] 60 Attitude towards Family Planning with reference to Age of Child bearing Woman by Caste/Tribe/Community. [90J 61 Attitude towards Family Planning with reference to the Duration of Marriage by C:.ste/TribeJCom muni ty [91] 62 Attitude towards Family Planning with reference to ABnual Income by Castel Tribe/Community 192] 63 Inheritance of Property in Practice by Caste/Tribe/Community [93] 64 Share of Property for different Categories of Relatives - Sons by Ca

MAP OF MAREDUMAkA ViLLAGE VIJAYAWADA TALUK KRISHNA DISTRICT ......

TARIOOPPlJI.A

Tt:NNERU

BOI(INAl.A

I ! ~ .~ .. \ " ...... 0. 1iouNp4llY \ ~ lfA.fT",nott ARCA :::.~ !..; ..:._.. "'7'1I&4M , ~1'ANI< ® w~ ::::::::::; rooT'JJA'I'W xix

LAYOUT SKETCH Of HOUSEHOLDS BY CASTE!TRJBE/COHHUNITY IN MAREDUMAKA VILLAGE (NOT TO SCALE, N

•

S.No. Symbol Name fjf Castej Total No. of ITribe/Communit y Households .- Balij. 2 2 Brahmin Chabli Ti..;::;.... 4 Golla 4 5 ~== Goundla 2 6 Kamm3 4 7 .- 0- Kapu tI ~'it Kummari 9 it Madiga 10 Lr Mang, /1 ~ Vaisya 12 Cr Viswabrahmln 13 Uppari 14 ¥,oadi

15 Yerukula

16 i Muslim 17 &Christial> /I

XXl

Fig. 1 Drinking water well (Chapter I-Para 16)

Fig. 2 An old Mala man (Chapter II-Para 27) XX 11

I

Fig. 3 A typical Kamma ryot (Chapler II- Para 3:J)

i '

Fig. 4 A Golla family (Chapter II-Para 50) XXlii

Fig... 5 A Balija family (Chapter II-Para _51) XXIV·

Fig. 6 A Goundla ramil y (Chapter II-Para 54)

I xxv

Fig 7 A Madiga family (Chapter II-Para 54)

ENTRANCE

ENTRANce ENTRANCE ""''''1-''' .... o DRAWING ROOM KJTCHEN .J o ... 3: .: ." ~ o o C Z Fig 8 Ground plan of Z o ::lo Daba I! (Chapler 1I- Para 74) L ~ )­ ::f r­ o r ROOM MAtN HA1.l. ROOM U

WINDOW MAIN ENTRANCE WJNDOW

IENTRANCE XXVI

Fig. 9 A modern pucca building (Chapter II-Para 74)

Fig. 10 . Rendunittalla paka (A thatched hut with two main poles) (Chapter II-Para 75) XXVII

Fig. 11 Onti nittadi poka (A thatched hut with one main pole) (Chapt'er 11- Para 76)

Fig. 12 Gold ornaments worn by Kamma women (Chapter II-Para 109) xxviii

Fig. 13 Domes tic utensils of a Mala' household (Chapter II-Para 112)

. I

Fig. 14 Puri- a granary of paddy (Chapter II- Para 114) XXIX -

Fig. 15 Trends of change in dress (The traditional dress of an elderly Kamma c ouple, Al~o see the up-to-date fashionable dress of their grandsons) (Chapter II-Para /39)

Fig. 16 Trends of change in dress. (The present day Kamma youth who is also an agriculturist but wears a pant and a terylene shirt) (Chapter II-Para 139) xxx

Fig. l7 A Russian made tractor with its owner Sri Surapaneni Kuc hela Rao (Ch lPttT II-Para, 143) ,

Fig . In Agricultural implements, tIle cart and th~ bullocks a nd their master (Chap ter IV-Para 44) xxxi

Fig. 19 Prize winning bullocks of the village (Chapter lV-Para 54)

.: :,.._ - Fi_g.{-:~ .2Q c H,~.yStllck and its p.rG.tid. ow-o.er_(._C._hapter IV-Para 5(j))._ (Fig. 21 Omitted) xxxii

Fig. 22 Ganganamma-Village deity (Chapter f7-Para 19)

Fig. 23 Potharaju-Village deity (Chapter V-PaTa 22) ..~ XXX11 1

.,.;-.

Fig. 24 I~ol of Hanuman ( Clwpter V-Para 25)

Fig. 25 Sri Musunuri Kutumba Rao Choudary Elementary School (Chapter V - P.ara 53) XXXIV

Fig. 26 R. C. 1\1. School {Chapter V-Para 54)

, Fig. 27 Local youth (Ch:1pter V-PartJ 57) xxxv

Fig. 28 Books arranged In the Library (Chapter V-Para 57)

Fig. 29 -Members of the P.anchayat(Chaptcr V---Para 59 J­ (Shri V. Radhakrishna, Resear<~ h Assistant can~ als .6 be seen) xxxvi

Fig. 30 Elder Kammas of the village (Chapter V-Para 71)

Fig. 31 Prominent youth of the village (Chapter V--Pata 7 J) (Shri V D Chary, Investigator can also be seen) Chapter I

THE VILLAGE

Introductory can also be reached from Vijayawada by a motor transport route up to Kankipadu and from there 7 Situated at a short distance from Vijayawada, miles by walk, bullock cart, or by cycle rickshaw or the second biggest city in Andhra Pradesh, Maredu­ cycle. The ~iIlage site or gramakanlam as it is maka is a typical Krishna delt;) village. This locally called, of Maredumaka is 16 acres 59 cents village is selected to study the economic condition s in size. The village site is sorrounded on all sides of the people inhabiting it with the background of by agricultural fields. The distributary canal from Rhyes main channel (Krishna waters) passes through their fast changing values of social and cultural the south and south-eastern strip of the village. The life. The economy of the village as also of the soil is very sticky. Right in the middle of the village entire district being essentially agriculture oriented, there is a vanneru (brook) flowing in south-eastern bears testimony to the impact of century old anicut direction. This brook has been both a blessing and a across the river Krishna at Vijayawada. This is curse to the health of the village in general and one of the 114 inhabited villages in Vijayawada sanitation in particulaL The brook is used for taluk. Again among them this is one of the 41 washing and bathing the cattle. In the rainy season villages with less than 1,000 population. owing to the over flow of water in the brook some of the houses and the streets in the village are Topography submerged in the water and are separated from the main village. The stagnant water of the vanneru 2. Maredumaka is situated on 16° 28' I I" North has been the breeding ground for mosquitoes. latitude and 80 0 44' 36/1 East longitude in Krishna district which is elongated roughly from North­ Climate and Rainfall West to South-East and is sorrounded on the east by and , on 4. The climate of the district is ordinarily the south by Bay of Bengal, on the west by healthy. The average annual rainfall of the dist­ and Nalgonda districts and on the north by rict is 36.42 inches. July to November may be . The district may be broadly regarded as the heaviest period. In the divided into two natural zones, viz., the delta and month of June. the rainfall is always nominal.. the plains. The Krishna delta comprises the taluks Rains sometimes commence in May with heavy of Bandar (Masulipatnam), Divi, Gudivada, Kai­ thunder storms. The rainfall in this month gene­ kalur and portions of Vijayawada and Gannavaram. rally augments the supply of drinking water and The remaining taluks of Nandigama, Jaggayya enable the upland ryots in some parts to raise some peta, Tiruvur and Nuzvid and north portions of of the early crops. The rainfall in June is appreci­ Vijayawada and Gannavaram constitute the upland able. November also is a very w~t month some­ and from part of . times while December is comparative I y dry, the rainfall varying from nil to 3,98 inches. Of the 3. Maredumaka is a village In the deltaic two which visit the district the south­ portiori of Vijayawada taluk. It is located in west monsoon is the more important and its failure Kankipadu firka of Vijayawada taluk. It is at a effects the food supply, although the north-east distance of 18 miles towards South-West of Vijaya­ monsoon, if favourable, would mitigate its effects wada to-wn and about 2 miles from 'Tarigoppula to an appreciable extent. Gannavaram is the Railway Stati'On on the Vijayawada-Masulipatnam nearest rain ga uge stat :on to this village. Rainfall broad gauge line. The village is connected by an data pertaining to that station, therefore, holds earthen road in the north-east to a metal road good to this village also. The statement given on the running between Manikonda and Tarigoppula. It next page gives an idea of the variation in rainfalL 2 CHAPTER

Statement I

VARIATION OF RAINFALL IN INCHES 1870-19491

Jan. Recording Station Year of Period to Apl, ]\1"y JUI'" July Aug' Sept. Oct. !'~ov. Dec. 'Total March ------(1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) ( 11) (12) (13)

Gannavaram MaxImum 1917 1.24 2.18 9.39 13.47 12.51 966 3.93 9.38 62 ::6 l\Iinimum 1891 3.96 3.51 3.55 6.49 2.90 0.::0 2061 District average 1.00 0.64 1.54 4.26 6.75 6.39 6.22 6.09 3.20 0.34 3642

1. Statistical Atlas of the 1959. The Bureau of Economics and Statistics, Govt. of A. P. Page 271.

Flora Administration and Communication, etc·

5. As the village is situated on plain area 7. For purposes of civil administration the flora does not contain any special species found Maredumaka comes under Kankipadu firka of in the forest or hilly areas. Neredu (Eugenia jam­ Vijayawada taluk of Krishna district. The nearest bolam), mango, tumma (Acacia ferruginea), ravi police station is at Kal1kipadu at a distance of 18 (Ficus reugiesa), vepa or neem tree (Azadiraduta miles. The nearest post office is at Tenneru, a indica), cocoanut, date palm, palmyra, and drum neighbouring village at a distance of one mile stick trees are the only trees found in and around cross country and three miles through a circular the village. In almost all the paddy fields palmyra road route which runs parallel to a railway line trees are found in good number. Palmyra is a between Tarigoppula and Tenlleru. The nearest multipurpose tree. Its leaves are used for roofing; Telegraph Office for this village is at Manikonda, a its trunk is used for rafters and supporting pillars in fairly big village situated at a distance of four miles. the construction of houses and cattlesheds and its juice is tapped regularly by the local Goundlas 8. For medical facilities, the local people who sell it clandestinely in spite of prohibition. mostly depend upon a Registered Practitioner of Some ryots have started growing mangoes also in Tarigoppula who visits the village almost daily and their fields. attends to all the cases of minor nature. Only the serious cases are taken to the Government hospital at Fauna Vijayawada where there arc also a good number of 6. There is nothing interesting with regard to private medical practitioners, who are qualified fauna of this village. Except the domesticated ani­ physicians, surgeons and specialists. The women mals like cows, oxen, buffaloes, dogs and cats, there belonging to richer sections mostly Kammas, go are no other animals in this village. Even the cows, over to Vijayawada for confinement etc. In a few oxen and buffaloes are mostly of local breed. But cases the patients suffering from serious ailments are a few households who sell milk regularly to the taken even to and Hyderabad for 'middleman who transports it to Vijayawada by expert treatment. Before the formation of Andhra train are having buffaloes of Punjabi breed which Pradesh State local Kamrnas used to go to Madras yield large quantity of milk. Some of the cows for any emergency but now-a-days they:are going and oxen are of the famous Ongole breed of Guntur either to Hyderabad or Visakhapatnam. district. Local Kamma caste people evirice extra­ ordinary interest in the upkeep of their cattI e which 9. Surprisingly there is no hospital, not even a they consider most valuable next only to land. The first aid centre in the village for animals. Animal people of other castes do not appear to take so much dise'lses are cured mostl y by using indigenous care of their cattle. medicines with the help and guidance of elderly THE VILLAGE 3 pcople who rely upon the past experience of trial eastern part is inhabited by the Malas and Madigas and error method and in some cases the village most of whom are converted Christians. Karnam, a Kamma· by caste, himself a good Veterinary Doctor, refers to the authoritative book 13. Only the approach road from Tarigoppula on Animal Husbandry by Sri Yejella Sreeramulu railway station to the school building which is in Chowdary and treats the local livestock. The nea­ the centre of the village on the side of the vanneru, rest first aid clinic for livestock is at Tenneru, a is a metalled one. The remaining lanes in the village at a distance of one mile. Attempts are village are not metalled and therefore present being made by the local land lords to arrange a difficulties during the rainy season. The housing post and telegraph office, Government dispensary pattern in the village does not show that there was for people and first aid centre for livestock in the any plan prepared before constructing the houses. village. There appears to be hardly any systematic planning of the roads or houses in the village. The present 10. As the. village is situated only about 2 locality inhabited mostly by the people of Kamma miles from the Tarigoppula railway station on caste constituted the original village where once all Vijayawada-Masulipatnam line, the people of the castes except Malas and Madigas (Scheduled Castes) village like those of many villages in this area travel' inhabited. But with the all-round economic develop­ frequently by train particularly to Vijayawada. ment of Kammas, they acquired the entire area for Trains run between Vijayawada and :Masulipatnam themselves virtually forcing the people of other at close intervals facilitating easy and cheap com­ castes to leave them. The people of other castes munication in this . used to take loans from the Kammas and when they found it difficult to repay the loans, the credi­ tors acquired the houses and properties of the 11. There are two temples of Sri in the debtors in settlement of the loans. Thus ultimately village. The village deities Ganganamma and the entire locality belonging to Goundla and Golla Potharaju 'He propitiated only on special occasions castes appears to have come into the possession of like epedemics while people visit the temples only Kammas. But Malas and Madigas (Scheduled on Sri Rama Navami (March-April) day which Castes) have not changed their residential place they celebrate without fail. Tirupati of Lord and continue to live in segregation. They have been Venkateswara-the household deity of a majority of inhabiting the same old area and the people of no Andhras, is visited by almost all the villagers inclu­ other caste have occupied any piece of land in their ding some of the converted Christians. Vijayawada of Kanakadurga, Mangalagiri (Guntur district) locali ty. of Narasimhaswamy, Chilakalapudi (Masulipat­ nam) of Panduranga are the places of pilgri­ Size and Composition of Household mage frequently visited by the local people besides Tirupati. Tirupatamma tiranalu (a fair) conducted 14. The total population of 1,044 residing in every year in the name of Tirupatamma deity at 231 households belongs to 16 different communities Tennenl, is anothcr place of cultural and religious (Table I). But for purpose of this survey a sample of importance with which the local people are associ­ 35 households representing all castes in the ratio of ated. The village as it is, has no religious and 1:6 have been selected. There are 178 'people cultural importance in the tal uk. residing in these 35 households. Among these 35 households there is no single member household. Only one household consisted of more than 10 Residential Pattern members. 16 households are accommodating 79 12. The whole village may broadly be divided persons, i.e., four to six members per household on into three zones. (Map No. III). The northern an avcrage. Twenty four persons-II males and 13 part of the villagc is a new extension locall y called females-are living in 10 households representing an Ramaraopet and Satyanarayanapet. It is mostly average of two to three members per household inhabited by Golla and Krishna Balija castes. The while the remaining 8 households are having 7 to 9 . western part of the old village site is mostly inhabi­ members each. For the village as a whole the ted by the people of Kah1ma caste and the south- average size of the household is 5 persons (Table 2). 4 CHAPTER I

The communitywise position shows some interesting 17. Onl y' a few rich Kamma households are points. having bore hole latrines in the backyard of their houses. All the remaining people of the village go 15. The only Brahmin household in the village to the outskirts of the village to answer the calls is crowded with 8 members. The head of the of nature. The roads within the village are not household, a teacher, immigrated long ago is living regularly swept and cleaned since the Panchayat in a small hut donated by the local Kammas. has not provided any sweeper for this purpose. In People of all the castes other than Kammas are the rainy season it becomes extremely difficult for living in thatched huts. But among Kammas the an outsider to move a bout within the village. position is altogether different. No Kamma is living in a thatched hut. Some are having tiled Schools houses and a few rich are having spacious buildings. Surprisingly the size of a Kamma family is very 18. There are two Primary Schools in the small. This appears to be because of two reasons. village, viz., Zilla Parishad Primary School and First, usually the number of sons in a Kamma Roman Catholic Primary School - particulars of family never exceeded three and secondly the schools are given in Chapter V. family planning is observed among these families rigorously. It is, therefore, found that only a few Crematorium members are occupying very big houses. Among all 19. It is situated in the eastern side of the other castes the number of members in each house­ village. Once this used to be away from this hold varies from three to nine. The Christians, it village. But in the past 20 to 30 years casteS like may be noted, in spite of their extreme poverty are Golla, Goundla, Yanadi have settled on either side not taking to family planning and appear to think of the road very close to the crematorium, which is that it is against the will of the God. now known as Ramaraopet. The crematorium is used by all castes except by Mala sand Madigas who Source of Water use the poramboke area a little away from the crema· 16. The sources of water supply for drinking torium of all the other castes. and general purposes are mostly public and private wells. Canal, vanneru (brook) and a small pond are Panchayat used by Chakalis and other people for washing 20. The village Panchayat has no building of clothes and bathing. There are six public wells in its own. Its office is temporarily housed in a rented the village. Except one dilapidated well near building. The office clerk does not belong to this vanneru, dug some 100 years back, the remaining five village. He stays in his native place, Tenneru and wells are being used by the people. . Two wells visi ts this place whenever the work demands his mostly used by Malas and Madigas were dug some presence or whenever the President scnds for him. 100 years ago. Some three years back another well There is a Community Radio receiving set for the was dug by the Panchayat in the habitation of Panchayat which is operated by the Owner of the Malas. The Panchayat constructed another well 6 house which is used as the office in the evenings, years back in the midst pf the Yanadi locality. i. e., from 6.00 p. m. to 8.30 p. m. The village is The last one is situated in the Ramaraopet. Most of electrified recently. the Kamma families have installed boring pumps in the front or backyards of their houses. The water Library belt is found at a depth of 14 to 15 feet. The drinking water wells are not covered. The mouth 21. Maruthi Grandhalayam is a private library of the well is three to four feet higher than the run by the enthusiastic youth of the village who cemented platform built a little above the ground formed a library association. The building to house level. No well has got a pulky to draw water. People the library was donated by one late Sri Musunuri simply bend over the wall and lift the water with Nagabhushanam while some of the local rich people kadava ( pot), binde (brass pot) and small buckets have donated books, chairs, etc. There 18 an tied to a fibre rope. Figure 1 shows how even a girl unqualified librarian to look after the library. More draws watcr from the well. details are given in Chapter V. VILLAGE 5

Markets 25. Regarding the first settlers, there are two versions current among the villagers. The Surapa­ 22. Vijayawada is the nearest important market neni family of Kamma caste claims that their for all purchases to the local people. Surplus ancestors were the first settlers in the village, while paddy is sold to Commission Agents who keeping people belonging to Koneru surname claim the first their hEadquarters at Vijayawada, tour all the settlement for themselves. But persons of other nearby villages and purchase the surpl us paddy surnames like Akkineni and Dandamudi who settled and pulses like blackgram, ben<:\"algram and red­ much later say that Surapaneni family was the first gram and transport it by lorries to Vijayawada. to settle in the village. The present President of the Though Gudivada with a fairly b:g market is village Panchayat Sri Surapaneni Haripurushotham, nearer when cnmpared to Vijayawada most of the aged 60 years or so, says that his great grand­ villagers prefer the latter only due to many other father Sri Subbaiah Garu originally belonging to a facilities. For purchase of clothes and all domestic village called Vanapamula in Gudivada taluk of the utensils, etc., they go to Vijayawada. Vegetables same district was the first migrant to this village. are not at all purchased by any section of the He adds further that a Koneru family hailing from village population as they are grown in their farm Devarakota seema of the present Divi taluk has also yards. Milk and curds are sold to middlemen who migrated alm05t at the same time, The Koneru visit their houses twice a day, collect the same and family was and is still related to the Raja of ChaIIa­ sell them at Vijayawada. In emergencies which are palli. A little later, it seems a Golla family and rare, they purchase medicines at Kankipadu. The one .Mala family also came over from somewhere nearest animal fair is held at Gudlavalleru in Gudi­ and settled in the village. Sri Surapaneni Subbaiah vada tal uk on every Friday. In fact, it is the biggest garu, the first settler slowly brought his nephews, animal fair in the entire district. For purchase of nieces, etc., from various places to strengthen his oxen most of them go to Gudlavalleru but buffaloes community and donated some land which he are purchased in a majority of the cases locally acquired freely to all of them. Similariy one after within a radious of three to four miles, There is the other families going with surnames like Akki­ only one Komati household in the village doing neni from Ogirala village, Musulluru from Pulipalla, grocery business and catering to the needs of all Dandamudi from Gandigunta, Vallabhaneni from thosc poor households who buy their requirements Gudlavalleru and Boppudi from Devarakonda had almost dail y. Except this petty grocery shop there is come and settled in the village. no other shop of any importance in the village. Most of the Kammas get their monthly requirements of 26. Later one Sri Cherukuri Choppaiah came tobacco, cigarettes, soaps, etc., also from Vijaya­ from Guntur on his own and he brought his son-in­ \Nada. law Sri Laxminarayana from Bommulur, Gudivada taluk and gave away his land to him. Settlement History of the Village 27. Among other castes, i. e., two families one 23 A few elders on th~ other side of 60 years each of Golla and Mala castes were among the first c ou1d ~ell sbmething about the history and ori~in of settlers. How the other castes had settled in the the village. In the absence of any recorded evi­ village is not known to them. But the elderly dence to the contrary their narrations may he safely Kammas say that castes like Balija, Golla, Goundla, taken as reliable. • Kapu, Uppari, Yanadi and Yerukula settled during the last four to five decades on their own accord whi Ie 24. Some two to three centuries ago all this the functional castes like Vaisya (trader), Kummari area was covered with a thick forest forming part of (potter), Mangali (barber), Chakali (washerman), the Eastern . This particular area where the Uppari (earthen worker) and Viswabrahmin (car­ present village is located is said to abound in penter-cum-blacksmith) had come here some 50 maredu (Aegle marmeles) trees. Later when people to 60 years ago as there were no households belong­ settled here the y were called by others as people ing to their respective castes engaged in their occu- living in Telugu Maredumaka, i, e .. the place where 'pations for serving the village community. The head maredu trees grew in plenty. This appears to be of the only Muslim household has come very recently the origin of the name of this village. to eke out his livelihood by working as a tailor. Malas 6 CHAPTER I

and Madigas have been residing in the village for Between 3 to 4 decades ago quite a long time. As their services are absolutely essential in all agricultural operations the landlords 32. Three households belonging to Kamma depend upon them and in turn they depend upon caste only have migrated from this place during the landlords for their livelihood. The majority of this period. All of them had gone to Vijayawada, the Mala and Madiga families are associated with locally called Bezawada, to better their prospects. some Kamma family or another and are working as As their land holdings were very small they could agricultural labourers. not maintain themselves in this village. Further they were attracted to Vijayawada town by their 28. The only Brahmin has been staying in the relatives who were already in some prospering village for more than 20 years. In fact the Kamma business with offers of help and assistance and it caste holding the agriculturD.l sector is a nucleus wouid appear that they had disposed of their lands around which all the remaining castes make their in the village and taken up business in the town. livelihood. They have absolutely no contacts with the village now, except that they claim their nativity to this 29. Of the 35 surveyed households 5 house­ village. holds, i. e., one each of Christian, Goundla, l\1us­ im, Viswabrahmin and Yerukula communities Between 2 to 3 decades ago have immigrated to this village during the past 10 years' time. Eight households claim their immi­ 33. Five households of Kamma and three of gration prior to 10 years. Of them again 4 house­ Goundla castes h:lVe migrated during this period. holds, i. e , one each of Balija, Brahmin, Goundla Four of them have gone to Vijayawada, while the and Mangali castes have settled down in this village remaining one has gone to a village nearby Vijaya­ about 11 to 20 years ago. Three out of the remai­ wada. All the Goundlas have migrated to Mani­ four households have reported to have migra­ konda, a village at a distance of two to three miles. ted to this place as long back as 21 to 30 years. Between one to two decades ago Those three belong to Kamma, Uppari and Yanadi castes. The only household which came more than 34. The remaining 15 households have migra­ 50 years back also belongs to Kamma caste ted to various places during this period. Except (Table 71). one or two Goundla and Go,lla caste households, the majority of them are Kammas and they had Migration migrated mostly to Vijayawada, Vuyyuru, ­ 30. During the last five decades thirty five gama, Angaluru all in the same district while a few families migrated from this village to various places have migrated to Guntur district also. in the State due to some reas')n or other. Decade­ wise migration shows some interesting features. 35. Migration in this district is a subject of absorbing interest for any sociologist or economist. Between 4 to 5 decades ago Since the dawn of Independence, due to the high 31. Three Kapu, one Kamma and five Golla level of literacy in the districs a good number of peo­ households have migrated from this village during ple from villages migrated to nearby towns in the this period. Most of the Gollas migrated to the then initial stages just for their children's further educa­ Nizam's State, the present part of tion. Slowly with the development of Vijayawada Andhra Pradesh State. As the then Hyderabad as one of the biggest mercantile centre a few intelli­ State was under the rule of Nizam the 9 Telugu gent and enterprising persons have ventured to districts of the State were popularly known as invest in some business or other and when fortune 'Nizam'. Those who migrated to the neighbouring smiled they further advanced and settled either at district of Nalgonda or Warangal were also called Vijayawada itself or at Hyderabad, which after migrants to 'Nizam'. The remaining people mig­ becoming the capital of Andhra State in 1956, ra ted to rural' parts of the same district but of attracted most of the people of this district. But different taluks. The reasons for their migration at the same time not all these migrants have lost are not clearly known to anyone. But old people their interest in their lands in the village. Instead, say that because of some domestic and economic some of them brought back their hard earned profits conditions they were forced to leave the village. from the business and purchased lands afresh or THE VILLAGE 7 purchased lands which they themselves sold before Brahmin entering the business. Either it is for children's education or for business almost every second 39. Belonging to the same district but of a Kamma family of all the villages nearby Vijaya­ different taluk, he was transferred to this place as a wada, Gudivada and Muslipatnam has set up one teacher from some another place. separate establishment at an urban place while main­ Christian taining constant touch with the village. In this village also there are a few cases where after 40. Of the three immigrants one is a teacher completing the collegiate education one took to con­ and he was transferred to this place from a place tracts work, another took to business and so on and within the taluk. The other two also belonging to migrated to Vijayawada and Nandigama. In one a rural place of the same taluk formerly engaged in case one Kamma gentleman migrated to Vijaya­ agriculture and casual labour have migrated to this wada and incurred a great loss in a business and came p lace to better thei r prospects. back to the village but after a few years' stay he migrated again to some other town but kept up his Goundla small holding of two acres of land in the village. 41. Two households, i. e., one from an urban 36. From these and other instances it can be place outside the district and another from a observed that the local people :- rural place of the same ta 1uk engaged in casual labour and attached agricultural labour respecti­ a) are enterprising and risk taking; vely before migration have come to this village to eke out their livelihood and on the request of b) can go to any extent in business provided their re la ti ves. they are sure of their profits; c) at the same time have not completely given Kamma up their interest in their traditational occupation, i. e., agriculture; and 42. All the three immigrant households are from ru~al parts only but one belongs to another d) severe their connections with the village taluk of the same district and two belong to other onl y when they find themselves will esta­ blished in their new occupations elsewhere. villages of the same tal uk. Agriculture was and is still their main occupation. The reasons for their migration are reported to be adoption in one case Immi~ration and improvement of living prospects in the other 37. Of the 35 households surveyed 18 have two cases. reported to have migrated to this village sometime back. Table 74 speaks about this aspect. Nine Kummari (potter) out of these IS households have come from rural 43. The onl y immigrant of this caste has come parts of the same tal uk. Among the remaining 9 from a neighbouring village of the same taluk and households 5 have come from outside the taluk but he has been continuing his traditional occupation, the same district. Again all of them have come i. e., pottery. from rural parts only. The remaining 4 are from outside the district but within the State. Again Mangali (barber) two of them are from rural parts and the other two are from urban parts. The reasons ff)r immigation 44. Also from a neighbouring village he mig­ and their occupation before migration are discussed rated to this village to eke out his livelihood by in the following paragraphs communitywise. engaging himself in his traditional occupation.

Balija Muslim

38. Belonging to Guntur district, he migrated 45. Hailing from a nearby village of the same to this village after marriage. Before migration he tal uk, formerly working as casual labourer, he was engaged in business and even now he is conti· migrated to this place for a better living by engaging nuing the same. himself in tailoring. 8 CHAPTER I

Vaisya as casual labourer before migration, he came here to continue the same occupation. 46. Also locally known as Komati, belonging to a village of Kaikalur tal uk of the same district, he migrated to this place to run his grocery shop Yanadi and Yerukula which is his traditional occupation. 49. Both belonging to Guntur district, they Viswabrahmin (goldsmith) have migrated to this village to eke out their 47. Native of a distant village of Gudivada livelihood. taluk of the Same district, he came here to eke out his livelihood by working as a carpenter. 50. From the above it is clear that 12 out of 18 have come here to eke out their livelihood and Uppari on their own accord. Only two personS have come 48. Also belonging to Gudivada taluk engaged here due to matrimonial alliance. Chapter II

THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENT

Ethnic Composition Castes, Christians and Muslims. The following statement gives the particulars of the surveyed The village population is composed of IS Hindu population according to caste:

Statement II

HOUSEHOLDS BY POPULATION, RELIGION AND CASTE

,-______Population--L ______~ Community/Caste !'

HINDU Balija 2 13 3 10 Brahmin 8 4 4 Chakali 1 9 5 4 Golla 4 25 15 10

Goundla 2 8 3 5 Kamma 4 29 12 11 Kapu 5 4 Kummari 3 2 l\fadiga 5 2 3 Mangali 4 2 2 Vaisya 9 4 S

Viswabrahmin 4 3 Uppari 2

Yanadi 6 3 3 Yerukula 5 3 2 MUSLIM 2 CHRISTIAN 11 41 20 21

Total 35 178 81 97

Sex Ratio and females are equal in number. Males are more in number than the females in the remaining three 2. Of the total 201 houses in the village 35 castes, viz., Chakali, Golla and Yerukula. In the households representing all castes have been selee ' only Muslim household there is one male and one ted for the survey. Among the 15 Hindu cast~s the female. Among the 11 Christian households there females out-numbered males in 8 castes, viz., Balija, are 41 persons, i.e., 30 males and 11 females. Goundla, Kamma, Kapu, Kummari, ,Madiga, According to 1961 Primary Census Abstract the Vaisya and Viswabrahmin. In four cast~s, viz, total population of the village was 1,044, i. e., 524 , Brahmin, Mangali, Uppari and Yanadi, the males males and 520 females. In the rural parts of Krishna 10 CHAPTER II

district the sex-ratio according to the 1961 Censlls are no unmarried females in the age groups of 15-19 is 966 females per every 1,000 males and for Vijaya­ and 20-24 years. Evidently all the males and wada taluk (rural) 977 females per 1,000 males. As females OVf'r 25 years were married sometime. against these figures the village population is almost There is not even one male below I t years who is equally distributed among the two sexes, i. e., 524 married. Even in the age group of 15-19 years males and 520 females. But among the 35 surveyed there are no married males while three females are households there are 81 males and 97 females, i.e., found married. As against this, in the age groups of a sex-ratio of nearly 1,200 females per 1,000 males. 20-24 and 25-29 years, of the 28 married persons only 5 are males. The decrea~e in the number of Age groups married females in the higher age groups suggests that the disparity in the age of husband and wife 3. Table 4 gives the particulars of population seems to be more. The incidence of widowhood of all the castes according to the age divided into among the 173 surveyed persons is rather negligible, thirteen different groups extending from 0-4 years as is evident from the figures of one male and three to 60 years and above. Of the total 178 persons, females in the age group of 60 years and above 10 males and 12 females are children of below 5 recorded as widowed (Table 5). years. In the next immediate higher age group, i.e., 5-9 years there are 10 males and 2'3 females. LUl'racy These two age groups constitute 30.81 % of the total 5. A literate is one who can both read and population. In the next two age groups, i.e., 10-14 write. Krishna district stands next only to Hydera­ years and 15-19 years, i.e., roughly the Secondary bad district with regard to literacy. The relevant Seool-going age, there are only 14 and 10 persons figures are given in the following statement. respectively-4 males and 10 females in the age group of 10-14 years and 7 males and 3 females in Statement III the age group of 15-19 years. These two age groups LITERACY LEVELS together form 13.58% of the total population. 49 Percentage of litera~y among persons or 27.52% of the population are found in ,--______L ______~ the age groups of 20-24, 25-29, 30-34 and 35-39 Area Persons Males Females years. Of these 49 persons 22 are males and 27 are (I) (2) (3) (4) females. In the age groups of 20-24, 25-29 years males and females are in the ratio of 5: 11 and 4: 12 Andhra Pradesh State 21.2 30.2 12.0 respectively. Thus among the III persons below Hyderabad District 35 () 45.9 23.7 30 years of age as many as 71 are females while Krishna District 31.2 38.8 23.2 only 40 are males. Surprisingly there are no females Surveyed Population (178) 36.5 43.2 30.1 in the age group of 30-34 years. There are only 11 6. Thus, while the percentage of literacy in males in this age group. Again in the next immedi­ Krishna District is higher than the corresponding ate age group of 35-39 years there are 2 males and figun s for the State in all the three categories, the 4 females. Between the years of 30-40 age there are percentage of literacy in the surveyed village is 13 males and 4 females. Between 40 and 50 years higher than the corresponding figures for the dis­ of age th~re are 9 males and 10 females, but between aiel. Table 7 tells about the population by age 50 and 60 years there are 8 males and 6 females. group. sex and education. 113 are illiterates. Of Among the 17 persons aged 60 years and above, 11 them 46 are males and 67 are females. Nearly one are males and 6 are females. th·rd or 39 of them are children of below 10 years. Marital status There are 21 persons who are merely literates with­ out any educational qualifications. Thirty-five per­ 4. The proportion of the unmarried i.s 45% in sons, i. e., 17 males and 18 females have the Primary the total population. The rest fall in the category or Junior Basic qualification. Five males are either of married and widowed. Of the 80 never married, Matriculates or passed the Higher Secondary exami­ 35 are males and 45 are females. 55 among them nation. Of the remaining, one male is a student of are children of below 10 years age. In the age Pre-University Class, two males are graduates and group of 10-14 years, there are 4 males and 10 one male is a post-graduate. Of the 5 Matriculates, females who are unmarried while naturally there one is in the age group of 20~24 years while the TIlE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 11 rest are aged above 30 and below 35 years. The 10 years. Six persons, i. e., 4 males and 2 females onlyP.U.C. boy and one of the two graduates are have studied up to Junior B:lSic. Of these 6, four in the age group of 20-24 years whereas the remai­ are school going children of helow 20 years. The ning onc graduate and one post-graduate arc aged remaining two literates have stl1died up to Matricu­ more than 24 years and less than 30 years. lation. Both of them are males and are found one each in the age groups of 20-24 and 30-34 years. 7. The communitywise distribution of literates s given in Table 6. There are no literates among Kamma 4- out of the 15 Hindu castes. They are Chakali (washerman), Goundla (toddy tapper), Uppari and 12. Out of 29 persons of this community in Yerukula. In the only l\Inslim household in the four households, only 7 are illiterates. Four of village no one is a literate. The literacy position them are children below 9 years and the remaining among other castes and Christians is as follows: three are females. Out of the 22 literates thirteen persons have studied upto Primary or Junior Basic Balija standard while three are school going children of below 15 years. Both the Matriculates, the only 8. Two males and one female ont of the total graduate and post-graduate are males and are aged 13 persons are mere literates wit hout any educa­ more than 20 and less than 35 years. tional qualifications. The only literate female is a school going girl of :1-9 years ago. The two literate Kapu males are aged above 40 years. The rest all are i !literates. 13. Three out of five persons of this caste are literates. Two of these three are girls studying Brahmin in the local school. One male aged 60 years or so 9. In the solitary Brahmin household there is a literate with Primary education. are 8 persons. Of them excluding t\\'o female Kummari children of helow 5 years all the rest are literates. The household head is a teacher in thc local school 14. Only one out of the three persons is an and is aged above 45 but below 50 years. His illi terate. One of the two literates is a female aged wife coming in the age group of 40-44 years is between 20-24 years who studied upto Primary also a literate with Primary qualification. Among standard while the other male aged between 30-34 his children one son aged between 20-24 years has years has studied upto Matriculation. passed P.U .C. Two other sons aged more than 10 years and less than 20 years are in high school and Madiga one danghter, already married, falling in the age group of 20-24 years has Primary education. 15. One among the five persons is a lite­ rate without any educational qualification. Christian Mangali 10. Only 5 out of the 41 informants are literate. Two of them are school going child ren of below 10 16. In this caste also only one among tht" 4 years. Among the remaining three Ii tera tes one persons is a literatt". male, a teacher in the local Christian school and the other two females have studied upto Junior Vaisya Basic. In spite of the existence since 30 to 40 years of the R. C. M. school there which is mainly inten­ 17. There are 9 persons in the one household ded to educate the Christians, literacy among of this caste surveyed. Of them except four chil~ Christian s is deplorably low. Further discussion dren of below 9 years the rest are literates, and one about the school is made in Chapter V. of them has studied up to Matricula tion.

Go)]a Viswabrahmin 11. 12 Ol1t of the 25 persons of this caste 18. All the four persons of this caste are lite­ are literate. Four of them are children of below rates. Two or them are mere literates without any 12 CHAPTER II

educational qualifications and the remamlDg two 30-3-4- and 50-54 years and four each are there in have studied upto Primary standard. the age groups of 40-44 and 45-49 years. The remaining one is aged mor~ than 55 years but less Yanadi than 60 years. Age seems to be the onl y criteria for becoming the head of a household. Literacy is not 19. Only one of the six persons is a lite­ considered essential since illiterate people have rate with primary qualification. been managing large families quite well since long. Of these 35 household heads 15 are literates. The 20. From the above analysis it is clear that 20 illiterate household heads are found among 8 literacy is relatively more among Brahmin, Vaisya different castes. They are Chakali (one household), and Kamma castes than among the otter Castes in Christian UO households), Golla (3 households), the village. Thi s is not because of the lack of facili­ Goundla (2 households) and Mangali, Muslim, ties for a few castes and more amenities for a few. Uppari and Yerukula (one household each) It is due to the fact that among the lower castes [Table 8J. like Mala and :Madiga, boys aged even below 10 years have to eke out their livelihood for themselves. A note on each caste Therefore, they are found engaged as attached agricultural labourers or herd boys. Besides this, 24. Risely defines caste as "a collection offami­ lies or groupsoffamilies bC'aring a common name; claim­ elderly people among these castes are themselves ing a common descent from a mytllical ancestor, human illiterate and as such are not keen on educating or divine; professing to follow the same hereditary calling; and regarded by tho;,e who are competent to their children. give ~n opinio;:: as forming a smgle homogeneous com- In'llllty ...... 1 21. Though a good number of Malas and Madigas were converted into Christianity long time Christian back by the Roman Catholic Missionary with the 25. There are 41 persons of this caste living in intention of making them educated and enlightened, 11 households out of the 35 households surveyed. the object does not seem to have been achieved They are divided into two distinct groups, viz., hecause even after 40 to 50 years of their conver­ Roman Catholics and Christ Missionary Service sion, onl y a fraction of one per cent of these l\lalas locally called C. M. S. As already observed they are and Madigas are Ii terates. Apart from this gloomy Christians nominally. In fact they do not remem­ picture as far as education is concerned these origi­ ber the fact always and consider themselves a­ nal Malas and Madigas have lost also the privileges l\1alas and Madigas, the castes to which they belong' that are being given by the State and Central ed before conversion. The history of conversion of Governments for the education and employment of Hindu lower castes into Christianity in Krishn 1 Scheduled Castes. district dates back to a long period. C::Jl1version took place through three processes, viz., health Household heads service, education and marriage. Just as anywhere 22. In a patriarchal society the head of the in India in this district also the first conversion household is generally a male. In a rural society a took place more than 400 years ago when the Bri tish woman heads the household only in the absence of first landed at Masulipatnam on business purposess an adult male in the household. As soon as the First of all they found out the weaker section of the son reaches the age of 18 or 19 years she gives away population, i. c., Malas and Madigas, the then all the household responsibilities to him. untouchables and attracted them through donations of money , medicine and free education and got them 23. In ~laredumaka the heads ofhouseh'}lds of converted into their religious fold. A conservative all the 35 households surveyed are males. And and distorted outlook of Hindus on certain matters except one in the age group of 25-29 years all the was also partly responsible for those people to rest are aged above 30 years. The highest number embrace readily an alien faith which did not impose ~ll1lO11g them. i. e , 11 is found in the a~e group of any restrictions upon them. However, even the so 60 years and a hove. Seven each are in the age groups called most orthodox Hindu Christian has seldom

1. J H. Hutton, Castes in bldia, Oxford, 1963-p.47 THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 13 realised that he is a Christian and quite often (land-owners). The who now claim to be K"hatriyas, were probably descended from Kapus, behaves like any other Hindu. Kammas and Velamas."l

26. Right from the naming of a child to 31. "\'arious stories are current, which point to marriage the influence of Hindu customs and the common ancestry of the Kammas, ,(apus and Velamas The word 'Kamma' in Telugu means the manners is so profound that except for the presence ear-ornament, s"ch as is worn by women. According of a Christian priest, all the functions resemble to one legend" the Rishis being troetbled by Raksha"as, applied to for protection and he referred them fully the Hindu ritual only. Hindu names like 10 . The Goddess gavt' tbem a casket con­ Ramaiah, Kistaiah, Laxmamma, Rattamma are taining one of ber ear ornaments (Kamma) and enjoin­ ed them to worship it for a hnndred years. On the common. At the same time they adopt Christian expiry of that penod, a band of' five hundred armed names also like Jacob, Isaiah. But they are known warriors sprang up from the casket, who, at the reque,t of the Rishis attacked and destroyed the giants. After more popularly with their Hindu names only. Some this they were directed to enage in agriculture, being of them even go to the famous temple of Lord Venka­ promised estates and the consideration paid to Kshatri­ yas, They accordingly became possessed of large ter, teswara at Tirupati and offer their hair as votive ritories, such as and otbers in the Krishna, offering. But when questioned about the reason and other districts and have alwavs been most successful agriculturists." 2 • behind their visiting the Tirupati temple they say that they are first of all Hind us and thereafter only 32. "Some Kammas when questioned by ]\1r. Christians. F. R. Hemingway in the God,'ari district, stated that they were originally Kshatriyas, but were long ago persecuted by a king of the family of Parikshat, because 27. Except a few agriculturists owning a few one of them called him a bastard. They sought refuge acres of land the majority are labourers who eke 01Jt with Kapus, who took them in and they adopted the customs of their protectors. f\ccording to another their livelihood by -ivorking either as attached agri­ legend, a valua ble ear ornamcnt, belonging to Raja cultural labourers or casual labourers in the agri­ Pratapa , fell into the handsofanenemy, whom a section of the Kapvs boldly attacked and recovered the cultural season or road and railway labourers as jewel. This feat earned for them and their descendants and when such work is available. Fig. 2 shows an the title Kamma. Some of the Kapus away and they are reputed to be the ancestors of the Velamas old Mala man. (Veli, away). At the time whell the Kammas and Velamas formed a single ca"te, they observed l\Iuham, 28. Though they are known as Christians they madan gosha system. whereby the women are ):t in seclusion. This was. howe\'pf. fonnd to be ,'ery incon­ still refer all their internal disputes to their age old ven;ent for their agaicllltnral purSllllS, They according­ Caste Panchayats whose decisions are implicitly ly determined to abandon it and an agreement was drawn up on a palm leaf ;croll. Those who signed it are obeyed. When the Caste Panchayat fails to arrive said to have become Kammas and those who declined to at a decision they approach the Village Panchayat do so "'elamas or oUisiders One meaning of the word Kamma is the palm leafscroll, such as is used to produce where elders of Kamma caste in consultation with dilation of the lobes of the ears. According to another the elders of Mala and Madiga castes decide the case story, there once lived a king, Belthi by name, who had a large number of wives, the favourite among and its decision is accepted by them without whom he appointed Rani. The other wives, being question. jealous, induced tbeir sons to ste::d all the jewels of the Rani. \.l.lt they were caught ill the ::tct by the King. \\ho on the following day a,ked his wife for her jewels, Kamma which she could not prod'lce Some of the sons ran a,-",ty, and gave origin to the \'elamas; others restored 29. Among the 35 surveyed households four the Kamma and bccame Kammas. Yet one more stol'y-Pratap Rlldra's wife lost her car ornament and belong to thi s caste consisting of 29 persons out of four of the King's captains were sent ill search of it. the total persons. Ofthe,~, one restored the jewel, and his descendants 173 became K_ammas; the second attacked the thieves al,d gavp origin to the Yclall1as. anel third ran a\\'ay and so 30. Thurston wrote regarding the origin of his chilelren became the ancestors of the Pakanatis; and tile fourth dlsapp"ared.3 Kammas thus -"W riting educatively concerning tlle K~mma" K."j':.Js or Redeli" y,.l"mas and Tel"gas, ),11'. 'V. Francis states that" ...... 01' fOl!r of these A book in Telug-u hnguag-e known as Kamma­ hr;:!;e {'..Isles closely resemble one another in appcarance and custom" and scem to he'\'e branched off from one ran Charitramu, i. e., Hist01"Y of the Kammas alld the same Dra,-idian stock Oligin::diy soldiers by \\'I'itten by Sri Kohta Bavaiah Choudary throws profes,ion, they arc no\\' mainly agriculturi,ts and traders and some of them in the north arc zamindars 50me light upon the origin and history of the caste.

I E. Tilllrs:on, Castes eX. Tribes of )outhern India. (:\hdrclS: 1909), \-01. -p. 94 2 Ibid, pp. 9":-95 3 ()p. cit, pp. 9)-90 CHAPTER II

33. The origin of Kammas is traced to the story is told. Two sisters were bathing in a tank (por{d) when a king happened to pass by. To hide 12th century and 1,229 families were found. The themselves, one of the girls hid behind a basket and name appears to have been known since Vedic the other behind a wall. The descendants of the two sisters became Gampa and Goda Chatu Kammas, who period. They were a military community and may not inter-marry by reason of their original close were also tillers of the soil and big estate holders. rt'lationshlp. According to another legend after a de'parate battle, some members of the caste escaped by They stood in comparison to Velamas and . hiding behind baskets, others behind a wall. The The author regards Kammas as Kshatriyas who terms of Illavellani and Pedda seem to be synonymous with Godaehatu The women of this section observed observed Brahminical rituals a:ld rites illustrating gosha and did not appear in public and ('Vf'n at the pre­ it from various inscriptions, books and contempora­ sent day they do not go out and work freely in the fields. The name Illuvellani indicates those who do ry publications among others. Fig. 3 shows a Kam­ not go (vellani) out uf the house (illu). The name ma ryot. Pedda (great) refers to the superiority of the section. \'aduga simply means Telugu and is probably a name given by Tamiliam to the Kammas who live amongst 34. The inter-relationship between the Reddis them The name B:lllgaru is said to refer to .the cus­ alld the Kammas does not necessarily suggest that tom of the women of this sub-division weanng only they were Kahatriyas but it may be under the influ­ nose ornaments (bangaramu). The Godajati sub-divi­ sion is said to be most numerously represented In ence of Buddhism they lost all caste nomenclature ~orth Areot and Chingleput, the Illuvellani in Krishna. Nellore and . The Kavali ,ub­ and later, on the revival of came to be division is practically confined to the Godavan and the classed as Sudras. The Kammas lost their indi­ Pedda to the KrIshna district." 1 viduality after the fall of Kakatiya Sri Veera­ 36. But when enquired, the local Kammas, prataparudrudu in the 14th century and became fully aware of all the above facts, reported the pre­ subordinate to the ruling chiefs of the time when sent sub-d;visions, thus. According to them the they served loyally as commanders in the army. different sllb-divisions are, Zamindari Kamma, Peddc.· Even in 1921 there were nearly 11.49 lakhs of Kam­ kamma, Chinnakamma, Gandikota Kamma, Gampakamma, mas distributed in 21 districts, viz., Krishna, Gun­ Kuchikamma, Kudipyta Kamma, Edamapytakamma and tur, Godavari, Nellore, Tinnaveli, Anantapllr, Bangarukamma. They explained how these names , Cuddapah, Madras, Kurnool, Salem, were derived. Tanjore, Madhura, Ramnad, Chittoor, Chengleput, , Agency Godavari, North Areot, South 37. The Zamindari families among Kammas Arcot and Tiruchirapalli. Besides this they were are called as Zamindari Kamma, e. g., Raja of found in also. Now they are found in all Challapalli. Though equally well placed or a little the 20 districts of Andhra Pradesh and in some less in economic position with them, a few other parts of all the other States in India. It is almost Kammas due to their social customs like gosha have nroverbial to say that wherever there are irriga tion come to be known as Pedda kammalu. Those who facilities, with l'and suited for paddy and sugarcane are in the next lower position in the economic ladder cultivation there are Kammas throughout India. are known as Chinna kammalu. There is a custom Even in former days, i. e., before the partition of in marriage of the maternal uncle carrying the bride India, in the Sind and the Punjab Delta systems seated in a bamboo basket to the marriage pandal. there were Kammas irrigating lands. Mother earth All those households where this practice is in attracts them much more than any other thing in vogue are called Campa kammalu. So also Illuvellani the world. As they are prepared to work hard in Kammalu are those among whom the 'Nomen do fields they do not hesitate to migrate to any part of not go to the fields to take part in agricultural acti­ India if the land is fertile and provided with irriga­ VItIes. Depending upon the style of wearing the tion facilities. pamita. i. e., throwing the hem of the saree, ei ther Sub-divisions on right sh()ulder or left shoulder some families are known as Kudip_i'ta .hammaiu, i. e., pyla on the 35. "Accordmg to the Census Report, 1891, the right shoulder and Edam1pyta Kammalu, i. e. pyla on main sub-di\'isions of the Kammas are Gampa, Illu\'e­ lIani, Goci.ljati. Kavali Vadaga, Pedda and Bangar~l. the left shoulder. It is said that these sub-divisions 1 t would ,eem that there are two main endogamolls have been there since the 14th century. But inter­ ,,,clions, Gampa' (hasket) Chatu, and Goda (wall) Chatn. Chatu i, said 1.0 mf'an a 5Crf'en or hiding pbcc. dining and intermarriage among all these sub-divi­ Concerning the origin of these seetiom, the following sions are still there.

o/J. (it., PI', %-97 THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 15

The word 'Kamma' caste suffix, some of the Kammas though not belong­ ing to the Choudary fa mil y started using it. 38. Since the 10th century A. D. the word 'Kamma' seems to have been in vogue. There are 41. The word 'Chowdary' is used among Slme stone inscriptions showing that there were Kammas as a sign of respect. Literature shows Brahmins and Vaisyas among Kammas. So also that this word was in use even in the 18th century. Kammas were found among all the four castes, In a stone inscription of Salivahana Saka year 1467 this word is said to be found. So also in the 39. Sri Kallakuri Gourikanta Kavi, a Telugu history of Painad the word 'Choudary' is found. poet of the 18th century in one of his unpublished The famous Telugu poet Srinadha of the 15th hooks titled "Dharmallandana Vilammu" wrote regar­ century wrote that this word was in use even in ding Kammas thus- the 12th century. 611 ~~6:O g:;cJ($ct':lS~ ~fP~6<$ ~oJ-'CeJ ~ -...i) CJ t!- 42. During the period 1720-1820 A.D. Moghuls ~;;ro6~ empowered the Maharashtrians to collect a cess 6d,~e.J lCj'oJ-od,Wtl:leJ l~~~J,($ ~~8 called 'Chet' in these parts of . The 0645::5'i0 Maharashtrians used to invade and plunder the '"- villages for collecting the cess and establi sh feuda­ 5~6o<$oX lE:l";:r..~w.JaI. ~l'§k.o tory kings. In each village the village elder was 0'" ~ SaI Iir> ltl:l c;ro 0 l45 "8 entrusted with this duty and as this cess was called 'Chet', those who collected it were called Chutarulu. I(~d,($ ~otl lb~ 0if o;6~ 7.3§,,_8 The term slowly changed its shape for dialectical o5Jo.:5:JX~d,~ I 1 convenience and it became Chowdary ultimately. And all those Kamma families associated with this meaning-The four castes viz., Brahmin, Kshatriya, activity came to be known as Chowdarlll. and SlIdra were born from the face, arms, thighs and feet respectively of Lord Vishnu, with different Surnames duties. Kammas constitute Brahmins, Kshatriyas, 43. Records show that there are altogether Vaisyas and Sudras. In Andhradesa i. e., Andhra 1,245 surnames among the Kammas. Among the Pradesh, Kammas among the Sudras have become famous. Kammas of Maredumaka village there are II sur­ names. The following Statement shows the 11 sur­ The word 'Chowdary' names and the respective gotras.

40. The word'Chowdary' is found in use in Statement IV various parts of India, viz., Bengal, Punjab, Maha­ SL'RNAME AND GOTRAS OF KAMMAS OF rashtra, M>'sore, etc., and it is spelt differently in MAREDUMAKA VILLAGE

all those States. It is in most of those States used SL. NO. 5URNAMt!: GOTRA as a respectfu I word of suffix to the name and in (1) (2) (3) some cases it becomes the surname of the family I. Akkineni Dosapalle. Cherukunoola itself. How the word Chowdary has come into use 2. Boppudi Palukolla among other States cannot be attempted here. But 3. Dandamudi Marutla and Cherukunoola in Andhra Pradesh this term is used only among 4. Kaza Yavusuru Kammas and among them also only a few suffix it 5. Koneru Cherukunoola to their names. Many of them using it as suffix are 6. Lingam P<:palla not aware of its origin and significance. They use 7. Manne Muni it because either their ancestors used it or as a style 8. 11usunuru DosapaUe to show that they belong to Kamma caste just as 9. Surapaneni Pamid;palla Sastry, Sarma or Pantulu are used by Brahmins to 10. \'aIlabhaneni Danella, Pamidipoola and denote the caste. In fact in a mood of competition Dachetla with Brahmins who used Sastry or Pantulu as their 11. Yelamanchi Vallutla 16 CHAPTER II

44. Only people of older generation remember obsequies. Strictly according to Nirnaya Sindhu, their gotras. The present day youth do not know an authority on ritualistic matters, the obsequies anything about gotras nor do they care to record must be performed on 10th, 11 th and 12th days them when informed by the elders. A nomadic after the death of a person. But when a Brahmin tribal people known as Pichhiguntlavallu, who priest opposed it a few Kammas like Sarvashri Tri­ wander through the country visit every village once puraneni Ramaswam y Chowdary, Suryadevara a year and remind the people of the gotras of all Raghavaiah Chowdary, Duggirala Raghavachan­ the surnames. Though they do not keep an y writ­ draiah Sastry convened a meeting of all the Kammas tt'n record as such they, it seems, tell the gotra of at Guntur in 1920 and established a society called each surname correctly. Marriages in this caste Satpurohita Sangham-meaning the good priests' as­ are contracted depending upon the gotra and sur­ sociation. Later the association sent some students name only. Though the criteria is gotra, in case no of Kamma caste to Banaras for underg0ing training one remembers the correct gotra, the surname is in ritualistic performances. Some otheTs were taken into consideration. Of late the Kamma Brah­ trained by a Viswabrahmin of Amrutaluru of Gun­ mins, i. e., a priestly class among Kammas, a tur district. In the year 1929 one Sri Vemuri recent innovation, are maintaining a record of all Seetaramayya got the Harijans (Scheduled Caste the surnames and their respective gotras to facili­ people) admitted into the temple of Visweswara at tate easy reference for settling ~arriages and citing Ghantasala, the famous Buddhistic Centre in Kri­ during marriages. One surname ma?: have more shna district. Then the Brahmin priests refused than one gotra also. This facilitates contracting of the temple priesthood a nd gave it up as a protest marriages among the people of same surname but against the admission of Harijans into the temple. of different gotras. Then the above said association appointed some of its priests in the temple. So also in a village called Brahmins among Kammas Siripuram in Guntur district when Brahmin priests 45. They are called Kamma Brahmalu. The opposed the Kammas celebrating the marriage of term Brahmin is found associated among various Lord Rama with in the temple of Seetarama­ non-Brahmin castes. Mangalis (barbers) are known swamyon Ramanavami day, Kamma Brahmin pri­ as Nayi-Brahmins; among Chakali (washerman) ests of the association took up the priesthood of the some "xe designated as Rajaka Brahmins and the temple. Again in Krishna district in 19,17 in a goldsmith caste people are called Viswabrahmalu. village called Kanchemcherla an incident like the 46. Some of the Kammas having learnt the above happened in Sri Venkateswaraswamy temple methods of conducting the rituals related to mar­ and there also a Kamma Brahmin priest was appoin­ ted by the association. riage, birth, death etc., have designated themselves as Brahmins. As a revolutionary movement against the orthodox priestly Brahmins who have been the 48. Many of the Kamma Brahmins having founder guardians of the ritualistic methods and the studied the techniques of performing marriages, etc., concerned Sastras, etc., the Kammas have become have suffixed the words like Sastry, Sarma and Acharya which are usually used only by Brahmins Brahmins. to their names. A few of them have suffixed the 47. The Kamma Brahmin movement was first word Varma also to their names. Some of them started in 1909 in a village called Kunderu in have written some books on Hindu marriage pro­ Krishna district. When the Brahmin priests refused cedurt:, etc. For example one Sri Paludugu Sesha­ to perform one Kamma marriage according to chalacharya has written a book titled Vaidika Vivaha Vedic system, the Kammas grew wild and discarded Tatva Prakasika in 1926-29. the Puranic system adopted by the then Brahmins for all the marriages of non-Brahmins. Then, in 49. These Kamma Brahmins are found in that revolutionary fervour they approached - one several villages of Krishna and Guntur districts ' Swamy- and brought him to Kunderu. only. They eke out their liveli hood by working as Then a few seriously interested in learning the priests on occasions like marriages besides following Sastras, etc., became his disciples and learned the their traditional occupation agriculture. They art of performing all the socio-religious rites like strictly follow the customs and habits of Brahmins birth, naming, marriage, consummation, death and and are entirely vegetarlans. They are invited only THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQ.UIPMENT 17

by a few Kammas to officiate in their marriages. brief note about the origin, etc., of all those castes Still the age old Brahmin purohit holds his influ­ has been made in many monographs of this State. ence in the villages in spite of these Kamma Figs. 6 and 7 show Goundla and Madiga families Brahmins who according to some of the Kammas respectively. are only half learned and perform the marriage in a less sanctifyingway when compared to the Brahmin Caste and social herarchy priests. 55. The social organisation of Maredumaka is a complex cultural framework built around the Golla traditional Hindu social syStem represented by 15 50. Four out of the 35 households selected for Hindu castes, Muslims and Christians. Family is intensive survey belong to this caste. There are 25 the social unit in the rural society but caste alone persons living in these 4 households. They trace determines all social relations. In determining the their origin to Lord Krishna and they all belong to social status, the individual achievement, personal a sub-division called yeTTa or red. It is said that quality or wealth have, according to the strict tradi­ they are the descendants of a Brahmin by a Golla tional prescription, nothing to say except the caste. woman. They are Vaishnavites and are engaged 56. The population of Maredumaka consists of as casual or agricultural labourers. Gotra is the 15 Hindu castes, namely, Balija, Brahmin, Chakali criterion for contracting marriage alliances. Fig. 4 (washerman), Golla, Goundla, Kamma, Kapu, shows a Golla fa mi I y . Kummari, ~1adiga, Mangali, Vaisya, Viswabrah­ BaJija min, Uppari, Yanadi and Yerukula. There is only one l\fuslim household. All the Christians are 51. The local Balijas are known as Krishna Hindil converts. Originally they were either Malas Balijas. They are lWt aware of the origin of their or Madigas, both Scheduled Castes. But after caste. Surname is the determining factor in deci­ conversion they are now known as Christians onl y ding a marriage alliance. The sectarian division is for name s3ke as they are quite ignorant of the found in this caste also in the form of Saivite and tenets of either religion. Adhering strictly to the Vaishnavite, though they inter-marry. Fig. 5 shows traditional varna system it is difficult, to classify these a Balija family. castes in their hierarchical plane. But the superio­ Chakali rity of one caste over the other is represented rather symbolically by inter-dining, acceptance of food 52. Also known as Rajakas are the washermen and water, seating arrangement and manner of of the village. They follow their traditional calling, greeting. This is only a tentative attempt to show i.e., washing the clothes of all castes except those of the position of different caste!!. as they are viewed by ~falas and Madigas (Scheduled Castes). themselves. The position of each caste vis-a-vis Vaisya the rest is seen in the light of its day to day rela­ tions with them. 53. Vai syas are locally known as Komatis. They are businessmen by tradition and are conti­ Statement V nuing the same kirana business which deals in the CASTE HIERARCHY sale of domestic requirements, viz., food provisions, A Brahmin cosmetics, cigarettes, beedis, tobacco and condi­ ments, etc. The goods are sold both for cash and B Yaisya corn. Only the poorer section of the village popu­ C Sudra (Kamma) Kapil Balija lation purchase their, day-to-day requirements from Golla these shops. !Jagotra marriages are prohibited in this Goundla caste. They celebrate all Hindu festivals and their Kumrnari Chakali caste deity is Kanyakapar:1meswari. Mangali Up~'ari 54. All the remaining castes like Brahmin, Yanadi Kapu, Goundla, Kummari, Madiga, Mangali, D Yerukula Muslim, Viswabrahmin, Uppari, Yanadi and Yeru­ E Christian Viswabrahmin kula are represented by one housphold each. A Muslim IB CHAP'fER II

57. From the above it is evident that Brahmin the Christians, :rvIuslims, Yerukulas and Viswabra­ occupies the highest place in social hierarchy. The hmins. Christians and Muslims, are altogether local Brahmin is a teacher in the local elementary differenf due to their religion. But almost all the school and he never dines with any of the other local Chirstians were originally Malas and Madigas, castes in the village including the Vaisya who is i.e., Scheduled Castes, before conversion. They only next to him in the social hierarchy. There is keep two names, i e., one according to their Hindu no priest living in the village. As and when the tradition like Ramdu or Krishnudu and another services of a priest are required for any social or according to Christianity-Jacob or Isopu. They are religious function, a Brahmin from Tenneru, the always called w·ith their Hindu names only by a neighbouring village is invited. He officiates over majority of the people in the village. Some of them the functions like marriage, child-naming and death visit the famous pilgrim centre Tirupati and even in all castes in the village except Chakali, ~Iangali, women among them offer their hair as votive offer­ Uppari, Yanadi, Yerukula, Viswabrahmin, Chris­ ing to Lord Venkateswara. Only on Sundays when tian and Muslim. Among those castes he officiates, the Father, known locally as 'Phathery' visits the he does not accept cooked food from Vaisya, Kam­ village and delivers a lecture about Christ and his ma, Kapu, Balija, Golla and Goundla. He accepts, teachings they remember their Christianity. ::\lalas only , dal, vegetables, etc., which is known as and Madigas are two predominant Scheduled Castes swaJarnpakam and he takes them home. But with in Andhra Pradesh. In almost all vilbges they do the introduction of Kamma Brahmins, Nayi Brah­ not accept food or water from each other as the mins, etc., among Kammas and Mangalis (barber) ~ladigas are considered inferior to ~Ialas. No the Brahmin priest is not invited to officiate over amount of persuasion from the social and political any function among some households. Vaisyas or agencies has brought eyen an iota of change in their the trading community also do not accept cooked social attitude. But surprisingly in this vilJ:lge food from any other caste except Brahmins in the Malas and Madigas after embracing Christianity village. have started dining in each other's houses. To this extent the preachings of the Christian fathers have 58. In the third tier, i.e., among Sudras, come helped to bridge the gulf between these two castes. Kammas and nine other castes. Though all these But at the same time some of them do not accept ten castes are bracketed as Sudras, Kammas stand ei(her food or water from the hands of Viswabra­ above all the other nine castes due to their domina­ hmins who are considered inferior to themselves. ting economic position which elevated their social They accept food and water from all other castes in status also. Therefore all the other castes in the the village without any stigma. village consider Kamma as the highly placed in society and treat the Brahmin and Vaisya on a dif­ 60. Among these nine castes themselves there ferent footing altogether. Kammas accept food and are not many restrictions for accepting food and water from Brahmins and Kapus only in this cate­ water but they also do not accept cooked food from gory though they do not object openly to accepting Viswabrahmins and Christians and Mllslims. the same from other castes. They look down upon the people of all other castes who are economically 61. In the category 'D' is placed a caste known inferior to them and except from the Brahmin as Yerukula whose traditional occupation is catch­ household they do not accept food and water from ing rats in the fields. They accept both food and all other castes. But there is an exception to this. ,\'ater from all casteS in the village except the Chris­ for example, if a man of Golla or Kapu caste is tians, :\Tuslims and Viswabrahmins. And no other . rich enough to vie with them, they gladly welcome caste except the Christians accept food from the idea of dining with him. The prime determi­ them. . nant factor for them in social commensuality is the 62. Regarding greeting in the ordinary course economy of the individual rather than the caste. of life no one greets anyone in the village irrespec­ All the nine casteS who are, strictly speaking, con­ tive of caste or age. There is no such custom of sidered as Sudras have no objection to accept food greeting by folding hands or touching thc feet of the or water from Kamm.ls. tlders, eOtc. If any outsider comes and greets them 59. In the third cate~ory, i.e., among the only a few know how to reciprocate it and many of S1:ldras come all other castes in the village except the local people do not even know it. THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 19

63. Almost all the Christians and other caste Kammas either stand or sit on floor in a Brahmin's people are depending upon Kammas for their live­ hOdse while the Brahmin is given a cot or a stool to lihood in one way or other. Even then an attached sit in all their houses when he visits and keep them­ agricultural labourer who comes by dawn to his selves standing throughout the conversation. This master's house does not greet him; instead he calls applies not only within the village but also outside him in a respectful tone like 'Ramaiah Garu' or the village, in the sense that when a Kamma meets 'Krishnayya Gal'll'; the suffixing word 'Garu'is a Mala or Madiga or a Golla of his village in any used as a respectable term. \Vhen actually the hotel at Vijayawada or any tov\'ll the latter gets up master and the servant enter into a casual conversa­ immediately and offers his seat to the former. While tion the latter often addresses the former on less travelling in a train if they happen to be in the same than equal terms using words like 'nuvuu' (It is compartment, a Golb, :Mala or 11adiga sits in a unfortunate that there is no equivalent to this term placeaway from the Kamma wherefrom he canllot in English language. When the word '' is used be seen by him. to a m:.ln of lower status, that meaning which 'nuvvu' carries is not there in English). But the 65. In the Village Panchayat, there are mem­ former never feels hurt by the words of the latter bers represeilting Christial!s (~rala and l\Iadiga as he is accustomed to such kind of usage. Touch­ caSLes), Gallas, etc., but they are only -Yes' men to ing the feet of the elders like parents, elder brothers the President and other members of the Kamma and grand parents, etc., is observed only on the caste. As the rules demand that one member occasion of one's marriage and no wonder that one should be from each of the majority communities will never repeat it in his lifetime. School going in the village, they were elected; otherwise even children are taught to say 'Namaste' to the teacher that representation might not have been there. as soon as they enter the school but as soon as they Their words carry no weight unless supported stron­ return to their homes they forget the entire gospel gl y by a few interested members of other castes ta ught in the school and address the father, grand­ especially of Kamma caste. Some castes like Golla, father and uncle, etc., in the usual way. Abusive Goundla have got their respective Caste Panchayats words like 'Lanjakoduku'-a bastard, are very com­ but when a matter is not decided by it, it is taken monly used both by the young and the old in the to the Village Panchayat where the President's village. For an urbanite it looks rather odd and verdict is carried out implicitly. From this also it ridiculous to observe a son addressing the father or is evident that Kamm&s being economically domi­ a servant addressing the master on these terms but nant enjoy social prestige much beyond the tradi­ it is a 'matter of fact' affair for them. The degree of tionally highly placed Brahmins in the society. difference becomes manifest only when two persons And all other castes who are otherwise equal to enter into a verbal fight. Then the use of - nuvvu ' Kammas in ordinary social structure are alwil ys by a servant is never tolerated by the master and considered lower than Kammas due to their poeI' on that account itself the master may beat the economic condition or dependance on Kammas for servant. their livelihood. This does not, however, mean 6+ Regarding the arrangement of seating, that all Kammas are considered by others to have there arc certain accepted conditions and norlllS good reputation. Some of the :.\lalas and ~Iadigas, followed traditionally and in this regard <.111 the Gallas, etc., confess rather confidentially that castes follow them rather implicitly. The serving Kammas even in advanced ye;:crs of above 60 years castes like 11angali, Kummari, Chakali never have are having concubines, and th.,t in spite of their, the audacity to sit on a cot when a Kamma. passes drawbacks Kamm3.s wield power just by the grip through their lane or road. So also Kammas can of economic control over the rest of the people in never tolerate a Mala or .Madiga irrespective of his the village as they posses,; about 95°~ (If the total economic positic.n or other achievements, sitting on village lands; ot helwise their social prest i !!;e, a cot when they move in their street. But \Vh~n according to the other castes, might not have \)een Kammas go to a Brahmin's house, they depending what it is now. No one nmong the other castes will upon ones acquiantance, either sit at the end of a hi;. ye th e alldaci ty to dt"c b rc this fac t openl y on 1 heir cot or sit on a separate cot or on a 11lat spread on face but in theIr absence they sometimes make the floor. But all the caste people other than disrespectful reference to Kamma.i. 20 CHAPTER II

House types 68. On the contrary the thatched huts of other castes are either round or square in shape with one 66. Structurally the local houses may broadly or two rooms. The entire Ramaraopet waS of re­ be divided into three groups, viz., Daba illu, Rendu cent origin and all the houses were constructed on Nittalla Paka and Onti Nittadi Paka. Nittadz in Telugu Government poramboke land when they shifted means central pole. A majority of the houses be­ from the main village sometime back. Except in a longing to all castes except Kamma are thatched few houses the cattle are not kept in the residential huts with one or two central poles. The huts belon­ portion of the house. Most of the households have ging to Golla, Goundla, Chakali, Mala and Madiga separate cattle sheds constructed either within the castes, etc., show their economic backwardness comp

[ Statement VI THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 21

Statement VI

HOUSES BY ROOF AND WALL MATERIAL

No. of houses with roofs made of No. of houses with walls built of ~------~------~ r------_.I._-----.-----~ Total pucca Tiled Grass No. of roof roof roof with Mud House House- without with 4 4 Bamboo plasterd Community Type holds slope slopes slopes Mud wattle wattle Brick Leaf (11) 0) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) C") (8) (9) (10)

Balija Pu 2 2 2 Brahmin Pu 3 Chakali Pu 1 4 Christian Pu 11 11 5 5 5 Golla Pu 3 3 3 Pe 1 1

6 Goundla Pu 2 2 2 7 Kamma D 2 2 2 Pe 2 2 2

8 Kapu Pe 1 1 9 Kummari Pe 1 I 10 Madiga Pll 1

11 Mangali Pu 1 12 Muslim Pu 1 13 Vaisya Pu 14 Viswabrahmin Pu 1 15 Uppari Pu 1 16 Yanadi Pu 1 17 Yerukula Pu 1

Total 35 2 5 28 1 9 4 13 2

Pu Purillu (hut)

Pe = Penkutillu (Tiled house)

D Daba (Bllilding)

70. From the· above statement, it is clear that pucca building is the sign of prosperity in the rural except two daba illu (pucca buildings) and five pen­ society. Therefore, as far as possible, people try to kutillu (tiled houses) the remaining 28 houses are all build a tiled house at any cost to gain some social thatched huts. The two buildings and two out of value among the caste people and in the village as the five tiled houses belong to people of Kamma a whole. Even in construction of walls bricks Caste. The remaining three tiled houses belong to are used. Except those who cannot afford, a persons of Golla, Kapn and Kummari castes (one majority go in for brick walls only. Mud is of house each). The 28 thatched houses are distribu­ secondary importance for walls, while bamboo ted among the remaining 13 communities. Posses­ wattle and allied material are considered inferior sion of a tiled house or a much better on~ like a and are preferred onl y by the poorer section of the 22 CHAPTER II

population. Thirteen out of 35 houses are having area of the house. Of the 35 households surveyed brick walls. Nine have walls made of bamboo as many as 23 are single roomed. Ten of them be­ wattle while 7 have mud walls. Plastering the long to Christians, i.e., J\1alas and Uadigas. T,vo wattle wall with mud is done only by a few interes­ each belong to Golla and Goundla castes while 7 ted. In most cases the vvattled walls are left as such households belong to 7 different castes, viz., Madiga, without any plastering of mud or dung. Only two Mangali, Muslim, Viswabrahmill, Uppari, Yanadi houses are having walls made of palmyra leaves. and Yerukula, one each. In those 23 single roomed This is locally called daai. Bamboos are fixed in a h01lses 95 persons are living, i.e., 4 persons per room circular form round the earth vertically up to a on an average. Two hOllses, i.e., one each of Cha­ height of three to four feet and bamboo splinters are and Golla castes are having two rooms each tied to them horizontally. Then the palmyra leaves and are accommodating 22 persons. In this case are stitched to that frame with naTa-jute rope, etc. the average per room is 5.5 persons. Twenty-seven The local school teacher, a Kummari (potter) by persons are living in 5 houses of three rooms each, caste used to manufacture bricks as a part time job i.e., 1 8 persons on average per rOOHL These five in his fields and sell them locally. Sometimes houses bdong one each to Brahmin) ChristieI" Golla, buyers used to come even from Vijayawada. But Kummari and Vaisya castes. The remaining 5 now he has given it up due to some domestic incon­ houses belongillg to Kamma (4) and Kapu (I) venience. Yet some others in the village are enga­ Castes have four or more rooms each. In these five ged in that trade. In one partIcular piece cf land houses 34 people are living, i,e., 1.7 persons per belonging to a Kamma gentleman, the earth is best room on an average. suited for manufacturing bricks useful for house construction. In a period of over 25 years the de­ 73. From the above it is evident that there is posits are coming to a close and new a search is congestion in the two roomed houses and single being made to find out such suitable earth in the roomed houses. Among the houRes having three vicinity of the village. rooms and more, nearly three persons are enjoying two rooms. 71. Regarding the types of roof it can be seen from the Statement that 28 out of 35 houses are House construction having four slopes. They are all thatched huts Daba lllu : with one or two central poles. As usual the ti led house with brick walls also will have four slopes. 74. This is a modern type of building com­ Only two buildings do not have a slope as such; but monly found in any urban place. In this village each building has one or two verandahs on either only Kammas possess this type of buildings. The side. The main living portion of the building does dimensions of the house depend upon the availabi­ not have a slope. But in the same compound within lity of land. Figure No.8 shows the ground plan and a distance of three to four yards the kitchen is Fig. No.9 shows the modern building belonging to arranged either in a tiled house or a thatched hut, Sri Surapanemi Nagaiah Choudary. The plinth area a separate structure exclusively. It will have, in of the house is raised to a height of 2 to 3 fcct. In fact, four slopes. th;-'se houses, the walls are constructed with bricks and cement. Only in a few cases mud is used in Houses and number of rooms place of cement. There may be lDore than four 72. In rural parts the definition of a room rooms in each building. But the kitchen is always cannot be applied for all the houses. In a hut the located separately in the backyard of the house. A main living place is the only room, if it can be so bungalow is estimated to Cust about Rs. 8,000 to called, in the house which is shared by the parents, 1<..s. 10,000 in ordinary circumstanCe's, i.e., employ­ grown up unmarried daughters and sons and Some­ ing one's own attached agricultural labourers, carts times, i e., in rainy season even the animals, share ar.rl bullocks, etc., for transporting all the raw mate­ the same place during nights. In a much smaller ri~d required from various places. hut even the kitchen may find its place in one l~clidu Xi/lalla Paka : corner. On the contrary, the pwkutil!u (tiled house) and daba (puce;::. building) will have some rooms of 75. In Telugu rendu means two, niitadi means different sizes depending upon the available plinth main pole and paka means thatched hut. That is, THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 23 a thatched hut with two main poles. In this type carts to a place and after pouring water profusely it two main poles, erected side by side, are connected is mixed thoroughly to make a thick paste like thing Ly a beam. The two poles and the main beam hold by men and cattle treading on it. Bamboos and around them several beams. Bamboo and veduru bamboo rafters are purchased at Tarigoppala baddalu (bamboo splinters) are fitted to them hori­ village. If bricks are required for walls they are zontally with palm fibre to form a frame for roofing. purchased locally from the manufacturers. The Either palm leaves or paddy straw or locally manu­ tiles are purchased either at Kankipadu or Mani­ factured black tiles are used as roofing material. A konda. All the wood, iron and cement require­ few Kammas and a good number of Golla, Goundla, ments are purchased at Vijayawada. The mason Kapu caste households are having this type of and carpenter are requisitioned from Kankipadu. houses. Usually the house is constructed with family labour plus a few hired labourers. And in Cost of construction many cases the attached agricultural labourers of 78. A single main poled hut may cost nearly each household are engaged to build a house like Rs. 150 while two main poled one costs roughly this. Fig. 10 shows a rendu nitta/la jhaka. Rs. 300 to Rs. 350. The penkutillu, i.e., tiled house, 76. Dnti nittadi paka or one main poled that­ costs today something like Rs. 3 to 4 thousands ched hut is a simple hut. In this type there is only whereas the pucca building certainly costs more one main pole (onti nittadi) of 12 to 14 feet long. than Rs. 15 thousands. Four beams attached to . the main pole at a height 79. Only the skilled labourers like carpenter of abollt 10 feet slope downwards in four corners and mason are paid either on a contract basis or and rest either on the walls or poles or on both. daily wage rate. And all the other labourers are These beams are interspersed with bamboos. Veduru drawn from the attached agricultural labourers who baddalu (bamboo splinters) are tied to them horizon­ in turn watch the work in progress while looking at t;llly with palm fibre. Next, on this frame either the same time to their own respective duties in field palm leaves or bundles of hay are closely spread and at home. Among the pJorer castes, the caste and tied to make the roof. Generally this type of people- themselves lend a helping hand to complete house provides only a main living room wherein the house construction. But in the upper castes has to be found space for kitchen, store, sleeping, like Kammas only on a few occasions a cart or one sitting and in some cases for domestic animals also. or two labourers are loaned by the house builder In an attempt to solve the space problem, some fami­ from the nearest relative or friend. But in no case lies extend their onti nittadi roof a few feet backwards they render any help by way of physical labour. or forwards to form what are called vasaralu (veran­ Financial and material help are always given and dahs). Most of the working class and lower middle taken among the Kamma households. The hired class families dwell in this sort of houses only. Fig. labourers like mason and carpenter are paid accor­ II shows an_onti nittadi paka. ding to their contract while the other labourers are Collection of raw material given free meal on all the days of house construc­ tion. And after successful completion, on the occa­ 77. The required raw materials like palmyra sion of house-warming ceremony, they are presented leaves, palm fibre and hay for constructing one or with some new clothes and cash gifts. In the poorer two main poled huts are procured locally from the castes like Gulla, or Goundla not only the partici­ agriculturists. The palmyra trees are found scat­ pants in house construction but all the caste people tered in some fields and concentrated in some other also are entertained at a feast on the occasion of agricultural fields. The owners of these trees housewarmillg ceremon y by the house owner. mostly get the leaves cut by the Gcundla man, who is a traditional toddy tapper, in every summer and Maintenance of the house store them in a circular fashion placing one above the other and keeping a few big stones on the top so 80. All the thatched huts are having mud that they may not fly. As and ,,,hen anyone re­ flooring only. The tiled houses and pucca buil­ quires them they sell them at a price of Rs. 5 to dings generally ha ve cement or stone flooring. All Rs. 10 per one hundred. Rcgadi matti a type of the huts are having either mud or thattj (wattle loamy earth available in the fields is brought by screen) walls. The mud walls arc plastered with 24 CHAPTER II

cattle dung periodically and are decorated with line very insanitary. Further, almost everyone in the drawings in various designs on festive occasions. hamlet drinks some intoxicant liquor or other and The floor is bedaubed with dung regularly on every innumerable feuds take place every day. Rama­ da y. The houses amon g all castes are swept twice raopet where caste Hindus other than Kammas a day. The homestead area is cleaned and water live is fairly better compared with the hamlet but it mixed wi th dung is sprinkled thickly over it every is also not entirely good in respect of sanitation. day in the early hours. White washing is done once 82. Regarding ventilation also the houses of a year especially on the eve of Sankranti festival, Kammas alone are good. Each house is provided i.e., January. The hearth is also cleaned and with adequate number of windows and the open bedaubed with dung every day. The thatched space both in the front and rear portion of the house huts are repaired once in two years before the set­ allows plenty of fresh air into the house in all the ting in of the monsoon whereas the tiled houses are seasons. The thatched huts do not have any win­ repaired as and when the tiles require replacement. dows except the thatti gate. The tiled house is also The entire tiled roof is completely repaired once in well ventilated. But due to the location of all the 9 or 10 years. The rubbish and other waste is households of Mala and Madiga castes at one end collected either in a pit located in the backyard of of the village adjoining the irrigation canal and the house or a little away from the habitation area. agricultural fields, there is no dearth of fresh air for The rubbish thus collected all through the year is all of them. In summer, most of them sleep outside used as manure for the fields. Hence the ryots take the house in the open S~3ce before their huts. So particular care to depo5it the cattle dung and the also Ramaraopet situated on the other end of the rubbish of the cattle yard in pits. All the cleaned village on the Government poramboke lands adjoining domestic utensils are kept in the main living room agricultural fields is not congested. or in the kitchen on a wooden plank fixed to the wall. l\1ilk pots, curd and cooked rice, etc., are Drainage system kept in rope hangers locally called uttilu which are hung to the beams of the roof in the kitchen. 83. There is no planned drainage system in Among the Kamma households, there are wall the village. People generally avoid making drains shelves and almirahs and in a few households meat­ in front of the house preferring to have them either safes are also found. All the houses belonging to at the back or at the sides. A drain goes from the Kamma caste are kept very clean and tidy while all courtyard to the outside.' This drain which is only the households belonging to the poorer castes are dug in the earth with no construction connects the in properly maintained. courtyard with the outside and opens into a pit adjacent to the wall. If the drain gets blocked the Sanitation and ventilation attached agricultural labourer who attends to the household dutie~ also cleans it with poles or sticks. 81. Most of the pnple in the village are in In summer, the drains dry up quickly but in the the habit of answering the calls of nature .in the rainy season they overflow into the lanes. In several adjoining fields or on the banks of the canal flowing cases there are no pits to receive. the water from nearby. But most of the Kammas due to their the drains and such drains empty into the lanes sound economic position and urbanisation have directly. constructed latrines with septic tanks in the back­ yard of their houses. A few have also installed a Lighting small electric water engine to the well in the back­ yard to lift the water to the bath room of the modern 84. The village waS electrified in 1965 and style. Therefore, the Kamma houses look extraor­ almost all the Kamm'l households and a few house­ dinarily clean and tidy when compared to the other holds of other castes have started using the electric houses in the village. The village roads are never power for lighting purposes. They purchased all swept by any human being. Only the wind does it. the required electric goods like s\\'itch boards, bulbs, During the rainy season most of the internal roads domes, either at Vijayawada or Hyderabad and an are slushy and slippery due to the nalla regadi (black expert electrician brought from Vija yawada on con­ regar), a type of loamy clay. Near and around the tract basis has done the work. There are in some hamlet where the Christians live, the conditions are houses, table, ceiling or pedestal fans, tube lights, THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 25 electric heaters, etc. The radio is a common thing (cereals and pulses), a bit of gold, a few pearls and among the Kamma households who used to have if one can afford, tied in a piece of saffron radio sets run on battery before the village was elec­ coloured cloth. Then a few new bricks decorated trified. But a majority of the houses belonging to with vermilion and are placed over it castes like Chakali, Golla, Goundla, Mala and before closing the pit with mud. Then a coconut Madiga are not electrified. The Brahmin IS a is broken over it. The function ends with the offer­ teacher in the village for quite a long time. Due ing of new clothes to the mason, dakshina or presen­ to their respect towards him the villagers have tation of money and areca nuts placed in a few betel allowed him to draw electricity to his house from leaves, rice, vegetables, etc., to the Brahmin Purohit. the adjoining Ramalayam which is electrified at A few invitees are entertained to a feast. the cost of the Panchayat. The library run by a few young and enthusiastic men has not yet been 87. The local Christians and other lower castes taken over by the Panchayat or the library autho­ among Hindus do not observe these formalities. ntH>s. It is housed in a pucca building donated They simply consult a person who can refer an by a Kamma gentleman in memory of his departed almanac and erect a pole at the time stipulated by son. But it is not yet electrified. The Panchayat applying turmeric and vermilion to it. radio was purchased long back and therefore, it is run by dry battery only. There are street lamps 88. After the foundation has been laid and installed by the Panchayat. A Supervisor of the construction has reached flooring level, a ceremony Andhra Pradesh State Electricity Board visits the of installing the main threshold locally called village and collects the electricity bill amounts of Simhadwaramettuta is performed, on an ausplclOUS domestic consumption in the first week of every day. On this day also the wife and husband take month. His hp.adquarters is at~he oil bath in the early hours of the day and dress- in sends its peon to Kankipad_u-r~;p.~f{ii¥JM.,f.~~, new, preferably silk clothes, go to the house under the street lamps. ' construction with cocoanuts, vermilion, turmeric and sandal paste and dates, accompanied by a Ceremonies connected~ ~ith nouse constructio~ ;:.! Brahmin, friends and relatives. The proposed Simhadwaram, i.e., main entrance is decorated with 85. When a new i~ifse is to be bt;ilt a site i/, • selected in consultation witJj' the Brabmin ;-f.~r6Ai./ vermilion and turmeric and festoons of mango leaves or Viswabrahmin who is ,~ll :~i.stil:::-in=' V;stu are hung across it. A cocoanut or a branch of Sastra, i.e., the science of house' huildi~~. The neem leaves as the case may be, applied with tur­ Brahmin is consulted to find out whether the site meric, vermilion and sandal paste, is hung in tl,e would foretell luck. If it is lucky the purohit him­ centre of the door-frame. This is done with the self fixes an auspicious day for laying the founda­ belief of keeping away the evil eye. At first, while the Brahmin recites , the door-frame is set tion stone. over the appointed spot by persons hollling on both 86. Sallkusthapana or laying the foundation stone sides assisted by the h')use builder. The owner is the rirst ceremony connected with the construc­ breaks a cocoanut at the thrcshold and offers harati tion of a house. On an auspicious day fixed by the (flame of prosperity) and sprinkles cocoanut water Brahmin, both the wife and husband take oil bath and akshintalu (sacred rice) on all the four corners of early in the morning, get dressed in new or washed the house. The function ends with the olTering Of clothes, perform puja to Lord Vighneswara, the dakshilla or presentation of money to the Brahmin first Lord of the Gods with akshintalu and do and the carpenter either in the form of cash or grain punyahavachanam, i.e., sanctifying to the house by or both. The construction of the house thereafter sprinkli ng water mixed with vermilion and turme­ gains momentum and all the wooden fixtures such ric while the Brahmin recites sacred mantras. Then as doors, windows and gates, etc., are installed in on the advice of the priest, the house builder digs a their appropriate places and side by side the walls pit of two or three feet depth, at the auspicious also are raised to the specified level from the ground time. This pit is called pUl/adi and is dug on the without any ceremony. north-eastern corner locally called Esanyamula. The pit is then filled with mud after keep­ 89. Doolamettuta, i.e., laying the beams upon ing navadhallJalu, i.e., nine different foodgrains the walls is then celebrated. After completing the 26 CHAPTER II above two stages the house builder then comes to performing puja to Lord Venkateswara of Tirupati, this last but one stage (the final ceremony is the a household or family deity to a majority of Andhras, house-warming). As soon as the walls are raised to on this occasion. This is locally called Venkates­ the specified height, the first cross beam is laid on wara deeparadhana, i.e., lighting a lamp in the name an auspicious day fixed by a Brahmin. The beam of Lord Venkateswara. A picture of Lord Venka­ either of iron or wood, is duly decorated with teswara duly cleaned and decorated is kept on a vermilion and turmeric and festoons of mango leaves wooden plank or a raised platform in a corner of are hung to it. An ash gourd (~&6 XJ~d.s.soO)J) the house. Festoons of mango leaves are hung to is hung in the centre of the beam plac_ed in a the picture and vermilion, turmeric powder and utti (rope hanger). This is a traditionally accepted sandalwood paste are applied to it. A twig convention done with the belief that this would as­ immersed in gingelly oil or ghee put in a plate is sure the inmates a long, happy and prosperouS life lighted before commencing the actual performance under the same roo[. of puja by the housewife. Then the Brahmin purohtt conducts the puja by reciting ashtottarasatanama and sahasranarna, i.e., 108 and lOOO names of Lord Venka­ House-warming ceremony teswara while the couple performing puja put a flower or leaf as each name is uttered at the foot of 90. This is locally called gruhapravesam. This the picture of Lord Venkateswara. In the end one ceremony is celebrated by almost all communities or two cocoanuts are broken in the name of God. including Christians. An auspicious day is fixed in consultation with a Brahmin purohit. As usual 91. Prasadam consisting of payasam and pieces on all auspicious occasions, the day starts with an of cocoanuts are offered to God and then distri buted oil bath to all the members of the household. Then to all those present. This is followed by a vegeta­ all members wear new clothes preferably, otherwise rian feast to all the invitees. The function ends washed ones at least and both the houses, i.e., the with an offering of new clothes to the Brahmin one in which they are residing and the newly cons­ purohit, mason and carpenter; here on this occasion tructed, are decorated with festoons of mango leaves; the father-in-law or brother-in-law of the house the front yards of the houses are neatly smeared with owner are under an obligation observed by conven­ cowdung and beautiful decorations of lime-powder tion to present him and his wife with new clothes are made, signifying the a uspiciollS occasion. The which they seldom miss to comply with. After­ thresholds are smeared with turmeric powder and wards on the same day or' on any convenient day marked with vermilion. Near and dear ones are the house owner shifts with his family to the new invited for the function. In the hustle and bustle house. of the house flocked with friends and relatives, the Brahmin purohit prepares a mandapam (a decorated Dress place) to keep the deities or a place selected in the midst of the house is decorated to perform puja. 92. Caste and economic inequalities underlie To start with, the house builder and his wife or his the differences between the standards of living of or her parents, if alive and available, perform puja the higher castes and lower castes. In olden days to Lord Vighneswara installed in the shape of a it was due to caste distinctions, the Malas and others conical turmeric paste {-laced on a betel leaf which used to do just what their masters told them, but is kept on grains of rice spread on a wooden plank now the higher castes like Brahmin and Kamma Then a cocoanut covered with a new blouse piece is are losing much of their power and if the lower kept on a silver or bronze tumbler. This is called castes do not put on good clothes or eat good food, kalasam (sacred vessel); vermilion and turmeric are it is more because of their poor ec::momic condition. applied to both the cocoanut and the vessel. After This simply does not mean that caste distinctions completing puja to both Vighneswara and kalasam, have been completely effaced. Economic status and pongal~a sweet preparation of rice mixed with milk social status together set the standards of living for and jaggery, is cooked in the central portion of the the different groups. Again no hard and fast line can house by the housewife and is first offered to God be drawn to distinguish the dress habits of the groups and then distributed to all those present on the oc­ and only a general idea about them can be given. casion. In these parts, there is also a custom of The occupation of a person also decides his dress. THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 27

Men's wear without any distinction. The bodice and petticoat are popular among the young women while the old 93. Mill-made cloth and Khaddar cloth are women do not use them at all. Here also Kammas, used by the villagers. The common dress for adult the economically superior caste, use costly dress of males from worker to landlord is a dhoti, a laichi and latest designs. They usually purchase their dress one kanduva or an upper cloth. When the menfolk at Vijayawada or Hyderabad. But other caste are at home, among all castes they generally do not people who are not so rich usually purchase cheaper wear shirts but are found only with dhotis, banianS variety of clothes either at Tenneru or Manikonda, and towels. Some of them are found wearing the nearby villages. Some of the local Kammas lungis also. Almost all the elderly people do not keep a running account in one cloth shop or other wear even banians when they are in the village. at Vijayawada. The proprietor of the cloth shop They go to the fields and attend to all the agricul­ visits the village after harvest and collects the dues tural operations in all sea~ons even without a from his customers. Sometimes when the house­ banian. But the younger generation who are also hold head, usually the eldest male, goes on some actively associated with the cultivation of their lands work to Vijayawada, pays the amount in the shop are found wearing shirts even when attending to and for all the transactions no customary receipts agricultural work but without a banian. The are passed. Only an entry is m!}de in an account elderly people wear a costly dhoti of either miU­ book. Among the Kamma households women made cloth or khaddar, a shirt and put on a towel generally purchase the entire clothing requirements whenever they visit the neighbouring town or rela­ of all the household members including the male tives' places. But the young people wear pants and members. bush shirts made of terylene and other costly cloth whenever they go to the town. Surprisingly a Dress of boys and girls majority are not in the habit of covering the head with a cloth even in summer. Some of them just 95. Boys in general up to the age of 12 to J 3 put on their upper cloths on their heads. Among years wear knickers and shirts with half sleeves. the castes like Chakali, Golla, Goundla, Mala and But now-a-days some of them are wearing pants or Madiga, men wear only coarse mill dhotis, coarse pyjamas and bush shirts, etc., like college stu­ cloth for shirts, etc., and a cheaper variety of dents. But in a majority of the cases boys below towels. But among Kammas except a few old and 14 years of age are found wearing only knickers. conservative, a majority use fine and super fine mill Again this differs from caste to caste. Boys of only made or khaddar cloth. Kamma caste are found wearing pants and knickers of costly variety whereas among other castes they wear cheaper variety of knickers and shirts. Women'8 dress 96. Girls' dress changes rather much faster 94. None of the women in the village wears a than the boys'. It is because girls grow much faster saf(~e in the conventional style. The practice in than boys. Usually up to the 6th or 7th year girls vogue is to wear a saree in the lungi style which the wear knickers like boys, and frocks. From the 8th women of older generations used to ahhor. The year onwards in a majority of the cases they wear Saree is ~f 7 to 8 yards among the older generation petticoats,langas and blouses. After puberty before and 6 yards among the younger generation. The they take up to wearing a big saree they wear half Scheduled Caste women who work along with the sarees over langa~. The cost of the dress for boys men folk in the fields wear the saree above their and girls varies from caste to caste and from house­ knees and the kongu (hem of the saree), is tied round hold to household in the same caste itself, depen­ their waist while they are at work. The saree thus ding upon one's economic position. covers both the lower and the upper portions of the body with several folds tucked in the front; the Special dress kongu (the hem) is taken over the right shoulder by the Scheduled Caste women. The Hindu caste 97. Marriage: On the occasion of marriage women keep the hem on their left shoulders. The there is a special dress for the bride and the b ide­ tight fitting ravika (blouse) extending above the groom. Ordinary or superioi' cotton saree and sleeves up to the elbows are worn by all the women dlLti applied with turmeric pOWder are worn by the 28 CHAPTER IJ girl and the boy respectively. That dress is called Ornaments madhuparkalu. In the style of wearing the saree and dhoti also there is some difference. Amopg the 101. Men are not in the habit of wearing any non-Brahmin communities including the Scheduled ornaments except rings. But women wear various Castes there is a custom of wearing a turban by the types of ornaments, and most of them are made of bridegroom. Not only the bride and the bride· gold. Almost all the gold ornaments are got pre­ groom but all the relatives and friends also avoid pared at Vijayawada by the goldsmith by supplying using black colour in their dress on a marriage the required quantity of gold, number of stones of occasion. All the caste women bring out their best various colours by those interested and the design and costliest sarees on the occasion to exhibit them of the ornaments. among their relatives. So also the children, boys 102. Adult males: They do not wear an y orna­ and girls wear superior type of dress. ments. Only a few got finger rings made of gold.

98. Death: There is no chage in dress among 103. AdultJrmales: There are several orna­ the men and women on this occasion. On all the ments worn by them. Except the rings which are days of pollution they avoid wearing good dress. worn only by the married women, the rest are made The woman from the 13th day after death of her of gold. husband wears in a majority of cases only a white saree and blouse at least up to the end of the third Ornament oj the Jeet and legs month. However, some are wearing sarees of varions colours and shades also. Bnt elderly widows 104. Women belonging to all castes wear ank­ do not use coloured S.lfees and blouses. lets known as kadi_yalu made of silver. The cost of a pair of kadiyalu depends upon the quantity of silver 99. Frst{vals: There is no special dress as used and the m·lking charges may not exceed such for any festival. People of lower castes usu­ Rs. 15. Among the few affluent households of ally purchase their dress on some festival so that Kamma caste some young women are found wear­ initially it serves as 'festival dress' and subsequ­ ing pattalu, ankle chains, also made of silver. They ently as regular dress. This they do especially on are mostly purchased from the jewellery shops at festivals like Sallkranti, Dasara and Deepavali. Vijayawada. In this case also the cost depends upon the amount of silver used in preparing them Hair style pi us the making charges for various designs. lHattelu 100. Except a few old men all the remaining are toe-rings made of silver and are worn only by males of all ages have adapted the modern crop. the women in married status. As a custom the The men of old generation have their pates clean married woman is expected to wear one pair of toe shaved with a bunch of hair left on the scalp of the rings each on the second toe of both feet. Though head. There is no local name for the hair style of this is purely a Hindu custom it has been copied men. The women of all castes apply cocoanut oil and accepted as their own custom by Muslims and to the hair regularly or at least once in two days. Christians as wdI. These two pairs of toe-rings They comb the hair towards back and part it at the weigh roughly 3 to 4 tolas. Each pair costs about centre into two equal halves and make a plait and Rs. 10 to Rs. 12. Those are worn no doubt by all leave it on the back. Those who do not have leng­ the women in m:uried status but among the young thy hair to make beautiful plaits use savaram (art­ generation a few of the educated and urbanised ficial hair) as substitute to make the ;ada (plait) have given up that habit especially when they go to stout and impressive to look at. Women help among towns, Even when they are in the house they do themselves in dressing their hair. Decorating the not bother much to wear them unless some elderly plait with seasonal flowers is quite common. Most woman insists upon wearing them. of the households grow lilies and other flowers in Ornaments oj the waist. hands and fingers the backyards of their houses and a few of them also sell them. to the visiting petty traders who 105. Vaddanam, an artistic and richly decorated purchase the entire lot of a tree or trees on a whole­ waist-belt made of gold used to be a proud and sale price in some households and sell them in the coveted possession of a few rich women in the past. nearby urban centres at a profitable rate. Sometimes costly stones like pealls, etc., were also THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQ.UIPMENT 29 used to be studded in that ornament. Though still possess it. All the remaining ornaments of the some of them still possess the valuable ornament no neck are called haram or golusu meaning necklace, one uses it in fact. The cost depends upon the but of various designs for example, chandraharam and quantity of gold utilised in preparing it. On the gundlagolusu (a chain of small circular rings or balls whole an ordinary one without much decorations, of gold). The mangalasutram (sacred marriage locket) etc., costs roughly Rs. 1,000 or even more. In this and nallapusalu (black beads) are also tied to a gold village a few Kamma households pos3ess it and it necklace and worn in the neck, though more often is worn by the women only on occasions like marri­ they are tied only to a cotton thread applied with age. turmeric powder. Among the poorer sections women usually wear one or two necklaces of beads 106 Bangles: Of all the ornaments worn on locally called pusala danda besides the marriage the hands gajulu (bangles) are the most common and locket and necklace of black beads which are a prominent. Gold bangles numbering six to eight must for the married women. are worn on each hand by the women of the rich families. Among the poorer sections also every Ornaments of the lar and nose woman expects to wear at least one or two gold 109 Pogulu or chevupulla, pakkapullalu and diddulu bangles The thin gold bangle seems to be a recent studded with stones are the prominent among the innovation. The old women in the village are still ear ornaments. Pakkapulla and gubaguvvalu are worn found wearing a p'lir of stout bangles called kadi'yam on the helix and a golusu (chain) connects the lobe to their hands. Each kadiyam may weigh more than of tile ear and the hair over the helix. The diddulu 5 to las or iO which is sufficient to make 10 bangles studded with white stones are very popular among of the present day fashion The women wear or­ the womenfolk of Kamma and Komati castes. Each dinary glas~ or plastic bangles also matching to pair of diddulu costs more than Rs. 100 and all those their complexion in such a way that with a mini­ ornaments are got prepared at V1j3yawada. The mum number of gold bangles in between them, they ornaments worn on the helix are ring shaped while present a good appearance. But a few educated those worn on the ear lobe though circular, cover with urban contacts are now-a-days wearing one or the entire lobe of the ear. Mukkupulla or Mukkupu­ two thin gold bangles to one hand and keeping a daka is a nose rod made of gold and studded with small wrist watch on the other. Women among a white stone and is worn on either side of the nose. the poor and middle class households wear ordinary A few mukkupullalu stedded with a singular red stone multicoloured glass bangles. The cost of the gold in the centre, surrounded by a few white stoneS are bangles varies according to the quantity and quality also found. Nagaram, a circular gold ornament, of the gold and design used in preparing them 'All with the emblem of Goddess Lakshmi or Nagade­ the gold ornaments are either purchased ready­ vata is worn on the plait on the hair knot by a few made from the jewellery shops at Vijayawada or women of the Kamma caste. It costs more than got prepared by the goldsmith at Vijayawada itself Rs. 100. Fig. 12 shows some of the ornaments as there is no goldsmith within the village. Gold worn by the women of Kamma caste. Lngs studded with stones are worn to the fingers.

107. Dandakadiyam made of gold or silver is a Household goods circular shaped ornament worn above the elbow of 110. As this a developed village, a majority anyone of the hands or to both the hands. The of the rich people possess many of the modern con­ gold one is not common among all the castes veniences and equipment. For example, flush out though a few rich Kamma households possess these latrines and ceiling electric fans are also there in gold ornaments. The silver one is still being worn some households. Most of the local men know by a few Golla women. about transistor radio, camera, etc. One household possesses a Fiat car and a tractor. Cameras are Ornaments ojthe neck possessed by four households. The village is just lOS. Ornaments worn to the neck are man y at a distance of one mile from the railway line in number and with various designs. The oldest which was laid some six to seven decades ago. An and out-moded one is kante-a stiff gold circular hour's journey from this village can take a man to qrnament. A few of the old women in the village Vijayawada, the second biggest city in the ::)1;.;.[';::. 30 CHAPTER II

Possession of furniture is an index of prosperity and for purposes of eating and drinking, steel plates and it is very closely related to the economic status of tumblers are used among the Kamma caste while the households. It also indicates the degree of aluminium plates and brass tumblers are used urbanisation since all those people who frequently among the other castes. German silver and brass visit the nearby urban town bring luxury goods. tumblers are used for eating and drinking purposes In a village usually the household goods constitute by Scheduled Castes. People of all castes use a few wooden cots, wooden benches, bamboo bas­ only earthenware for cooking, except the Brahmin kets for storing grains, brass and ~tainless steel and Vaisya castes who use brass vessels for cooking. vessels, drinking glasses and pots. The most com­ Generally, a few rich· families of Kamma caste mon item of furniture in the village is the cot. also cook their food in earthen utensils, even though Most of them are got' prepared either at Tenneru or they can afford utensils made of metals, because of Manikonda, the neighbouring villages. The cots their belief that food cooked in earthenware is good are woven with cotton tape of I" to It" width or to the body. The richer section of the population coarse coir and hemp rope. A few households of possess big vessels for occasional use in addition to Kamma caste possess costly cots, i.e, the frame is household utensils of every day use The local made of costly wood. Next in order is the posses­ names of the domestic utensils are as follows. sion of chairs. Only the households of Kamma caste possess chairs made of wood as well as iron. 112. Kutikunda is :m earthen pot used for cook­ The folding chairs man'lfactured by various com­ ing food. Kudu in Telugu means food and kunda a panies like G~drej, Utility, etc., are also found in pot. So also the pot used for cooking curry is kura­ these households. A popular item of wooden furni­ daka or kunda and for boiling sambar like fluid. the ture is the wooden bench, a large wooden platform, vessel is callt-d pulu'u daka. All th~se earthen uten­ rectangular in shape and supported by four or six sils are used am "lng the pC)orer section of population. legs. It is about two feet high and seats four to Among Kammas who us~ sometimes brass or stain­ six people. Wooden and steel almirahs are also less steel utensils for all the above purposes they found among a few households of Kamma caste. are called with the same names but instead of kunda The wooden almirahs are either fixed within the the word ginne or tappda is used which indicates that wall or kept as separate articles like steel' almir

wooden 'or iron and benches are possessed by 14 and five years. He was forced to purchase it when he II households respectively. Eight households each was transferred to a neighbouring village at a dis­ are having gadamanchi, stool and wall-shelf. There tance of more than 5 miles, sometime back. Later, are beds in 7 households. The community-wise he was, in the interest of the school, transferred possession of all these articles is that except Kamma, again to this place. The local Vaisya is running a Golla, Brahmin and Balija castes, households be­ kerosene shop which is not electrified. He, there­ longing to the remaining castes do not have many fore, purchased a petro max light (Table 29). of th ese articles. 123. One Kamma household having an annual 118. Regarding the articles acquired during income of more than Rs. 1,200 is using mosquito­ the last year it can be seen from Table 27 that t"vo nets. Fifteen out of 34 households are using toilet Kamma households have acquired cane chairs and soaps. But none of thew is having an annual in­ one Kamma household acquired a dining table. come of less than Rs. 300. Among them again 11 are having an annual income of more than Rs. 1,200 119. Though the village is electrified, 27 0 ut while two households each are found in the annual of 35 households surveyed are still having kerosene income groups of Rs. 901-1200 and Rs. 601-930 buddi. (small wick lamps) only. Fifteen of them are (Table 30). having lanterns. For cooking purposes in a village usually dung cakes and branches (stems or sticks) of Food palmyra leaves are used. But in this village four households are using ovens and 29 households 124. As the principal crop of the village is are using firewood. The coal is purchased at padoy, rice is the staple food of the villagers right f\hnikonda or Tarigoppala. from the landlord down to an agricultural labou­ rer. They are not accustomed to take any wheat 120. Regarding domestic utensils, all castes in preparations like bread or cake. Table 48 shows the vlllage use earthen pots for some purpose or the that rice is the staple food for all the 35 households other. Utensils made of German silver, brass, tin surveyed. However, they prepare occasionally bread and aluminium are also used by a majority of the out of rice flour, greengram and blackgram fiour. castes while stainless steel utensils are, due to their The basic diet of the people, however, consists of cost, found in use only among the four Kamma and rice, lentils, meat and fish; the vegetarian cdstes one Kummari caste households. obviously avoiding the last two items. Green and powdered red chillies are used by all classes of 121. Fourteen households are having torch people in considerable quantities. They use vege­ lights. It is highly essential for the agriculturists tables commonly available in the village. Most of to move about in the fields during nights. Of them grow almost all vegetables either in their course, they were all used to carry the kerosene fields or in the backyards of their houses. Popular lanterns to the fields. But with the a vaila lity of among them areGummadi (pumpkin) , Beerakayac sweet­ cheap torch lights. some of them have started using gourd J' chikk:tl!u (bean s), {akkay~va{u (drum sticks). them. Fifteen households are using toilet goods Other comm'"1n vegetables consumed are vankayalu like soap. powder, snow, vaseline ete. Twelve house­ (brinjals), pot1akaya (sanke gourd) etc, Roots like hCllds are using washing soap. The cycle is very ptndalam and sweet potato are commonly used. popular in the village. Some of the agriculturists When the local supply is exhausted very few vege­ go to their distant fields on a cycle and for going to tables are bought Cor every day domestic consum­ the neighbouring villages it is usually the easiest ption. The poorer people collect leafy vegetables. mode of transport for a majority of the people Those who are better off buy brinjals and unripe though a few of them possess it (Table 28). bananas and potatoes.

122. A teacher in the local elementary school 125. Vegetarians and non-vegetarians denote beloging to Kummari caste recently purchased a the two broad divisions of people according to food 'Bush' table transi stor radio just before the village habits. Among the Hindus, the Brahmin, Komati waS electrified. Another teacher of the Same school, and Viswabrahmins are vegetarians and the eating a Brahmin, has purchased a cycle during the last of all kinds of meat, fish and eggs is forbidden to THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MA TERI A L EQUIPMENT them. Surprisingly all other caste Hindus consume almost regularly by the rich households who abo pork without any stigma while the Madiga and take meat of hen very often. Mala castes consume beef also. The local Muslims eat beef only. Frequency of taking lood

126. All pulses are consumed without any 130. The nature of occupation determines the stigma. Some households with agriculture as the food habit s in the sense that the agricultural main occupation also grow a few vegetables on the labour who toils in the field from dawn to dusk, bunds in the fields and sell them locally. The requires food three times a day while the land leafy vegetables and roots are in popular consum­ owner who supervises the operations may find it ption. difficult to digest three meals a day as he doei not exert physically. In all the castes, people engaged 127. Milk and other milk products are abun­ in physic:>1 labour take mea Is thrice a day. But dantly used by all communities. A majority of the non-agricultural population take meals only the Kamma households and a few households twice a day. Children among all castes take meals among other castes regularly sell milk to a middle­ thrice a day. There is another section of popula­ man who collects milk from house to house twice tion viz., those with some education and urban a day and transports it to Vijayawada by trai~ for contacts who attend the field to supervise the agri­ selling it there to hotels. Therefore, it is not cultural operations. They take coffee more than wrprising if one finds it impossible to get a drop of twice before lunch and once in the evening before milk after 9 a. m. in the morning and after 5 p. m. dinner. Because of their long standing habit they in the evening. Curd and buttermilk are also even get the coffee in a thermos flask to the field. sold to the middleman who collects them from According to the seasons there arc variations in the several villages and exports the same to Vijaya­ type of food and also in the time when the principal wada. Fruits seldom find a place in any menu. meals are taken. The difference in standards of No doubt, when in season, mangoes and guavas living is judged by the quantity and quality of rice are consumed in large numbers by the people. eaten, the frequency of meat intake in the diet and Cocoanuts and bananas are brought for ceremonial by the use of spices, fats and oils and sugar in the occasions and different varieties of mangoes are food. The first meal among most of the agricul· a Iso brought from Vijayawada. tural and other poorer class households is taken ill the early hours of the day, i.e., at about 6-30 to Use of oils 7-00 a.m. It usually consists of rice gruel left over from the previous night or cooked rice, mango 128. Edible oils like gingelly oil arc used in mak­ pickles, chilli powder and salt. The last item is ing curries. The rich and fairly well-ta-do people always either curd or buttermilk. But the first consume considerable quantities of oil or other meal among those who take only two meals a day fats like dalda and their choice of spices too is consists of cooked rice, meat or vegetable curry, more varied. In the average household the curries pickles, pubsu or cham and curd or buttermilk. This are not so deliciously prcpared while the poorer is taken between II a. m. and 12 noon. The second sections more or less boil them and add a lot of mea! among the agricultural households taken at chilli powder and salt. Sweets do not usually form about 1-00 to 2-00 p.m. usually consists of freshly :1 regular part of the diet of any section of the cooked rice, me~t or veGetable curry, {lulusu and people. They are prepared on ceremonial occa­ buttermilk. The ~ccond meal among the non­ sions and festivals. agricultural and non-working sections and the third meal among the> agricultural and other working Meat and fish househoills is taken in the night between 7-00 to 129. As fish and meat are very expensive only 8-00 p. m. which is the same as their first and a few households have them in their menu once or second meals respectively with a slight variation in twice a fortnight or a month while the average and curry and pickle. In most of the households the poor he>uscholds depend for most of the time on curry and any chutll'Y are prepared once ina day, veget::tbles and cheaper variety of fish. Of course, i.e., in the morning only and they are taken in the the hen eggs are consumed very frequently, i.e., night and if something remains, on the next day CHAPTER. II

morning. On all festival occasion~ special Sweet relief to their bodies and thereby to the mind too. and savoury dishes are prepared in almost all the This habit is more prevalent among Golla, Gavalla households in the village. and Christians. Tbough prohibition is in force in these parts illicit d:stillation of liquor with the bark 131. The tradi tional custom of wumen taking of tumma (acacia fcrruginea) mixed with jaggery, their food only after their menfolk have finished lime, etc., has been popular for quite a long time. thei.s is still honoured in most of lhe households. Women also among the Christians drink liquor and Children are of course served as s,,~m as the food is toddy but boys and girls among all sections of cooked. Among males themselves there is an order popUlation in the village have been strictly forbid­ of priority according to the kinship status. All the den to touch such drinks. elders occupying a higher position in the scale of

kinship (relatiollShip) are serv<'d first Dnd younger smokin~ members of the family follow them bcer. But during busy agricllltur:d season .ina on all other 13+. Consumpti'.)n of tobacco in some form or occasions when exigencies of work dem;wd it, the other is indispcnsai)\e with a mcljority of the people younger people sit along with the el(lcn and some­ in the vi:lage. Sor,lc old pcople ~!D(Jke country rimes even precede them. In h::;her castc" usually cheroots made of dry tob.tcCO leaves, ~(Jme ~mol;t: women take their meal<:; olllYafter t hcir men have the moderll cigarettes while some olhers smo];e finished theirs. But in the 'lowest strata (>f society beedis. \Vornen amon;s all communities uSllally do occasional exceptions to this rule ~re ;:ll1owcd. not smoke. Very fc:w children cue found smoking while a few young men have taken to smoking Tea and coffee cigareaes of $ome brands as Berkely, Scissors, Capstain a Bll Clnrmiuar- the last one is vcr)' popu­ 132. Except a few, most ()f the l(~LtI people Lll' amoag ,., m:ljority. Eating betel lea\'(~S and take coffee only. Even agriculturists take coffee at areC:lJ1ut after rncal5 is 110t a common haiJit, ill the home before going to field. The agricultural village. labourers and also people of other lowe!' castes like

.Mala and ~f:1djg3 take coffee at least once in ada\. Statistics reJatin~ to cone;umplioll habits There are s')me labourers who ,11'(: '0 habituated ~o take c()ffee that they even go to T<.1rigoppala, the 135, Uut of the 35 households surveyed, Ii nearby village, wlwre there is a railway Station and hOllseh')ld:; take meal:'. thr:ce a day: 9 households one or twu srnJ II hotels, to take LC1ffet' once or twice take thr~e m~als aaJ tea or co;fce cnce or twice ill ;~ day. Th", k'.bit of taking tea is rJther very much a day. Eight huuscholds arc in the habit of taking les~. Worn("11 also take cntree. A majority of the meals twice a (.tty with c!JITee or tea onCe or twice. agriculturist5 among the Kamm:l caste and among The rCIluinihg 7 hou$dwlds take ody meals twice other castes who usually do !lot take morning meal, a day (Table 'li). take coffee immediately after :1nswering the calls of 136. The pre\'al~llce of the h:lbit .Ying an annual income of 1110re than Rs. 1 ,2()O; four 3n: in 133. Except the Brahmill, \'di~ya, KumIDari theincomegroupofRs.SQI-1200 and only one is and Viswabrahmin. maj.)fity of the people of in the income group of Rs. SOl-GOO. the remamllll!; C;]3tcS in the vilh:;c: drink toddy. All the agricultural, casual 'lnd other 137. Table SO g1 ves sta dstics about slUCJking, labourers who toil physicall~ for t:'\uite a long time FtC. Of the 37 pcrsnfls imerviev,cl1 Yj males and '2 in the day find an affectionate friend in country females are in th:: lnbit of smf)~{i[Jg eidler cheroot, liql.lor and todd\" which when taken in tLe early bredi or cigarett'? The two worlvn belong t~ hours of the night '.:lring to them all the required Christ::.n (OLC~ and Upp.ll'i (one) caste. THE PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL EQUPMENT 35

by a few in the village in the past but now almost Trends of ~hange etc. Shins with collars and full sleeves were used Housing all people use the same style of shirt. The younger 138. Now-a-days only a few poor people are generation are using slack shirts instead of shirts buil ding their huts or houses with mud or bamboo with fuil sleeves. The average peasant's and worker's wattled walls. l."lost of the people somehow are dr~ss has not changed much, but it is now made of managing to have walls of brick and cement. So mill cloth, Many of the agriculturists and others also the roofing material bas been changed from get their shirts, etc., stitched at Vijayawada, while time to time and now among the rich the R. C. the labourers either buy them from the readymade system of terracing is prevalent. In 1965 when the dress shops at Vijayawada or get them stitched low-lying areas of the village like the Ramaraopet locally. Among women brightly coloured clothes and Gudcm (hamlet) were submerged due to heavy have become popular. Children's dress is entirely rains grant-in-aid was given to all the households in the up-ta-date fashion of any urban place. Frocks, shirts and 8h xts are bought for them from by the Government to the tune of R s. 500 per house Vijayawada or got stitched there itself. Figs. 15 and mo't of the affected have built good huts with and 16 show the trcllds of change in dress among a slightly better material than before. The present day design and structure of the houses in the village the old and young. Sh0W that the people are quite aware of the latest Ornaments. etc. designs. Side by side with the supply of electricity for domestic consumption various articles which 140. Women in married statull used to wear can be used with electric power have been purchas­ bangles made of glass, But now even wid,)ws wear ed by a fEW rich households for a more comfortable them besides wearing a few gold bangles. No widow is found wearing the traditionally ordained living white Saree, On th(' CO!1lrary they are also wearing Dress sarees an(l blouses of variOllS colours. Ornaments made or pure gold have been replaced by the rolled 139. There has been a noticeable challge in gold ones which are vcry popular among all sections the habits of the people in dress and ornaments, of population in the village. Bata chappaIs and etc. The old style of dress is now giving way to shoes are now being used a IOI12:side country sandals new style of clothes sritched in imitation of the and shoes. urban style. While it is etill ClJilln10n to see the age­ D"mu!ic uttllsli .. old lower garment dhoti, modern styled shirts with collars have mostl y replaced the traditional upper It!, In {bc anick~ of daily requirement, garment. In the former days only a few educated there has been a great ch::lllge. Now-a-days most and the Karnam and wlunsiff wore semi-urban cloth­ of the people are replacing the earthenware by ing and that too only when they were to receive an stainless or hra';s utensils slowly and glass tumbler. important officer or while going to city, With the and ClipS and saucer, could be seen in several homei>. c.;:ception of this small minori ty, all others wore the Kerosene stoves are replacing the traditional oven traditional peasant dress. Now the situation has in a few households while the use of razors, changed. The present dress may broadly be divided torches. PC"l1s. sun glasses, etc .. ha~ been on the into three main types viz., the average peas:lllt dress, increl Se. the old style respectable dress sand the new style clothir.g. In all the three types of clothes, mill. made cloth is used. No doub: some of the rich 1.J2. There ha~ Hot been much l' hange 1n the Kammas are found we::a'ing onl\' khaddar as they food habits of the pe('pIe. Sweets and other dainty belong to the leading Congress Party. Eut among eatables are bought from the shops at Vijayaw:lda. the yo unger generation khaddar is not commonly Tea and edLe are becoming popular. Even those used. They generally use mill-made cloth and who 00 not drink these beverages regularly at the latest type of terylene is quite familiar wilh a home, occasionally h3VC them in the hotels when­ number of them. Even 'Nomen among the Kamma ever they gu (0 Vij::\yawada or Kankipadu Aerated hou3lholds visit the CiIY, Vijayawada and purchase waters, i c., ROd", de., enjov an amazing popularitv all latest type of dress made of terylene and nyloD, in these parts as th~\' are belie\'t:d to pro,,;de relief 3fi CHAP I ER II from n.lany stomach disorders ..\long with fermen­ village tailor has ZI sewing machine. So also there ted palm juice, some people now drink liquors has been some change in the agricultural imple­ supplied by distilleries and even foreign drinks ments. One Kamma household has recently acqui­ red a Russian made tractor and a few others are brought clandestinely from Hy-derabad. contemplating upon having one like that. (Fig 17 shows the proud owner Sri Surapaneni Kuchela Others Rao). A few agriculturists have installed water engines run by diesel oil to lift water from the boring 143 ::VIuch change is visible in tools and im­ well during the summer for their vegetable crops. plements employed by the local barbers, carpenters, One household owns a cycle rickshaw made in the blacksmitl;1s and goldsmiths. They are all using style of a cart and it. is pedalled by the attached t.Qc factory made tools and instruments. The agricultural labourer of the household. Chapter III

SOCIAL CUSTOMS r.eneral hours of the (Ll~. These are the comm'J[l signs and symptoms by which the local people infer about a Despite quarrels and misunderstandings \vithin woman becoming pregnant. the family, religion plays an important part in the context of family life. From the cradle to the Food for the pregnallt woman crematorium, and for a period even after the body has been cremated, life for the villagers is a round 5. Nu special prescriptions or (a\nes or regu­ uf rituals 3nd ceremonies. lations are associated with the dietar\" habit of the expectant mother. Though she tr.kes (he orJinary 2. Although long residence and close associa­ and usual food items, still all her cll)icest dishes tion have brought the Christians and Hindus into are prepart'd depending, or course. on one's eco­ close con tact with one another, they retain their nomy. There are a few cases reported where special own socio-religious identities. All the local Chris­ mention is made that the expectant mother is enter­ tians are converts from Hinduism and belonged tained by the relatives and friends when she is in 10 the Scheduled Castes before convcrsion. For her husband's house, by inviting them to dine with all practical purposes, they are treated as Scheduled them. Special preparations like paramarmal11, ariselu Caste people only. In matters affecting the socio­ (sweet dishe-s) are served but thoge items which religious life of the t\\O religious groups they act as generate more heat in the body are invariably avoi­ sepante and self sufficient groups, occasionally ded with the fear that they may cause an abortion. seeking the help. assistance or advice of one another. Those invi tations take place one aft('r another for 3. The basic pattern of ceremonies connected 5 or 6 times till the parents in the case of the first with the major crisis of life is the samc in all sec­ delivery only, take the expectant mother to their tions of Hindus, but in minor details of the rituals house for delivery. During this period the pregnan t there is some difference in the practices of different woman attends to all types of domestic work. As castes. 1i[oreover, even among a particular caste the days pass on she is not allowed to do any heavy the rites and observances are not identical, for in work even in the house lest it may lead to abortion. wme respects individual families have their own Ceremonies before confinement traditions. In the followi ng paragraphs a broad picture of the customs and practices of the life cycle 6. When the woman is in the family way, for is given to illustrate their place in the socio-leligi­ the first confinement locally known as tolipurudu or ous life of the Ilindus and Christian,. tolichu!u and the subsequent one the news is commu­ nicated to her parents by a personal visit of an Pregnancy elderl y member, preferably a woman of t he house­ -t. The method of ascertaining pregnancy lS hold or a kith and kill like the father-in-13W's sister a ssociated with the cessation of the mont hI y mens­ or elder brother's wife. It would be comidered Trual course. Local expression for this phenomenon in/radig for a woman and her parents, if her first is nelathapputa and netllu posukundi. W;!ll thtl> they child wefe to be born anywhere but under tbe begin to expect that the womanis ill the f"mily way. paternal roof. Her mother accompanied by a nea­ During the course of the second and third months rest relative preferably her elder or younger sister her tasteR and likings for food and other item s or or sister-in-law comes to her house usually in the consumption show a characteristic change. It may seventh month bringing along with her some selected be that she longs to eat more sweets or s:wollries or sweets, plantains, dried cocoanuts, betel leaves, expres~e5 her preferences and fondness for sour arecanuts, dates, vermilion, turmeric powder, a fruits or a kind of company or a visit to shrines. In new saree and a blouse piece, etc. After her arrival addition to these symptoms she feels vomiting sen­ she pres en t s a 11 these things ca lled wdcdalu to her sation now and then and mostl~' during the early daughter (pregnant woman) on an auspicions day 3tl CHAPTER 111 in the presence "f all invited J, iIlg of muthaidu­ besides a bed spread on a cot or a mat. Usually vulu (women in married status) and SUUle of the the delivery is attended to by an experienced sweets, plantains, etc., are distributed among the manlhrasani of Chakali (washerman) caste or midwife invitees. Along with these presents she is also pre­ among Hindus and one belonging to 1\.'1ala caste sented with a new sarce which she wears just before among the Scheduled Castes. The pregnant woman presenting herself on the occasion of celebrating attends to the household uuties till she complains the ceremony called srimanlam in the company of of the pangs of child birth. When she complains mutlzaiduvalu. Her mother after 3t::t:. ing for two or of labour pains, she is conducted to the room and three days, takes the daughter, i. e., pregnant before the midwife arrives who is already kept in­ woman to her house on an auspicious day. On that formed about the impending delivery, the mother day her mOlher-in-Iaw prepares cha/midl (a kind of accom?anied by a few elderly women console her sweet prepared with rice flour mixed \\ilh jaggery) by intimate convers:1tion or massage her back with and presents it along \vjth a new saree,a bluuse piece, oil to lessen the severity of pains. As soon as the plantains, vermilion and turmeric po\Hler to her. midwife arrives she goes directly to the room and conducts delivery with all the rich experience, she Birth and post-natal practiceli gained by trial and error.

7. It is usual among all Hindu castes ;.tI:d Chris­ 10. A s soon a s the d tIi very is uver the UIlJ­ tiafiS also that the first and second Jelivery should bilical cord is cut by the midwife with a country take place in the hc)Use of the p:uents of the expec­ knife and the placenta is collected in an old pot and tant mother, i. c " ka:morillu or puttillu. In any case is thrown by her on the outskirts of the village where the first birth at least takes place in her moth(:r's people do not frequent. In some cases it is buried house. But in case where her parents are tOO poor within the' (ourtyard of the house. III c;lstes. like to discharg~ this obligation the firH and subsequent Br.dunin aIld Kamma, only the child is given bath births also take place in the hllslnnd's house. But 0;1 the Jay of birth while among other castes like there is a strict taboo for th,~ third birth to take Golla, Goundla both the mother and the child are place in the p'llcnts house of the expectant mother. given bath with hot water mixed with turmeric This is on accuunt of the belief that {he own bro­ powder. On this day some nearest relatives visit thers of the expectant mother will die if they hear the mother and the baby. Poll ution among all the first crv of the child. This restriction is waived C;1Sies bHS for 9 days. Till three d;:::.ys she is not when for inst:1nce. for some reason. the maternal allo\\'ed to go uut of the house even to attend to the uncle or th(' new oorn i~ abcnt "hell the child's cdls of natllre. The midwife attend~ OIl her till birth t:lkcs place. three days. A kumpati which ig an earthen pot in

U. Tabk 73 tihows that 21 mit of 22 fir~t and which cinders of dung cakes are burnt is kept in ~econd births took place in the woman's parents' her room for warmth. Fom!?ntatiorl is g;ven t) the house. In one case the first birth took place in

lpoJIution) rites which remove the ritual impurity after birth, The mother who has just been confi­ of all the members of the family except th:H of the ned holding the baby in her arms, and with her parents of the child and its paternal relatives who husballd oy her sid~. seats herself on a wooden seat arc under pollution for ten days. On the eleventh which is placed in the center of the house and day all the linen and clothes that have been used covered with cloth. The Brahmin purohit among durin~ this period are gifled to the washerwoman the upper castes like Kamma, or the respective and the house is purified by sprinkling of water caste purohits among other castes offers pujas to God mixed with cow dung all over the house. The floor Vighneswara and goes through the ceremony of i~ bedauhed with cow dung and decorated with pun)'aha vachanam or consecration with the sacred designs drawn either with chalk or lime. The water. He pours a small quantity of this water moth. r and the child are given hot water bath; on into the hands of the father and mother of the child, this occasion the invited friends and relatives also who drink a little and sprinkle the rest over their hring each one vessel full of water heated with a heads. He also sprinkles this water over the house mixture of neem leaves and turmeric powder. The and on all who are living in it, and in the well as woman is z'dlointcd with oil ;Inc! turmeric paste by well. Then the father performs homam in honour the household woman or Chakali woman or in her of the nine planets. If the birth star of the child absence by the malllhrasani he,·self. Immediately is good the father sees the child even on the Same after that she is given bath which lasts for nearly day itself. On the other hand if the star is inauspi­ one hour and she is then dressed in a cleanly ous such as Rohini, one of the 27 stars, which iso washed s:uee. Th~ ch:ld is also given hot water iupposed to bring evil effects to all the members of bath and after wrapping it in new clothes it in she family in which the child is born, the father on placed in a sieve. By this time, the decoration of the 11 th day sees the imJge of the child in a plate­ I be hot;lie and the gates, etc, with festoons of ful of oil. A cloth screen is placed to separate the rnall!:(O leaves would ue over. father and the m0thcr and the moth.er holding tht:' child shows the image of its face in a vessel full of Expenditure oil kt"pt below the cnrtain. Having thus seen the im­ age of the child first, the father holding it in his Mms 12. Pur iti kt putledu chafadu is the local adage seats himself on a wooden seat and performs puja which means IJUtti (10 bags) of paddy is insufficient By his si(le a cop?;:r or brass dish full of rice is kept· (:) meet the expenditure incidental to child birth. With the first finger of his right hand with which I t cor.~ ists of pa YU1Cllts to manthrasani, washerwoman, he holds a gold ring, he writes on the rice the nam~~ hoth in the form {If cash and kind, expenditure on of the day, star, etc., tInt of the constellation under purchase of ~ pices and medicines and on cere­ which the child W3" bom, and finally the name he monies allu feasts. The mart!hrasani is paid Rs. 2 wishes to g-ive to thf: child. He then calls the child for the birth of a female child and Rs. 5 for the three time~ by this name in a loud voice. birth of a male child. In <;(1dition to this cash payment, she is offered one time meal for three 14. If it is the fir'lt child or the first son, re- \hys and on the 9th day some quantity of rice. 1a tions from other villa~eg are also invited to parti­ Payments to washerwomdn. rang,., from Re. 1 to Rs. 5 cipate in the name giving ceremony. Friends and in the form of cash and some quantity of paddy or neighhours in the village are, of course, invited rice alsr:J. The overall expenditure per child birth without fail. Women sing songs suitable for tht" which includes the~e items and expenses connected occasion. The n~w born is named after some ance­ with ceremonies and fC,lsts rallgeg from a minimum stor, in most Qf the cases; in sCJme cases the elders of Rs. 50 to a maximum \\ ll;ch has no limit, of after mutua] C'I11S11ltation or at the sug~estion of an course, depenJing on the financial condi tions of the important or influential relation decide upon a name hou sc holds. for the child. Male names r\aming ceremony 15. Among the older generation common ,uld 13. In

the present generation the same old names referring home accompanied by the muttaiduvalu. Till she to God are used but they are modified by adding performs this ceremony she neither touches the suffixes like 'rao' 'murthy' and 'chowdary'. The water pot, nor visits the well. At home on this day typical form of these names are Kuchela Rao, Pra­ itself the cradling ceremony is performed by plac­ bhakara Rao, Janardhana Rao, Kl ishna Murthy. ing the child dressed, in the cradle. Muttnidullalu Some smart ending names like Buchhibabll, Tataiah sing songs suitable to the occasion. Afterwards they (as he is named after his grandfather), S..ltyam, etc. are served \",ith soaked bengalgram, plantains, etc. are also coming into vogue. But in day-to-day After one month the mother attends to her normal accostings and callings they pronounce the names household work. in the short form like Sat yam for Satyanarayana, Janam for Janardh3na Rao, etc. And names like First feeding of the chilJ Rama Rao and Krishna Murthy take the forrr. of 18. The child lives on mother's milk upto 6 to Ramudu and Kistudu respectively. 9 months. Then the annaprasana ceremony or giving Female names solid food to the chi ld for the first time takes place. An auspicious month, a day and a star which all 16. Among the older generation typical proper combine to foretell good auguries is selected to names for women are Seeramma, Ramamma, celebrate this occasion. On the selected day as Lakshmamma, Ratnamma, Gangamma, Venkam­ usual the child is given b:lth and dressed in new rna, Rajamma, etc. In the present generation new clothes. A sweet preparation known as paramannam, names like Sarojini, Kasturi, Vanaja, Sailaja, i. e., cooked food composed of rice, milk, sugar and Sarita, etc., are added to the list of typical female other spicy ingredients, is prepared. The oldest names. member of the household preferably the grandfather first of all t:lkes the baby into his arms, himself sea­ Cradlin~ ceremony ted on a wooden planl., and dips a gold ring in the cup full of paTamannam and tou::hes the same to the 17. On the 21st day is held nootilo c!Ltda lIJ)'atam, lips of the baby three times and blesses it by kee­ a ceremony to mark the end of pollution as~;ociated ping a few akshin1alu (sacred rice) on its head. Like­ with birth. On this da y, the room where the deli­ wise all the elders including the baby's brothers vt'ry had taken place is cleaned, white-washed and and sisters even if they are two or three ycars old the floor is plast~red with cow dung. The mother also touch pnramannam to the lips of the baby three and the child are given bath with hot water. In times. Some invited friends and relatives, and usu­ some households, where there is a tradition, the done even to female children. On teacher applies turmeric paste and vermilion to the an auspicious day fixed in consultation with a Brah­ slate. Then he te.kes the child on his right lap and min purohit the function is celebrated under a holding the child's right hand which has a slate specially erected pandal. The father and mother pencil into it writes initially on the slate "0 NA are seated on a wooden plank with the boy in bet­ MAHA, SI VA Y AHA, SI DHAM NA MAHA" ween them. Under the supervision of the purohit for three times and utters the same while writing the father of the boy performs puja. Then the child which the child also repeats. The fruits, sweets, is made to sit alone. Soon each rela tive one after etc., arc distributed among all the children in the another, takes a coin and akshintalu in the right school and the teacher is honoured with persents hand and takes them round thrice over the head of 1 ike a pair of new dhotis if one can afford, and boy and blesses the child by putting akshintalu on dakshina, i. e., some money placed in a few betel his head and keeps the coin in the cup placed be­ leaves and areeanut. A few well-to-do households fore him. Then the barber after offering worship may also distribute one slate and a pencil to each to his razor, i.e., putting it to his forehead, pro­ student in the school besides fruits and sweets. ceeds to shave the boy's head leaving one lock at However, most of the castes in the vi llage do not the top. Sometimes the maternal uncle in some celebrate this function now. On some day sugges­ castes like Kamma and Vaisya initiates the shaving ted by the teacher himself after the completion of by applying scissors three times and then leaves the 4th year, the child is sent to the school without rest to the barber who complets the shaving Im­ any ceremony. mediately after shaving, the barber is suitably re­ warded with some presents like a pair of new dhotis Upanayanam and some amount according to the custom of the household. The boy is then given a hot water bath 22. Upanayanam, i. e., sacred thread cere­ and dressed in new clothes. The women uffer him mony is celebrated for boys among Brahmin and haarati. The maternal uncle is presented with a Vaisya castes only. The age at which this ceremony pair of new dhotis and in return he presents the locally known as vadugu should be performed is not child with a silver glass or some clothes. The fixed, but it should be done when the boy is function ends with the entertainment of the friends 7, 9, I I, 13, 15, 17, 19 or 21 and before marriage and relatives to a feast. among Brahmins and just a day before the marriage day among the Vaisyas. This is an important 20. If the parents had taken a mokkuhadi (vow) ceremony. h is the boy's initiation into the In the name of any deity like Venkateswara of religious life, and from this time onwards he Tirupati or Narasimhaswamy of Mangalagiri to should lead a religious life. He should take bath ward off any evil effects and diseases, they fix the regularly and perform sandhyavandanam, i.e., daily yen ue of tonsure ceremony in the respective pilgrim prayers performed in the morning, midday, and centres. Otherwise it takes place in the house evening. He should devote sometime for worship itself. and be mindful that he does not indulge himself in any immoral habits. The jandem or sacred Initiating the child into alphabet thread, once worn by a Brahmih, should not be 21. The child is initiated to learn the alphabet given up, but this rule is not strictly observed in its fifth year. On an auspicious day fixed by a now-a-days. Brahmin purohit this ceremor,y is celebrated. In Puberty the early hours of the day the child is given oil bath and dressed in new clothes. Normally this func­ 23. Among the Hind us the first-menstruation tion is cl'lebrated in the school itself and of the girl is celebrated by elaborate ceremonies. in a few cases it is celebrated in the house She ir; sed uded for five or seven da ys and ~d uring also by invllmg the teacher thereto. This that period she is not allowed to participate in any function is celebrated by a few castes like of the domestic activities. A separate room or a Kamma, Brahmin. The child dressed in new portion of the house is separated by a cloth curtain clothes is taken to the school by the father. He or thatti wall erected for the purpose speciall y. If CHAPTER III she is already married the news is communicated one must not marry outside his caste, but most of to her father-in-law who, as custom demands it, the castes are divided into a number of sub-castes; will be under an obligation to bring suitable pre­ and where this is so, one must ordinarily not marry sents like a new saree, blouse piece, sweets, outside his sub-caste. Sometimes one rnay marry plantains, vermilion, turmeric powder on the day in certain sub-castes but not in others; and there of the ceremonial bath. During these five or seven may be some from whom one may take a girl ill days, according to the prevailing convention of the marriage but to ",;hom one may not give one. l\Iost household, food, etc. are served in separate dishes castes are again further divided into groups consist­ and she is not allowed to move in and outside the ing of persons supposed to be descended from a house freely. A function is arranged on every common ancestor (agnate) and so forbidden to evening on all these days if the household can intermarry. A Hindu is thus exogamous as regards afford or on the final day without fail in all the his family groups and endogamous as regards his households. All the women and girls in the res­ caste 01' sub-caste. pective castes and sometimes outsiders also are in­ vited to attend the function. \Vhen they all gather 26. \Vhere, as is commonly the case, kinship in the house during the evening hours the girl is traced through the male the institution of cousin decorated with flowers, etc., is seated on a palmyra marriage operates inteT alia to prevent a man from leaf mat in a secluded place. All the women in marrying the daughter of his father's brother; married status are honoured by applying bottu, a where it is traced through the female it prevents mal k of vermilion on the forehead, and turmeric him from marrying the daughter of his mother's paste to the feet. Then three women offer haarati sister. He is often obliged or at least has a right, to the girl and the function ends with the offering to marry the daughter of his father's sister or of soaked bengalgram, betel leaves and arecan ut. At mother's brother. Sometimes it is immaterial the end of the stipulated period of pollution, the which of them he marries, and sometimes one or girl is givt'n a ceremonial hath and dress<"d in ne,\' the other is preferred, most frequently the daughter clothes presented to her on the occasion ei ther by of the maternal uncle. her maternal uncle if she is unmarried or by her Permissible partners father-in-law if she is married. Whether the time of attaillment of puLerty is propitioUS or not is 27. ,Mtn.Jrikam (marrying mother's brother's seriously considered as it is a popular belief tha t daughter), edum IIlmarikam (marrying father's her happy married life depends much upon it. If sister's daughter) and marrying own sister's the star at that time is considered inauspicious, the daughter are common though the former two are parents, if she is unmarried, consult a Brahmin to preferred. Some people do not like the marital take such necessary steps which would ward off union between a hoy and his sister's daughter as it the evil effects in store and perform all necessary involves a delicate emotional situation wherein the ceremonies to propitiate the evil stars. In case she husband, when he gets wild with his wife On certain is married the fatlH."r-in-Iaw takes all the interest occasions cannot scold her in all sorts of foul and conducts the ceremonies to ward off the evil language which when done, reflects on his olVn effects. sister. l\1arrying wife's sister is in vogue. In any case a man and a woman helonging to the same Marriage intiperu (surname) are considered as classificatory brother and sister because of the ~ame patrilineal 24. The most gay and joyous of all ceremo­ descent. Besides members of the same S'Jfnames nies connected with the life of an indiuidual is his and others are considered as siblings which is or her marriage and marriage in the village denotes locally called aTmatammula varasa and hence marriages not a single ceremony in which the man and the between people of certain surnames are not con­ woman are join<"d together for life, but a sel~ies of tracted. This m~ans th«t marriage is contracted ceremonies cover-ing Wore th;tn a few days. between persons be longing to such intiperlu

Alaniage re~t,ictions (surnames) the relationship between whom is consi­ dered as one of non-sibling nature~ This permissible 15. There are very many restrictions placed intiptTU relationship is locally known as bandhuL'ula in the matter of contracting marriages. ~ot only varasa. There is no taboo for m.ll'i ta 1 relations SOCIAL CUSTOMS 43

between persons belonging to the same village. every law has its own exceptions, in this village also Marriages are thus endogamous within the same there are three such cases wherein two Christians caste and exogamous with reference to intiperu. and one Yenadi married in contravention of their respective caste rules. Among the Christians these Age at first marriage two instances have been disapproved by the Christian 28. Table 55 gives particulars relating to community while in the case of the Yenadi the persoJls by age at first marriage by caste, etc. The caste people have given their consent probably with information has been obtained from 46 males and the view that it is a sin to disapprove a marriage 49 females. Then' are only 3 femaks in the age bet'lNeen two lovers who are pledged to marry. group of 5-9 years. The maximum number of (Table 52). frmales, i. f'., 29 are found in the age group of Objection to inter-caste mamage 10-1+ yt'ars while among males, the majority, i. e., 28 are found in the age group 20-24 years. This 31. In spite of advanced education and high shows that generally boys aged between 20-24 years economic position people living even in cosmopolitan and girls aged 10-14 years are married. Corres­ and metropoliton regard an inter-caste marri­ pondingly there is no male in the age group of age as something wrong. In fact, caste plays a very 10-14 years a nd there are onl y 3 fe rna les in the age deciding role in the institution of marriage. One group of 20-24 years. Only 6 males and 14 females may go out of his caste rules and dine with any other have reported that they were married at the age of caste man. But when the question of marriage 15-19 years. Marriages for women aged beyond 24 comes, not only the caste but the sub-caste in the years are not quite common as is evident from the same caste is taken into consideration rather much fact that in the age groups of 25-29 years and 30-34 more scrupulously than in any other affair. Inter­ years there are only 6 and 4 males respectively. caste marriages, no doubt, are taking place in towns and cities but their number is not quite Spati"l distribution significant. ' 29. Usually the villagers prefer to contract marriages in and around the village only. Of the 32. In a village, naturally people are more 43 marriages reported 9 are contracted within the custom minded and h~nce generally do not enter­ village, 14 are contracted within the taluk but out­ tain the ide3- of inter-oste m.Hriage. Table 52 side the village in places at a distance of 10 miles shows that out of 29 p~rsons interviewed, 17 have and below, in the case of 10 marriages at a distance no objection to C0ntract a m:lrriage outside their caste but 13 of them could not specify the caste in of 11-25 miles, in respect of ~ marriages and at a distance between 26-100 miles in regard to one which they m3Y like to marry. The remaining marriage, Eleven marriages are contracted with four, i. e., three of Kamma and one of Uppari caste persons living in places outside the taluk but have shown preference to Brahmin, Reddy casteS within the district. They are-three at a distance if at all they marry outside their caste. All the of 10 m!les and below, three at a distance of 11-25 same it cannot be inferred th'o1t in practice inter­ and the remaining 5 at a distance of 26-100 miles. caste marriages are likely to take place to such _an Only 9 marriages are contracted outside the district extent. l,ut wthin the State. Among them 3 are at a di­ 33. There are some who think that sound stance of 11-25 miles, :> at a distance of 26-100 milt'S economic position of an individ ual will elevate him and only one at a distance of more than 101 miles. in social hierarchy irrespective of his caste and (Tahle 54). therefore, one should not have any objection to Contravention of marriage, rule) contract marriage wi th a rich family of an yother caste. But many do not agree with this idea. 30. In a rural setting where people are con­ However, in this village three households of trolled mostly by traditionall y accepted values of Kamma caste who have no objection to contract life, going against the accepted caste and fami ly marriage with a caste other than their own have custqms in respect of marriage needs courage as the explained their preference to marry a Reddy or a person darin~ to go out of the way will be looked Brahmin if their socio-economic sta tus is equivalent d Own upon by the society at l.uge. However, as to or higher than their own (Table 53). 44 CHAPTER III

jv!arriage payments in finalising the alliance among the ca~tes like Brahmin, Kamma, Golla, Goundla, etc., whereas 3·1-. Payments in cash or kind are a must In among Yenadi, Uppari, Madiga, etc., castes all marrial?;es irrespective ()f one's awareness about surname is the determining factor for cantracting a the Prohibition of Dowry Act, etc. Even according marriage alliance Sagotra marriages are prohibi­ to tradition no father should give his daughter in ted. Among all the castes the initiative for ne· marriage to a man without giving an <,monnt of not ~p'otiatino- 0 marriao-e~. is taken customarily from the more than Rs. 4 as dowry. Sometime back this girl's side. Usually as the girl reaches 17 or 18 waS reversed when there was a dearth of girls and years, the parents begin looking out for a suitable kanyaslllkam, i. e., selling of gi rls wa s in vogue. But boy for marriage in the permissible consanguineous in course of time the position altered again and relatives (or some other permissible non~consangui­ with the increase in the numher of girls the demanct neo us relatives). In any case the marriages are for dowry has increased Very recently, i. c., with contracted within their own caste. Then on a good the significant improvement in the economic position day fixed by a Brahmin purohit or one who can of the agriculturists the rates of dowry have in­ refer the Telugu alm"nac they start from their place creased considerably. In fact there has been a with one or two close relatives to explore the crazy run for the boys who have studied Enginee­ possibilities of settling the matter with the parents ring and Medicine to such a great extent that an of the bov. Sometimes a middleman who is known engineer can expect a dowry of more than Rs 35 to to both the parties is deputed to find out whether 40 thousand and a doctor can uasonably expect a the boy's parents are willing to enter into an lakh of rupees in certain castes. In most of the alliance with the girl's family As he knows the cases half or even three fourths of the acceptt'cl socio-economic condition of both the parties, he dowry is given in the form of land to the girl and initially discusses all the relevant points like dowry, the rest in cash to the boy's father. In almo'st ali presents to be given to the girl, etc., taking into castes in the village there are instances of receiving consideration their economic positiun. Then if the dowry in the form of Jand or cash and ornaments boy's parents agree they send an invitation through as well (Table 52). the med:ator to the parents of the boy to come to their house to see the girl. On an auspicious day 35. Table 57 shows that two Karnma house­ the boy's party consisting of: himself, his p lrents holds gave dowry amounting to Rs. 20,000 and olle and the mediator ar.d one or two nearest relatives Colla household paid a dowry of Rs. 900. In fact pref, r.lbly inel udiug a lady memher or common the village Karnam, a Kamma by caste gave a friends go to the girl's village and stay temporarily dowrY of Rs. 80.000 in his daughter'S m uriagl" and ;n a friend's house The preliminary meeting and in an~ther Kam~a household 'one gt"ntleman rt'­ talks are extremely delicate and suggestive in their ceived a dowry of Rs. 70,000. Most of the can(li­ form, content and expression. Generally the dates interviewed are fully aware of the Act pro­ groom's party does not directly go and sit for t;}lks hibiting dowry but some of them are r('ally frank in in the girl's hOllse except in such cases where they sayirig that just as any other Act this Act also is arC already known to each other intimately. It is honoured more in the breach than in its practice. customary to halt in the house of another relative For example one gentleman, a staunch follower of or friend or an acquaintance. Through these the Congress Farty observed that in spite of the law persons the hoy's party pays a courtesy visit to the prohibiting the drink and corruption both are oid's house and makes kind enquiries of their rampant and so i~ the caSe with regard to the Dowry ~elfare. Slowly, the purpose of the visit is revealed Act also. As t hey are full y a \\'are of the implicati (IllS through the merliator. If the girl's parents express of the law they demand the complete dowry amount their - consent fllrtht"l' talks are held. Otherwise well in advance and make no announcement tn (Iut they simply say let the horoscopes agree or let the effect at the time of marriage. girl and boy express their willingness and so on. Sometimes if the girl is not attractive or not up to Initial cllsiGms their expectation the boy's party simply say that 36. :Marriage by negotiation is the only type they will inform their opinion in due course of time of marriage among all rhe castes in the village in­ and leave the place. This sort of evasive answer is cluding Christians. CollOs pb)' an important role generally understood as a negative reply am! they SOCIAL CUSTOMS 45

(the girl's party) explore other sources. On the function popularly known as pendlikodukuni cheyuta and contrary jf everything goes on well both the parties pendlikuturuni )'uta, i. e., preparing the bridegroom may even finalise the talks regarding dowry, etc., and the bride at their respective houses. On that then itself. day both of them are anointed with oil and aftf'r giving haarati, a hot water bath is given to thf'm. 37. On an auspicious day the fath(':r of the They are then dressed in new clothes and a beauty girl consults a Brahmin to find out whether astro­ spot with black eye ointment known as katika is logically the two horoscopes, i. e., of the girl and made on the right cheek of the boy and the left boy agree and foretell happy married life or not. cheek of the girl. Besides this, the feet of the girl H the horoscopes are not available the parties con­ and the boy are decorated with paarani, a colourful tent themselves by the Brahmin's predictions who preparation with a mixture of lime and turmeric compares their stars according to their names. The powder. The boy also then wears a few golp Brahmin is paid suitably according to their acquain­ necklaces. tance with him. The same Brahmin also fixes an auspicious day suitable to both the parties, for 41. Kasiyatra a mock pilgrimage to Banaras by celebrating the marriage. Then both the parties go the groom is celebrated among a few orthodox on with their prepartions for marriage. households only.

38. A few days before the marriage day both 42. Then on the day of marriage, a few hours the parties erect huge pandals both in the front and before the time of marriage, the bridegroom's party backyards of their houses. The houses are white­ consisting of his parents. sisters, brothers, friends, washed and the gates are coloured wi th yellow and and relatj ves repairs to the bride's village where they red colours mixed in oil. All the required goods are welcomed and preparations for their comfortable like rice, vegetables, dhals, oil, ghee, spices are stay are made in a house knowh as vididhi. One or acquired in large quantity a fortnight before the two servants employed by the bride's father are kept marriage. Only a few rich houses possess huge there to serve the groom's party. After an hour of vessels required for cooking large quantity of food their arri val when everyone in the groom's party and for preserving water, etc. In other households settles down in the vididhi (temporary rest house) large size utensils are procured from friends or the father of the bride, accompanied by a few relatives much in advance and a few cooks are also muttaiau'!Jalu (women in married status) and a few engaged for a day or two. Then on an auspicious male rf'latives and baja (musical instruments) goes day gadipoy.yilu (big ovens) are dug ill the earth. to the vididhi. They take a long with them two Required fud

before the actual muhurtham (auspicious time) the the as~embled and hands it over to the groom who bride and the groom are separately anointed with ties it round the neck of the bride and makes three oil by their mother's-in-Iaw and haarati is offered by knots one above the other and keeps turmeric a couple of multaidllvalu before they are given a hot powder and vermilion three times and takes his water bath. Soon after bath they are dressed up in seat. Then all the assembled sprinkle akshintalu on clean clothes preferably si lk ones. them sho'wering their blessing. Then two pIa tes of rice coloured yellow by mixing turmeric powder, 44. Then starts the real functic,n. The groom are placed between the bride and the groom who is brought to the pandal and seated on a wooden take opposite seats. They exchange the pouring of seat all alone, for Vighneswara puja. The purohit ta1ambralu on each other'S head in a comp6titive brought by him from hi., village officiates over the spirit until the stock is exhausted. Then one end ceremony and the groom performs pt{ja to Vighne­ of the saree and the dhoti are tied in a knot known swara represented in a corlical piece of turmeric as Brahmamudi, which means the sacred bond of paste placed on a betel leaf which itself is kept on marriage. The bridegroom takes hold of the left a rice stretch. At the same time the bride performs hand of the bride with his right hand and both puja to Vighneswara and then to Goddess Gouri walk around the sacred nre three times. Then' within the house under the supervision of her house­ they are shown Dhruva and Arundhati the eternal hold purohit. stars in the sky. Other items of marriage like slhalipaka and nagovalli are almost given up in a 45. Then the purohit in the pandal proclaims majority of the non-Brahmin households and they tht; gotras and the names of three generations of are finally celebrated in a condensed fashion in a both the bride and the groom. Then the bride few minutes among the Brahmins. The m:uriage seated in a bamboo basket is brought by her mater­ is rounded off with the handing over of the bride to nal uncle from inside the house to the place where the groom and his parents, elder brothers and. the groom is seated in the central portion of the sister~. This is known as appagintalu (i. e., handing panda 1. By this time the priests of both the parties over). The parents of the bride take hold ot both make a partition by holding a cloth across so that her hands and immerse them in the milk placed in the bridegroom may not See the bride before the a big cup and then p~ace them in the hands of the muhurtham is completed. As soon as the bride is bridegroom first and next in the hands of all other brought by her maternal uncle, he is presented important kith and kin of the g~oom. Then all the with a pair of new dhotis by her parents. Then the relatives particularly the parents of the groom, bride is seated on the other side of the curtain brothers and sistets are presented with new clothes. opposite to the groom. The bride sits in the centre This marks the close of all the functions of mania·· and her father and mother sit on either side. He . Then the bride is taken to the house of the (her father) places the hand of the bride on that of groom where she stays for three days and comes the groom and both he and his wife (bride's mother) back to her parents' house accompanied by her pour water over the clasped hands of the contract­ husband. ing couple. Then a yoke is brought, one end of COil fUm mation which is placed on the head of the bride above a ring and prayers are offered by the purohit. Into 46. As most of the marriages are celebrated the hole of the yoke a silver or gold chain or the only after the girl attains puberty the consumma­ mangalasutram (sacred locket) is lowered and the tion is not delayed as in olden days. But it is bridegroom sprinkles water over the yoke so as to never cele,brated on the same day of marriage fall on her head and then a new and costly saree except among ~1m;lims who perform it on the mar­ purchased by the groom is presented to the bride. riage day itself. In most of the castes the elaborate Exactly at the muhurtham, i. e., auspicious time both ceremony, associated with it has been given up the bride and the groom take a bit of cumin .and long back. On an auspicious day fixed in consulta­ Jaggery and place it on each the other's head and tion with a Brahmin the wife and husband are sent then the cloth curtain is lifted. All the assembled into a room decorated according to their economic shower their blessings by sprinkling akshintalu ~sacred status and from next day onwards they move like rice)on their heads. The purohit then shows the any other couple. This ceremony is locally called mangalaslttram to all and distributes akshintalu to all kar_vamu or garbhadanamu. SOCIAL CUSTOMS 47

Expenditure on marriage the family in the villages. But except when both the parties or one of the two are incorrigible and 47. Expenditure on marriage varies according are not prepared to heed the advice of their parents tn the financial position of individual household. and other village elders no such case goes to the Among Kammas it varies from Rs. 10,000 to more Court of Law for final decision. In fact even the than a lakh or a few lakhs in some cases. However, most difficult cases are settled within the village by on an average in any ordinary household the ex­ mutual consent only. The grown up children stay penditure will be not less than Rs. 1,000. with the father and infants only are retained by the mother subject to the condition that they shall be Widow mamage returned to the [lther as soon as they attain the age 48. A widow is allowed to marry in almost all of 7 or 8 years. castes except among Brahmin, Vaisya and Viswa­ Death brahmin castes. Even in these castes where it is permitted except the virgin and young widows 50. The villagers say that if birth begins without children others especially with a few chil­ man's mortal life on this earth, marriage enriches dren even though young in age, do not entertain it and death ends it. Thus while birth and marria­ any such idea in the interest of the children. But ge are marked by many rituals, death is also marked where the girl is widowed due to some bad luck at with as many ceremonies. a very young age like 19 or 20 years, irrespective of her property rights upon her deceased husband she 51. ~s soon as the symptoms of death become is married, of course, if she is willing. \Vidow manifest in any human being the body, among all marriage, otherwise known as marumantlvu is a simple Hindu castes, is removed from the bed and laid on affair with no elaborate formalities of a the floor. If there is any fear of the da y being regular marriage. The man's relatives and well­ inauspicious, the person who is at the end ofthe life's wishers make a preliminary visit to the village journey is taken out of the home and placed in the where a widow is available for maruma7luvu. On an cuuet yard on a pial. All the members of the auspicious day fixed by a Brahmin the man accom­ household pour one or two spoons full of water panied by a few elderly relatives, preferably males, mixed with tulasi (ocimum plant) leaves in the goes to the house of the widow and presents a new mouth of the man about to breath his last. Some saree, ornaments, if one can afford, and apply bottu prayers are offered by the old men and women. on her forehead and ties the martiage locket with­ The sad news is communicated to all the near and out any pomp and show. In some cases where the dear through wire or by .person. And, ,,\'hen all widow is still in teens marriage may be celebrated sons and daughters arrive, the body is lifted from just as any ordinary marriage. The function ends the ground and seated on a wooden plank resting the with a sumptuous meal to all the invited guests. back to the pial outside the court yard and is then The consummation also takes place on the same given bath. The C1-ste marks are put on the fore­ d:ty. head if the deceased is a man and if it is a women in married sta tllS, as usual the bottu (mark of vermi­ Separation and divorce lion) is put on the forehead and turmeric paste is applied hoth to the face and the feet. 49. Separation and divorce are accepted among all castes in the village. Though the 52. The dead children, among all Hindu Christians say that their religion has no room for castes, are buried. The Brahmins and Vaisyas as such things there are several cases of separation a rule, cremate the dead except in case of death and divorce among them also. A separation which from cholera, small pox and snake bite. Among ~ets a legal stamp hecomes divorce. Temperamen­ other castes both cremation and burial are in tal incompatabi Ii ty, ind ulgi ng in vices and not voglle. taking any interest in the f"milyon the part of the male, promiscuous sexual relations on the part of a .53. After the corpse is given a bath the chi~f womJn, economic superiority of the woman ",nd mourner, preferably the eldest son p("rforms an dislike of one another clue to some s()cial or other initial ritual under the supervision of a Brahmin factors, are some of the reasons for the break up of purohit and prepares to get the corpse tied on the 48 CHAPTER III bier. The bier is prepared with bamboos in the 2nd and 3rd da ys after death and pedda (final form of a ladder. The shroud which until then has obsequies) on 10th, 11th, and 12th days after death. been merely thrown over the body, is then wrapped The initial obsequies is a must to every Hindu while around it, and is bound strongly with straw ropes. the final may be postp:med. The sacred fire is lighted. All the Hindu cast< s 55. On the second day the chief mourner generally follow th is ritual. vVhile the purohit recites accompanied by a few friends and the brahmin the manthras (sacred verses of ) the bier is goes to the place of cremation. He stirs the ashes raised by four bearers. The chief mourner then with a small stick and collects some bones in an gIves signal to depart, carrying fire in an earthen earthen pot. He offers 1wivedyam at that place vessel placing himself at the head of the procession and puts a hole" into an earthen pot. all of them without turbans and having a piece of cloth over their heads in token of mourning. All 56. Pedda karma or final obsequies commence those who join the funeral procession go bare foot on the 10th day after death and lasts for three days. and wear only cotton clothes (beca ues they can be These purificatory rites are performed to remove washed). In the funeral procession, people walk the ritual impurity of the members of the house­ at a distance from one another, never within a yard. hold. On the tenth day a large quantity of cooked There is a belief that if in a funeral procession the rice is offered to the spirit of the dead person. The feet of two people touch there is the danger of death balls of cooked rice are thrown to the crows. It is occurring in either of their families within three a ·staunch belief that the crows are evil spirits, in months. Women never join a funeral procession. fact, devils in the form of crows. This offering is, Before the funeral procession reaches the therefore, intended to render them kindly disposed cremation ground, the body is rested thrice towards the dead man. If they refuse to touch the on the way. At the first halt, the corpse is food, which they sometimes do, it is a very bad placed on the ground, and the sons and nephews go omen for him, and it is believed that the dead round it uttering the word 'Narayana'. A little would go to hell. This rite is called prabhula bali. cooked rice is offered to the pat h as a pathi bali The widow decorated for the last time in her birth, (wa yside offering) to appease the evil spirits. As unless she marries again is conducted to the bank of soon as the procession reaches the spot where the the lake or well and made a widow. All the agnates pyre is, the chief mourner or the eldest son sprink­ should be presen t on the 10th day and perform thar· les water thereon. He takes a burning brand from pan a (oblation of water mixed with gingelly seeds). the sacred fire already lit and lits the pyre. He Until this day they are under pollution and after then carries a pot fi lIed with water having a hole at prabhuta ball, they bathe. On the 12th day s'lpindadhi­ the bottom through which the water trickles out, on karnam ceremony is celebrated. At the close of the this shoulders three times round the corpse and a function, six balls of cooked rice are offered to three the end of the third, throws it down. In the case ancestors, m'lle and female. A cow is usually pre­ of burial, all the persons present at the spot take at sented on this day to a Brahmin and the gift is hand in filling the grave. With the flames raging believed to render the croising of the river Vaitarani high consuming the body, every body retires with (river of hell) easy for the departed soul. On the . the exception of the four who have carried the 13th day a feast is held and domestic worship is corpse and who must remain on the spot until the performed as usual. whole pyre has been consumed. A little later those 57. On all the days of obsequies friends and four who remained near the pyre return to a place relatives are served with vegetarian meals only. usually the local tank or well, where the other people present at the ceremonies have gathered to­ 58. Viswabrahmins, Gollas and Christians gether. They then walk round the assemly three bury their dead and all these functions are not times and later take bath in the tank and perform observed by Christians. The other two castes oblations in order to purify themselves of the pollu­ observe all the above said ceremonies in all tion of having carried a corpse. details. Obsequies Trends of change 54. The obsequies are performed twice. The 59. The importance of Tirupati, the famous first known as chinna karma (initial obsequies) on the pilgrim centre of Andhra Pradesh, has increased SOCIAL CUSTOMS 49 considerably since the last two decades. In Andhra are a few cases where such people are paid a dowry Pradesh almost every Hindu household propitIates of more than Rs. 2 to 3 lakhs while a landlord Lord Venka teswara of Tirupati regarding him "s without higher education is paid a maximum of household deity. Therefore, irrespective of one's Rs. one lakh. The same rule applies for business economic status everyone visits the pilgrim centre also. Oll some occa&ion or other. Tonsure, initiating the child to alphabet and marriage are the important 64, Next coming to the celebration of marria­ ceremonies that are celebrated at Tirupati by very ge, a few modernists are employing Kamma many people. Especially the rich pcople visit the Brahmins to officiat.e 011 sllch occasions. But the place almost for every such ceremony. This has number employing them is sm:lli. Fllrth~r as the both the advantage of celebrating the function at dowry amollnt itself is too big, a majority of them the pilgrim centre and also avoiding heavy expen­ are avoiding rather carefully, without showing their ditul'e that will accrue if it is celebrated at the parsimony, the serving of food to all relatives, native place. friends during the course of marriage as this prac­ tice has become very costly. Therefore, they are 60. An idea about the existing practices shifting the venue of marriage from villages to relating to dowry is given in the following Vijayawada where they perform the marriage at the paragraphs. Kamma hostel or other suitable place in a simple manner. In such a case the meals are arranged in 61. As the village under study is dominated a hotel, to avoid the botheration of procuring all by Kammas both economically and socially the the required grocery, cooking and serving ttc" and observations generally relate to Kamma caste. finishing the whole affair of m:uralje in an hour or Among them there have been certain gradations in two. So simple it has now become th at if a friend t he payment of dowry determined by the factors attends the marriage by an hour late he finds neit­ like education, service, landed property or business her the groom nor the bride and surprisingly he enterprise in which one is engaged in. m.ly find h:m"elf attellding another marriage.

EducatIOn Beliefs and practices 62. Academic distinctions do not playa domi­ 65. The rural social structure is governed by nant role always. For example, a Doctorate in a number of dogmatic belief's and superstitions which Social Sciences like Economics or Sociology without do not always lend themselves to any logical expla­ any property may not fetch a dowry of even Rs. nation. The rural folk are often found to have :20,000 w heras a simple B. A. or B. Com. with some blind faith in certain beliefs particularly the property and engaged in some business like contracts \\"Olnen. rna y get more thall half a lakh of rupees as dowry. Days and month, A doctor or an engineer without any landed pro­ perty may get ~omething more than Rs, 35 to 40 66. The cultivators of this village consult a thousands and one with property rna y even get a Brahmin for an

68. All the 12 months arc not considered as red inauspicious. Sneezing once before commenc­ lucky to undertake new venture and especially for ing a thing is a bad omen. Also if a lizard in the marriage. The months of Aashadha, Bhadrapada house makes noise when anything is being discus.. and Pushya are called sUllyamasalu. Therefore, sed, what is contemplated is bound to happen during these months everyone scrHpulouslyavoids whether it is good or bad. any new venture. For marriage, though all other 9 months are considered good ]yestha is avoidcd if Evil eye both the bride and groom are the eldest among 71. There is a strong belief in the evi I eye their sisters and brothers respectively because of locally called dishti. When a person comes under the belief that three ]yesthas, i. e., ])'tstha (month) the spell of an cvil eye he is said to be effected with and first born or the eldest bride and the groom dishti in local parlance. The pople are congnizant would result in some misfortune to the new couple. that certain persons are evil-eyed and whenever they In the month of Chaitram until the festival of Sri happen to stare at the cattle, they dry up and do Rama Navami, i. e., tile celebration of Rama's not yield milk, and if they see a healthy and marriage is completed, no marriage takes place in chubby child. it becomes lean and weak. Such the village. In the month of Sravana, due to rains persons are either avoided or sometimes bluntly and busy agricultural activities marriages are not told not to come on certain occasions. To ward off celebrated generally. Most of the marriages take tl~is evil effect, women especially the aged in the place in the month of }\fagha (February-:tvlarch) as house hold, take a handful of mirchi and a Ii ttle of by that time agriculturists would have completed salt and move it round the head of the effected their agricul tural operations and realised the sale three times and throw it in the fire. A.1Other proceeds of the surplus produce. method of warding off evil eye is to take a pot of water in which neem leaves and turmeric powder are Seeing mixed and wave before the pers:m effected', which 69. As a first sight in the morning a cat or a is locally referred to as digat1ldavalam and the water widow is a bad omen. Seeing a cow, a jackal, muttai­ is disposed off far away fr")m the habitation at a duva (woman in married status) are good. \Vhile place where three paths meet. Another method is on a journey, coming across a preganant woman, a to soak a cotton wick in castor oil, litting it up and woman carrying potful of water, washerman with waving it down from head to toe three times throwing soiled clothes, white cow or bull, a fox crossing from it outside the house and closing the main door left to right, two Brahmins, are good omens. A afterwards. Some people will mark the forehead widow, black animals like buffalo. single Brahmin, and chin of the child with some black spot (bottu) as a woman with empty pot, a cat, a woman or man a preventive measure to ·ward off the effects of evil carrying wood, a crow crossing from right to left eye. l\lascots are worn by a few. are considered bad. Drtams

Hearing 72. Drt'ams are ~upposed to carry meanings 70. Hearing the sound of an owl is considered alld generally ~pcaking, to see a Brahmin, very bad. If an eagle sits on the roof of the house a beautiful woman, a house, an elephant, a and cries it is considered to portend daridram corpse, a cow, a pigeon, white garments, or to see (poverty). If a jackals'S howl is heard in the village some one taking meat and taking wines and per­ people believe that something untoward will happen forming pllja are considered to be lucky. To see to the village as a \\·hole. Sorrowful and elongated gold, a marriage, a death, dark complexioned bark of a dog in a street corner is regarded as a bad people, a monkey, a bear, a snake, eclipse, fire are omen. If the crow cries sitting on the roof of the considered to be unlucky. house a guest is expected and is welcome but re­ peated crow cawing is considered bad. Sounds by Others cows, cuckoo bir·ds or leopard are considered to be 73. To cut the nails and hair on Tuesday and lucky. Sight of a dead body, a peacock or cuckoo Friday is supposed to have unlucky effect. There bird is supposed to be lucky. The falling of a tree, is a popular belief that squint eye on the right to a fall in I!{ of a dead crow in the threshold are conside- man and on the left to the wom:ll1 brings fortune in SOCIAL CUSTOMS 51 life to its possessor. There is also a belief that with reference to tht:ir horoscopes or palms. location of moles on the body, i. e., on the right side of a man and left side of a woman would bring 75. Barring a fnv exceptions majority of the great fortune and the reverse would cause misery people in the village believe in the existence of and failure in life. A person having a mole on the spirits and supernatural powers. It is believed that soles of the",foot is supposed to traverse great women who die while in pregnancy, unmarried distances on foot. girls on their death and dead men or women leaving young children behind would become spirits and 74. Almost everyone in the village believes revolve round their house where they liyed before in the predictions made by astrologers or palmists death. Chapter IV

ECONOMY

GeneraJ Census there were 847 persons in 167 houses in the village. Then the population was divided broadly Maredumaka is mainly an agricultural village. into two major groups, vi::;., agricultural and non­ Of course, in a place where caste distinctions are agricultural. Again among the agricultural classes. rigidly marked, there would be the traditional caste there were four sub':divisions, viz., 1) Cultivators of professions; so is the case generally in Maredumaka land wholly or mainl y owned and their dependants, where a Mangali is a barber, though he is also an 2) Cultivators of land wholly or mainly unowned acrriculturist sometimes; a Chakali (washerman) and their dependants, 3) Cultivating lahOlll'ers and usually'" washes clothes, not withstanding the fact their dependants and.f) Non-cultivating owners of that he is also an. agricultural labourer. So, it land, agricultural rent receivers and other deper.­ happens not in frequently that a very large percen­ dants. Except in the last category there were people tage are agricultural labourers and only a few are in the remaining three categories. There were agriculturists. The Goundlas have completely given 283, 25 and 368 persons in the first three categories up their caste occupation of toddy tapping and respectively, Thus cultivating labourers were the Gollas have given up their caste occupation of most numerous among the agricultural classes. rearing sheep and cattle. This shows that though Among the non-agricultural popUlation there were agriculture is mainly the task of the Kapu group four sub-divisions, viz., those engaged in I) Prod uc­ of castes, all other castes - both high or low - can tion other than cultivation, 2) Commerce, 3) Tran~ and do cultivate land, besides following their tra­ sport and 4) Other Services and miscellaneous ditional calling. Similarly, trading was originally sources. Except in the third category, i. e., Tran­ the chief occul-l3.tion of Komati or Vaisya caste, sport, there were people in the other three. cate­ but now several other ca5tes have also taken to it. gories. There were 11, 50 and 155 persons m the However, a large number of crafts and occupations respective categories. Thus 155 out of the total still remain the monopol y of particular castes. A 216 non-agricultural popu~ation were engaged in Kamma Brahmin cannot officiate as a priest for miscellaneuos services only. any of the Brahmin households. No other than the Mangali will follow the barber'S profession. Car­ 3. But according to the 1961 Primary Census pentry and working in metals are usually the Abstract there were 1,044 person s living in 20 I exclusive monopoly of the Viswabrahmin group of houses. That means there has been an increase of castes. Only the Madiga will dispose of the dead 197 persons and 34 houses in the decade ending 1961. cattle and undertake to do leather work. Caste~ The economic classsfication of population adopted other than the Chakali would not think of doing at the 1961 Census is different from that of 1951. the washerman's work normally. Tradition has All the population is first divided into two broad given to each group a definite position in the struc­ categories of workers and non-workers; the concept ture of the community and even urbanisation and of dependance adopted at the 1951 Census was not growing literacy among the public have not altered followed in the 1961 Census. The workers were divi­ to any significant extent the basic position in the ded into 9 industrial categories viz., I - Cultivation society. Generally each ca,tc is associated with a II - Acrricul tural Labour, III-Livestock, Mining and definite economic function which is the m8jol' o Quarrying, IV - Houeshoid Industry, V - Manu- source of livelihood for that group. As agriculture facturing other than Household Industry, VI-Cons­ is the mainsta y of Villth sheep and blankets. Besides is given in Table 14. Of the 77 workers 20 are their respective caste occupations, all castes h'ave cultivators, 29 are casual labourers and the remain­ for long commonl y practised agriculture. Further ing 28 arc distributed among other remaining 14 they are free to exploit certain other subsidiary occupations. Among the cultivators 17 are males and 3 are females. In contrast in the category of sources of livelihood also. The Brahmin in this 'casual labourers' there are 21 females and 8 males. village is a teacher though his traditional occupa­ In the profession of teaching all the 5 are males tion is priesthood. The barber and washerman only. In the occupations of retail trade in kirana, occupy themselves mainly with their respective Village Servant, trading in cattle, pig rearing, professions, but they also occasionally work as field toddy tapping, carpentry, masonry, watchman ship labourers. In fact, during the busy agricultural aud hair dressing all the workers are males only. All the 4 attached agricultural labourers are season, when there is a heavy demand on the limi­ mdles. ted labour supply of the local group, efforts are made [0 persuade the artisan caste to send their Rusinf S s etc. womenfolk also to work in the fields for daily 6. Table 15 gives particulars relating to wages. workers by sex, age group, industry, business and other services belonging to the household. As many Main occupation as 46 out of the total 77 workers are engaged in Agr i culture other services belonging to the household. Twenty persons are working in cultivation belonging to the ]0. .\griculture is the m:.iin occupation fur 12 household. There are six in industry and five 10 hOllseholds comprising 4 Kamma, 3 each of Golla business belonging to the household. and Christian and one each of Kapu and Balija castes Thus the agricultural population predomi­ Non-Workers nates in the village in the economic sphere. All 7. There are 101 non-workers among the total these households irrespective of the size of the surycyed population of 17[;. Of these 101 non- holding whether it is economical or not are enga- 54 CHAPTER IV ged in agriculture. Eight households representing greater part of the village land cultivate the fields Christian (6 households), Goundla and Madiga themselves. (one household each) are mainly occupied in casual Casual labour labour (TallIe 22). Thus 20 out of 35 surveyed 13. This is the main occupation for 8 house­ households of different castes regardless of their holds and 6 of them are Christian converts. Among engaged in different traditional occupations are the remaining two, one is a Goundla and the other agriculture in one way or the other. The biggest is a Madiga. land owners are Kammas. 14. Washing of colthes is the main occupation 11. As already written in Chapter I, the first for one household of Chakali caste. Clothes of all settlers of the village were Kammas. And the the castes except those of Scheduled Castes are ancestors of the present day land lords acquired washed and the clean garments are returned every much land and struggled hard to improve it while day late in the evening. The washing of customer's at the same time other castes who came later have menstrual clothes, which is undertaken by the no doubt acquired land but also sold away to female members of the household is regarded ai Kammas due to some pressure of circumstances. degraded and defiling. On the contrary Kammas have improved the extent of their land due to financial help given 15. The barber community is represented by by the rich Kamma landlords of Manikonda, a one household. The householder shaves his custo­ n~arby village. For example,' one of the local mers' beards once a week or fortnight, depending Kamma agriculturist with a land of 5 acr(lS wanted on the amount of grain paid. He does not shave to improve his economic status. One rich gentle­ his customers on certain days like Tuesday and man of Manikolllia rendered adequate help by way Friday and on days of the new and full moon. He of liberal loans to the local Kamma cultivators. also provides special services on ritu::d occasions Thus the local Kamma cultivators obtai;:} loans of such as birth, death and wedding in return for extra Rs. 10 or 12 thousands when same land in the pay. In fact both the barber and the washerman village is for sale, from the rich landlords of Mani­ have no direct contribution to make to the agricul­ konda. And within a short time the debts are tural pur snits of the land owners, but their services cleared off by selling the produce on an area of 8 are required so often by the agriculturists especially acres. Likewise a good number of enterprising agri­ in their socio-religious ceremonies and ritual con­ culturists have even taken a loan of Rs. 40 to 50 nected with birth, marriage and death that the thousands and invested in land, and in a period of agriculturists find it more convenient to have fami­ one decade they became big landlords. lies from these castes permanently affiliated to their households. For their normal services all the year 12. There is yet al:other factor which is res­ round they collect the stipulated quantity of grains ponsibl~ for the large holdings among Kammas. at the time of harvest besides being paid in cash or For example, 'A' had inherited 70 acres of land from kind for other special services, especially those COll­ his father. And he after having two sons, adopts nected with socio-religious activities. In the course family planning and gets operated. By the time of a long ceremony like marriage, two or three times the two sons come to the age of 25 he earns another they may get money, twice or thrice some grain or 50 or 60 acres of land and distributes again 60 to 70 a few brass utensils, and ultimately a set of new acres of land to each who in turn do what their clothes. Like the other castes, the barber and the father did. This sort of maintaining or improving washerman also work independently outside the the extent of land among all the Kammas clearly system of their traditional arrangements. shows their attachment to land on one hand and also the extraordinary care they take to improve it 16. The only Balija among the 35 surveyed .while other cast~ people, with the break up of households is a trader in clothes. He makes large joint family, sell away their pieces of land and purchases, at Vijayawada from the wholesale dealers, ultimately migrate to some urban place to like sarees, blouse pieces and shirt and trouser pieces eke out their livelihood. Absentee landlordism is and carries them in a kavadi to the neighbouring almost nil in Maredumaka and those who own the villages and sells them both on cash payment and ECONOMY 55 credit which he collects at the time of harvest either is no blacksmith or goldsmith in the village. The in cash or kind. His customen are mainly from carpenter himself works as a blacksmith also as far the poorer sections of the population. as agricultural implements are concerned. All the three have got a peculiar position in Hindu society. 17. The head of one of the four Golla house­ They maintain a certain degree of exclusiveness holds surveyed is working as a village servant. from the other Hindu castes. Out of these three, Though he was having enough land to live happily, two, namely, carpenter and blacksmith enter into he sold it all for his luxurious Ii ving d ur ing his relations of permanent affiliation with the agricul­ young age and now he lives in the village along turists. Under this system they supply new agri­ with his wife. As a Government employee he re­ cultural implements periodically and look after ceives pay from Government along with the village maintenance and repairs. In return for their services Karnam and Munsiff. The othert hree are agricul­ they receive remuneration in kind which they have turists. As their land holdings are too small they to co11ect from the field when harvesting is in prog­ very often go in for labour either in the fields or on ress. Apart from this they practise their occupation road works, etc. independently. All their services to non-agricul­ turists as well as their services of a non-agricultural 18. One of the two Goundla households surve­ nature must be paid for. The carpenter makes the yed is engaged in toddy tapping. Though prohibition wooden marriage plank required for several rites of is in force according to law, in these parts, he taps Hindu marriage. For this he is paid a small fee toddy in the name of neera and sells it openly only prescribed by tradition. The blacksmith repairs when it is fermented and his customers vary from and periodically supplies new iron a~ricultural im­ the rich landlord down to the poor casual labourer. plements, but in thi, case the agriculturist concer­ ned has to suppl y tht: iron, charcoal and a labourer 19. Re'ai 1 trade in kirana or grocery is the to work the be11ows. main occupation for two households viz., one belonging to a Muslim and the other to Vaisya 21. The local U ppari works as a mason.. He caste. They bring all the required goods from is engaged by the villagers as and when there is Vijayawada, popularly c:dled Bezwada, from the work and very often he goes out to the neighbour­ wholesale dealers and sell the goods in villages at ing villages to eke out his livelihood. very high prices making even more than 200% profit. Their customers are mainly from the Schc­ 22. The only Yenadi in the village is engaged duled Castes and all other Ilindu castes except a s a night watchman in the village. The village Kamma and Brahmin who purchase their monthly Pancha yat President also entrusted him wi th the requirements mostly at Vijayawada or at Kanki­ duty of putting on and off the street lights in the pad u once in a fortnight or a week. That does not village. Besides, he attends to miscellaneous jobs mean they do not go to these shops at all. They do entrusted to him by the President, Karnam and go when some emergency arises. Cigarettes like 11umiff. He is paid by the Panchayat. Charminar, a popular brand among the local people, are mostly purchased in these shops only. 23. The only Yerukula is rearing pigs. Besides, Others who purchase all their day-to-day require­ he prepares baskets, thatti partitions, winnows, etc., ments every day either pay in cash or kind at the with bamboos and palm fibre. time of harvest. Combination of occupations 20. The local carp~nter is a Viswabrahmm­ Smith m3Y be used as a general term, representing :!4. Besides the main occupation some of the three different occupations i. e., working with wood households in the village usully engage themselves (carpentry), working with iron (blacksmith) and also in some subsidiary occupation just to keep the working with precious metals (goldsmith). The pot boiling. 9 out of the 35 surveyed households local carpenter is a goldsmith but as no one from have got subsidiary occupation. Agriculture is the the village engages him for making ornaments of subsitliary occupations of the teacher. Another gold etc., he has taken up carpentry and he finds two households whose main occupations are trading hlmse1f engaged actively throughout the year. There in cloth and cattle also h,we agriculture as ~ubsidi- 55 CHAPTER IV

aryoccupation. As agriculture in general and also occupation have done it voluntarily. in delta laud is mainly a seasonal affair and also as their holdings are small they are mainly engaged in 28. One Golla household with sheep grazing some business and have agriculture as their subsi­ as its traditional occupation is now engaged in diary occupation. Four out of 12 households with cultivation. Having earned some money, the house­ agriculture as main occupation have taken up three holder invested it in a piece of bnd and slow Jy subsidiary occupations, l'i::;, trading in cloth and he improved it. One Goundla household which was cattle by one household e~~ch and casual labour by engaged in to

Andhra Pradesh State. Though the fields in some 35. "Opinion being sharply divided on the of the villages in the uplands of the Vijayawada practicability of constructing the special type of taluk are irrigated with the aid of minor irrigation anicut on the Krishna at Vijayawada (distinct from sources such as wells, the lands in this village are the type adopted at Dhowleshwaram), the Govern­ irrigated purely through the waters of the delta ment had referred the proposal for Major Arthur canals. Cotton's opinion. 's conviction on the practicability of sand as a foundation material for hydraulic structures may be regarded as the 33. "Prior to the construction of the anicut precursor of the principles and practice which long acrOSS the at Vijayawada in 1853-54, afterwards came to hold the field in regard to this district like other districts of the State waS permeable foundations. liahle to severe . In fact between November 1790 ana November 1792 there was a serious dearth 36. "Subsequent to Major Cotton's report on of foodgrains in this district and numerous deaths the Krishna Anicut Project, Government appointed occurred from starvation. In the year 18?3-24 the an expert Committe consisting among others of district again suffered severely from the Ca ptain A. Orr. known as Guntur famine which lasted for 20 months, caused by deficient rainfall. In order to 37. "The Krishna Anicut Project was sanctio­ make the district free from famine Major Alexand­ ned in 1851 and the work was started in 1852 under der Beatson of the Madras Infantry advised the Charles A. Orr (then a captain), Civil Engineer, :Madras Gl'Vernment as early as 1792, i. e., after the Krishna Division. No better selection could have 1790-92 famine to build an anicut on the Krishna been made, as Orr-had just completed the great at Vijayawada, 60 miles from its mouth. The weir across the Godavari under the guidance of l\Iadras Government referred the matter to its Arthur Cotton. At Vijayawada, at the site chosen Astronomer, Mr. Michael Topping, who spent for the Krishna weir, the river flowed between nearly three years in surveying the river in com­ rocky hills, 3,900 feet apart, but although this width pany with Capt. J. L. Caldwell, M. E. was much less than at Dhowleshwaram on the Godavari, it was no child's play to build, on pure 34. "Topping's reports and surveys, however, sand, a masonry 15 feet high across a gorge in languished for almost half a century in the pigeon which the river rose 40 feet when in flood. There holes of Leadenb:lck Street until the great famine was an .unprecedented flood in 1853 such that it was of 1832-33 stirred the complacent Directors into 'never before seen by any man then living'. By action. Human beings were then dying by hundreds 1855, however, Charles Orr had completed the d thousands while the giant Krishna rolled its work successful! y, rapidly and without any serious mighty volume unhindered to the sea. Some irri­ mistakes and so, by a system of canals on either gation works were begun, but not till 1839, when bank, brought the blessings of irrigation to the the recommendations of Beatson and Topping were Krishna Delta. This. however, was only the first brought to notice in two reports from Captain part of the project that had been sanctioned to give Ed ward Buckle, M. E. Yet the Madras Board of partial effect to the scheme. Revenue remained sceptical. The Members re­ marked in 1840 that "very l;lrge and costly works 38. "The successful completion of the anicut like an anicut at Vijayawada are clearly inexpedi­ has resulted in offering a boon to the district in the ent and impracticable" and had it not been for field of agriculture and no wonder the district ranks Arthur Cotton it is probable that the Krishna first in Andhl a Pradesh from the point of view of scheme would have been shelved for many a year. irrigation. The area irrigated by the Krishna But Cotton's enthusiastic report about the Godavari Anicut system forms over 93.4% of the total irriga­ in 1844 drew attention once more to the Krishna ted area in the district. Apart from providing and Lt. H.A. Lake, M.E., was sent there to prepare irrigation facilities the splendid net work of canals a scheme for an anicut. are also navigable."1

1 Shri A. Chandra Sekhar, I. A. S. - Ceosu~ 1961, District Census Handbook-Krishlla District, pp. xii to xv 58 CHAPTER IV

Land Potential heavy rain. In the hot weather the shrinkage due 39. The total land area of the village is 599.76 to evaporation causes the formation of numerous acres divided into the following heads:, cracks, which are often several feet deep. This feature has given the origin to the common saying Statement VII that black soil ploughs itself. LA~D PARTlqULARS 81. No. Item Extent Implements (1) (2) (3) Acs, cents 44. A majority .of the local agriculturists still 1 Cultivable land 576.76 follow the traditional methods of agriculture using 2 Poramboke 16.00 the antiquated implements. The time honoured 3 Burial ground 1.00 wooden plough in the sine qua non of agriculture 4 Village site 6,00* and the buliock cart is still the facile and popular Total 59976 . means of conveyance. The guntaka, seed-drill, papadam, bullock-hoe, wooden yoke and the spade * (The newly set up colony called Ram'lraopet is are the usual agricultural implements. Only one built on the Poramboke. This does not include the household acq uired recentl y a tractor and oth('1' existing Pormaboke) iron agricultural implements which are worked by 40. Canals are the only source of irrigation mechanical power. Broadcasting of the seed and and paddy is the only cereal grown. Among pulses, transplantation are the popular methods of raisin'5 redgram and blackgram are grown as a second crop the crops besides sowing the s('eds through seed~ by a few agriculturists. The average yield of paddy drill. W eedi ng operation s are done by hand chiefly per acre is about 15 bags. Blackgram and red­ with hoe or fork. Figure 18 shows the plough, cart gram are grown in an area of 132.44 acres and 89 and bullocks and the attached agricultural labourer. acres respectively. Fodder is grown in an area of 68.08 acres. Agricul tural practices Land revenue 45. The average annual raildall of the di'­ 41. There is only one grade of land in the trict is about 36.42 inches. With a fair break from village. The rate of assessment is Rs 27.40 per the south-west monsoon which usually sets in the acre. The total revenue demand in the year months of June-July, sowing of early crops (the 1965-66 waS Rs. 1,200 and the entire amount was punasa) such as dry paddy are taken up. Early collected within a few hours. rains in the month of June norm all y encourage and enable the ryot s to plough and prepare the lands Land value for transplantation. It is only with the help of 42. The 'wet' land (hnd with irrigation these rains, nurseries of paddy are grown in the facilities) in the village costs between Rs 5,000 to semi-dry and semi-wet conditions. Freshes arrive Rs. 6 000 per acre. In certain cases where the in the Krishna river about J llne and the river is in irrigation canal goes by the side of the piece of land spate during August to October which is the peak it may cost even more than Rs. 8,000 per acre. monsoon period. The rains in July facilitate the Again the cost of wet land varies according to the quick transplantation of paddy seedlings. If the demand. There is no 'dry' land in the village. rains fall towards the end of beptember or in the Agriculture beginning of October paddy, dry crops and the sowings of rabi are affected. In this village the 43. The cultivation of the crops depends upon chief crop known as peddapanta such as paddy is the climatic conditions, rainfall or irrigation facili· taken up in July and the ryots take all necessary ties and on the character of the soiL The all uvial preca utions to guard the crops against possible soil is d:nk coloured loam and it fringes the course calamities by proper planning. Roughly from July of the Krishna .river normally; it also occurs. to some to Septembftr all the agriculturists will have no extent in this village as in other neighouring taluks. work practically. Black regar soil is predominant in the village. The black soil is generally 20 feet in depth. Owing to 46. The south-west monsoon prevails up to its dense consistence it becomes unworkable during September and failure of this monsoon in any year ECONOMY 59 results in drought. But a favourable north-east March No rains - Fine weather - Hot wea­ monsoon which sets in October-November mitigates ther begins by the middle of the the severity of the scarcity conditions. The late month - Nights are generally cold­ crops are chillies, tob'!cco, horsegram, etc., and are Canals are closed consequent on the raised between November and December. low supply of water in the Krishna river-Mostly rainless and the dry 47. The first crops are usually sown wi th first weather facilitates the storing of ha y, rains of the south-west monsoon between June-July etc., and the harvest of pulses takes and they are harvested between November and place. December. The second crop is sown in October and November and harvested in March-April. Soon April Hot weather begins - no rains­ after the havest of wet paddy, pulses like blackgram Weather is dry during nights-There and greengram are sown close to the paddy crop. will be no rains in this month. Such crops are raised not merely with a protit 1\foderate rains facilitate the growth motive but also to maintain the fertility of the and yield of dalwa paddy-Moderate soil. and slight showers facilitate the slimmer ploughing of the fields • .lfanures May Hottest month in the year. \'Vestern 48. Man\lfing the crops in the village i:i winds blow in this month. No agri­ mostly through the application of soil compost, cultural operations except manuring vegetable refuse, waste matter, CCl ttle manure, sheep of wet paddy fields. Excessive or manure and patimannu besides the greenleaf manure moderate rainfall will generally which is in considerable use. Chemical fertilisers help the ploughing of dry lands and like ammonium-sulphate and superphospha te are in is useful for paddy seedlings. The great demand in recent years. M.T.U. 19 variety is canals will be opened by the 15th of the popular paddy £train. the month and water will be let down into the channels for growing Statement VIII paddy seed beds. CROP CALENDAR Name of crop Sowing months H,uvesting months June Setting in of the south-west monsoon. (1) (2) (3) Only slight showers are experienced. Paddy (Autumn) Fe bruary-June A ugu st-Octo ber Hot weather continues during days hddy (Winter) JulY-August November-December and nights during the first fortnight. Redgram July-August February-March Excessive or continuous rainfall Greengr:tm June Sept~mber greatly helps the raising of seed b~ds Horsegram October-November February-March and transplantation of wet paddy. But the absence of rainfall post­ Statement IX pones the ploughing of dry lands and l\[O~THWISE DESCRIPTION OF AGRICULTURAL raising of seed beds. OPERATIONS July South-west monsoon in progrees. January First dry weather month after the Winds continue. Transplantation monsoon rains; fine weather, no of wet paddy will be in progress. rains with cold nights. Rains in this Moderate or heavy rainfall will help month are not beneficial to the the growth of the seed beds. Absence pulses, blackgram, etc. Threshing of rai nfa 11 retards t:he sow ing of dry of paddy is completed in this month. crops.

February Fine weather and no rains. Dew August South-west monsoon continues. 1\.10- continues-nights cold - Absence of derate and heavy rains. Heavy or rains is beneficial to all standing continuous rainfall is harmful to wet crops. padd y and to t he crops sown in (he 60 CHAPTER IV

month as well as to the young crops the wet paddy by submersion and that are sown in the later part of also interferes with its harvest. July. Moderate rainfall is useful for the tender and standing crops December Fine weather - Slight showers now and for transplantation of wet paddy and then. Heavy and continuous and helps the growth of dry crops. rainfall if at all occurs, retards the harvest of wet paddy and is h:trmful September South-west monsoon becomes active. to the other crops. Even moderate Heavy rains - Heavy rainfall causes rainfall is harmful to all the crops destruction to standing wet crops as which are more or less ready for well as to the crops sown in the harvest in the mOnth. Absence of montb. Moderate rainfall is benefici­ rainfall or light rainfall facilitates al to the tender and standing crops. the harvest of wet paddy. October South-west monsoon continues with Activities of Village Level Worker moderate or heavy rainfall. North-­ east monsoon sets in about the 49. With the introduction of Panchayat Raj middle of the month. Heavy Or administration and Block Development activities continuous rainfall interferes with the Village Level Worker or Gramsevak has become the sowing of pulses. I'vfoderate popular among many villagers in these parts. As rainfall is beneficial to the wet paddy they are fully avvare of hi s duties, they extract all crop. Absence of rain diminishes possible help from him, particularly in obtaining the yield of the wet paddy crops. fertilizers etc. The folbwing Statement gives an irlea of the quantities of fertilizers, pesticides, etc., November North-east monsoon continues with obtained by the agricult'lrists of Maredumaka occasional showers. Cold weather through the Block Development Officer, Kanki­ commences. Heavy rainfall affects padu.

(Stat,ment X) ECONOMY 61

Statement X Supply of fertilizers, etc., during 1965-66 through the Office of the Block Development Officer, Kankipad u to the agriculturists of Maredumaka village

Fertilizers (Ammo- Pesticides Gamma- 81. niuffi) (Endrine Birds a.nd Cocoa.nut xine No. Name of the ryot (Kgs.) and others) eggs plants (bags)

(I) (2) (3) (4)* (5)* (6) (7)

Sri Surapaneni Haripurushothaln 800 2 20 20

2 Sri Surapaneni Kuehela Rao 250 2 2

3 Sri Koneru Subbaiah 200 3 2 2 20 10

4 Sri Koneru Satyanarayan.l. 200 10 20

5 So i\fusunuru Satyanarayana 300 2 2 10

6 Sri Surapaneni Hari Varaprasad 300

7 Sri Akkineni Gopalakrishnaiah 300 2 2

8 Sri Akkineni Prabhakar Rao 200

9 Sri V. Madhusudhana Rao 400 3 2 20 20

10 Sri Dandamudi Raghavaiah 200

11 Sri Dandamudi Ramaiah 100 10 5 1/2

12 Sri Surapaneni Kesavanarayana 200

13 Sri D Lakshmana Rao 150 20

14 Sri Akkinent Koteswara Rao 350 1.5 Sri Kumba Addanki 100

16 Sri Veerla Murthy 100 7

17 Sn Velisela Suryanarayana 050 5

18 Sri Chodavarapu Prakasam 0.50 5

19 Sri Kolusu Seeta Ramaiah 0.50 5

* The actual quantities were not reported by the Block Development Office; only the prpotions between endrine and other pesticides and between number'of birds and number of eggs supplied, were indicated. 62 CHAPTER IV

Japanese method of paddy cultivation Cows and bu.ffalo~s

50. Though Japanese method of paddy culti­ 54. Cows and she-buffaloes are kept mainly vation was introduced in this village sometime back for milk production. Only bullocks are used for by some of the progressive farmers in the village, it heavier agricultural work on the farm. She-buf­ has been given up now due to some reason and all alves of Murrah breed of Punjab are growing in the farmers in the village are following the tradi­ popularity largely because of their higher milk tional method only. Very enlightened as the agri­ yield. There are 168 cows and calves, 92 oxen and culturists in the village are they do not veto an y 290 buffaloes in the village and nearl y 90% of them new innovation in the field of agriculture which are possessed by Kamma caste people only. Figure brings them good returns without experimenting 19 shows the sturdy and prize winning bullocks of with it for at least one year. The President of the the village. Pancha yat, Sri Surpaneni Hari purushotham had Sheep and Goats acquired a tractor and iron plough of Russian make, which was purchased at Vijayawada. A few other 55. In addition to cattle, there are a large rich agriculturists are also thinking of purchasing number of sheep and goats in the village. These tractors and other modern implements. \-Vhenever animals are v~l uaole assets as they produce wool any crop in the village is attacked by any pest, hairskins and mutton and in case of goats, also immediate steps are taken to eradicate it either by milk. Grazing the sheep over the agricultural lands contacting the Block Development Officer for proper before ploughing or sowing for one or two days is action or if they know the treatment [or themselves one of the popular manuring methods. Some of the they do it without an y delay. Most of the agricul­ local ryots even invite some shepherds from far turists in the village are quite aware of the improved away places to pen their sheep in their lands for a agricultural implemen ts and pesticides, etc. Figure month and pay suitably as the excreta of sheep has 20 shows the hay stack and its proud owner. good nutritional value for the soil. In this village only a few Golla households possess 100 goats and Livestock 100 sheep. 51. To the agriculturist, next to the land, his ca ttle, bQth for work and other purposes, are his most precious possession. A farmer's economic 56. Tho ugh pigs are not ,used for agricul tural status is measured besides the possesion of land, by operations their excreta is collected by the Yertlkula the number of cattle he possesses. Thus, the Indian caste people who own som~ 20 pigs, and sell it to th~ rural population has come to regard the value of ryots as manure. Further as fem:tle pig begets chil­ livestock regardless of age or ability of the animals. dren in dO:lens and does the trick twice a year the: Yerukula sells the piglings when they are aged 52. It is easy for enumerators to distinguish a about a year for a price of more than Rs. ~o each working from a non-working beast, but the distinc­ and a bigger one ,:ged 2 to 3 years may cost even tion between a bull and a bullock is hard to under­ more than Rs. 50. stand due to unsuccessful or half castration. Among Poultry bullocks some are castrated while a large number serve a dual purpose. Further well-fed young stock 57. Poultry keeping is an important cottage sometimes are passeu for breeding bulls and brought ind ustry in rural areas and eggs, fowls, ducks are under plough or yoke, however immature they may regarded as valua:ble kinds of food. Poultry is a be. This also results in an increase in the numoer good source of additional income to the agricul­ useless bullocks. turist. Almost every household in the village except the Brahmin and Vaisya households, has fowls. 53. Livestock are generally divided inw three There are nearly 1,000 fowls. Kammas Own 400 ; classes, viz., (a) Bovine comprising oxen and other non Scheduled Castes own 400 and Scheduled buffaloes, (b) Ovine comprising sheep and goats Castes 200. All of them usually sell eggs to a and (c) others comprising horses, ponies, mules regular buyer who visits the village once in a fort­ donkeys, etc. night or so and sells them at· a higher price at ECONOMY 63

Vijayawada. Of course, a- majority of the house­ of Re. 1.00 per litre. From this village a total holds consume a good lot of eggs and fowls on all quantity of 250 litres of milk is exported daily to occasions. Vijayawada. The middleman makes the payment once a week or month depending upon the mutual Cattle diseases agreement. 58. Gallu (a foot disease), nusimira (a skin 61. Preservation and qualitative improvement disease), dommey, peddarogam and guraka l'yadhi of ca ttle wealth constitutes an essential aspect of (contagious diseases) are some of the common cattle the plan of agricultural development. To achieve diseases. The afflicted cattle are treated at the this end the Government of Andhra Pradesh Government Veterinary Hospital situated at , during the second Five Year Plan period has started Tenneru or Manikonda, the neighbouring villages. a scheme for mass immunisation of cattle against 59. Some of the progressive ryots are availing diseases, cattle improvement schemes, etc. Impro­ of the benefits of artificial insemination provided at ved varieties of cattle like buffaloes, oxen, and also the Government Veterinary Hospital at Manikonda. of fowl~, etc., are being introduced by the Pancha­ In a majority of cases buffaloes are taken to Vempa­ yat Samithi and a good number of agriculturists are tIu, a nearby village and cows to Manikonda or going in for them. Except Kammas among whom a Tarigoppala for purposes of crossing. majority are agriculturists, others are not evincing proper interest in rearing the cattle. Besides, due Sale of milk to the increasing popularity of cultivation of food, fcommercial and vegetable crops, a majority of the 60. Vijayawada, the second biggest city in armel'S have come t:) regard animll husbandry as Andhra Pradesh, where there are good number of an accident of agriculture, rather than as an in­ hotels is connected by a train from Tarigoppala, a tegral part of it. village at a distance of one mile from Maredumaka village. Thelefore, there is regular export of milk Sale of agricultural produce and milk products from all the villages situated on 62. Rice is the l11clin crop raised in the vill:lo'e both sides of the railway line. A few middle men Among pulses, blackgram and greengram are gro;n: collect milk from each household which sells milk, Castor seed and coriander are also grown to some both in the morning and in the evening and carry extent. After paying the accepted amount of grain the huge quantity by train to Vijayawada for selling to the attached agricultural labourers and keeping at considerable profit to the hotels there. The buf­ something for domestic consumption the villagers faloes are milked at about 5 a. m. in the morning as a whole sell the surplus crop which is rou".hlv as and 3-30 to 4 p. m. in the evening. The middle­ follows: b • man who collects the milk regularly tests the milk by immersing a meter in the milk which Statement XI shows the water content in it but he does nOt prefer to do it always. After going to the SALE OF SURPLUS AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE railway station he adds an equal or even larger Approximate quantity of water and adds sugar so that the density surplus crop Approximate Total S1. available for cost (in Rs. amount of the watery milk will be more and does not in­ No. Item sale in bags per bag) (in Rs.) dicate any high mark of water content when tested by the hotelier. Now and then surprise checks are: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) conducted by the State Health Department >lnd the Paddy 6.500 25 1,62,500 culprits are fined heavily. Yet, the business goes 2 Blackgram 500 80 40,000 on uninterrupted. It is not out of place to say that every day something like 40 to 50 thousand litres of 3 Greengram 200 100 20,000 adulterated milk is exported from several villages 4 Coriander 25 150 3.750 even at a distance of more than 35 miles from 5 Castor seed 4 150 600 Vijayawada to the hotels at Vijayawada. The mid­ dlemen purcha~e milk from the vilhge ::!t a rate of T"(al 2,26,850 0.60 P. per litre a.ld sell it at Vijay:nvada at a rate 64 CHAPTER IV

63. Besides the above items the villagers sell ryots. The Andhra Pradesh Ceiling and Agricul­ milk worth about Rs. 22,000 per annum. Further tural Holding Act, 1961 has not yet been imple­ some of the ryots also sell vegetables like brinjals, mented. Due to heavy rains in 1955 the low lying sweet gourd, snake gourd, tomato, water gourd, 4lreas of the village were completely submerged. lady fingers and flowers. A quantitative assess­ Then the Government allowed all those households ment of the total sales of these items cannot be who lost their houses to construct houses on the made as no household maintains any sort of account Government poramboke land. Thus castes like Balija, for these items. However from agriculture and Brahmin, Chakali, Christian, Golla, Goundla, livestock alone the total annual village income Kamma, Kapu, Kummari, Madiga, Mangali, exceeds Rs. 2.5 lakhs. Muslim, Viasya, . Viswabrahmin, Uppari, Yanadi and Yerukula have been benefited (Table 25). Marketing Other occupations 6-l. There is a big rice mill at Tarigoppala a Casual labuur nearby village by the side of the railway line. Most of the local ryots sell their surplus agricultural 66. Thi s is the second major occupation provi­ produce i. e., paddy, to the mill only. Someof ding employment for a majority of the poorer sec­ them carry the paddy s~ored in gunny bags by a tion of the population. People belonging to castes bullock cart to the mill and for some others the like Christian, Golla, Goundla, Madiga, Uppari, mill authorities themselves send one or t~o lorries Yanadi and Yerukula, usually eke out their liveli­ of their own and get the paddy bags transported to hood by working as casual labourers in agricultural . the mill. Yet some others who think that the price as well as non-agricultural works. In the agricul­ of the paddy is not reasonable immediately after tural works especially where hard labour is involven the harvest, store it either in puri or godowns and only men are engaged and women are employed sell it at a later date when the price is reasonably mostly in transplantation wherein they have to high. The mill sometimes makes advance payment do the work by bending very much which men and reserves the paddy of some households and while cannot generally do. Secondly women are emplo­ making the final payment deducts the interest for yed in good number in harvesting operations of the amount already paid from the total amount due paddy which also require a slight bending of the to them. The Co-operative Bank and the State Bank body. In other works like ploughing and threshing of India, also advance loans on godowns of paddy mostly men are employed. The wages also vary and a few agriculturists have started insuring the from work to work and for men and women \Vornen godowns against fire accidents, etc. Sometimes working in transplantation are pain Rs 2.50 to the commission agents of Vijayawada who purchase Rs. 3 per day whereas a man is paid less than that and sell cereals visit the village just after the for the same job because his turnover will be less harvest and finalise their purchase transactions when compared to that of a woman. In harvesting with some of the ryots and make advance payments operations women and men are paid more or less also. Later after a week or so they themselves equally Rs. 2.50 or Rs. 3 per day. SomNimes the send labour and lorries to load the lorries and tran­ payments especially at the time of harvest are sport the grain or pulses to their place. In case of made in kind, i. e., the paddy equiv::dent to the cash pulses especially, the local ryots sell them through payment. the representative of the commission agents only. In case the nearest mill proprietors offer a lower 67. Besides the agricultural works most of the price than the prevailing market price they tran­ labourers were also engaged ill edrth work which silnrt the surplus paddy either to Kankipadu or was undertaken from 1961 to 1963 by the Southern V'jayawada where there is a ready market for any Railway in connection with the conversion of the alll:lllnt of cereals and pulses. meter gauge line into broad gauge -line between Vijayawada and Masulipatnam. During Land reforms and its effects those two years labour was so scarce that agriculturists paid even Rs. 5 per day for 65. As this is not a Zamindari village the a female labourer as the railway offered higher abolition of Zamindari has 110 effect upon the local daily wages than the ryots. Again after 1963 the ECONOMY 65

labour is available at ordinary rates. Lven then, 69. The terms and conditions on which these as the cultivable land in the village requires more labourers are employed are never redt1~ed to writ­ labour force than what is locally available the local ing. They are always oral agreements and are farmers get labourers from Guntur district during honoured at any cost. Usually the tenure of servi­ the busy agricultural season. Some of the local ce is fixed for one year, i. e., from one Eruvaka Pur­ labour is engaged in the nearby rice mill situated nima to the next (June--July) and quite often it at Tarigoppala where the daily \"'a~(s are paid in will be renewed without any change in the cO"lJi­ kind and the mill provides labour throughout the tions of payment, etc .. unless the labourer feels year. Besides this the working hours are limited like leaving the master with a special preference to unlike in agricultural work. The IOf:nllabour even another. The payments vary from ryot to ryot and find work in road laying works undertaken by the from labourer to labourer depending upon the land Zilla Parish ad ar:d occasional jobs in the railway. to be supervifed or workload in the house and farm. The ptdda paltru, i. e., the major labourer is paid Attached agricultural labour more than 25 bags of paddy per year, i. e., Rs. 625, at the rate of Rs.25 per b::tg. And there will be 68. Almost all the agriculturists in the village t\'oiO or three or even more such labourers with the engage one or two attached agricultural labourers rich landlords. The chitina or the minor la­ depending upon the extent of cultivable land owned bourer, minor with regard to age only, is paid 10 to by them. These attached agricultural labourers 15 bags of paddy per year besides free meals twice are locally called palerlu. The elderly among the a day, plus two pairs of dress per year. Thc:se two attached agricultural labourers usually look after facilities of food and dress may not be there for the all the agricultural operations, participate in all pedda palmi. But very o;ten they beg for meals in works and ;::1s') act as supervisors over other ca.sual the house of the landlord a-:1d the housewife seldom and othe-r labourers. They arc engaged not only sends them without food. The payments arc never in the agricultural operations hut sometimes look made at one time as agreed upon by the ryot after the household work also. For example, A is a and the labourers. As the labourer with a family landlord having 70 acres of cultivable land. He of one or two children, wife and aged parents or may have to engage 3 or 4 pedda pa!erlu i. e • maj:w unmarried sister requires paddy, etc., to maintain attached labourers, who attend to the field work in the family, he takes the stipulated quantity of paddy different plots which are always not situated at one in some instalments, i. e., as and when he requires place and four to five chinna palerlu, i. e., minor and very often he will overdraw in his account and labourers, whose duties vary from grazing the the landlord usually does not charge any interest cattle to assisting the housewife in her domestic upon the imputed value of the paddy. Besides activities also. And in certain households onc or this, he takes hand loans of Rs. 10 or Rs. ~o from two labourers are engaged exclusively for cookin~ the landlord and at the end of the year the total purposes only. Besides attending to the kiu' ilt:;l amount is deducted from the total amount to be they have to cook the horsegram to be given to the paid to him. Whenever an function like m~rriage bullocks in the busy agricultural season and also is to take place in the house of the landlord the carry food, coffee, etc., to the landlord whenever he labourer takes active part ar,d his v, ~fe anti other is in the fields to supervise the work, Further theF~ family members also participate in th~ works con. labourers are also engaged in other domestic works nected with the occasion. All of them take meals like driving the bullock cart to bring relatives or in the landlord's house on all the days of prepara­ the landlord to and from the railway station and tion and during the function. They all behave ,accompanying an aged relative of the landlord to like members of the family itself. No special pay­ a distant place, etc. A majority of these labourers ment is made for them on such occasions except in the village come either from Mala or 1Iacliga presenting a saree to th;! wife and a dhoti to the castes. Though almost all of them are converted labourer and at the close of the function Rs. 5 or Christians they invariably have two names, i. e., Rs. 6 for drinking toddy, etc. And when the la­ one Hindu name and the other, a Christian name bourer himself marries he, accompanied by his wife, But they are all called by their master with their goes to the ryot's house to haiye his blessings. On Hindu names only such as Ramudu, Subbadu, this occasion, the landlord gives him and his wife Kistiah, etc. some presents like dhotis and sarees besides a few 66 CHAPTER IV rupees." . A few· days before the marriage day, he income group of Rs. 201-300 and of them excepi takes leave from the ryot and returns after a week one 'other t}'Pe' of family, the remaining 8 are of simple type only. The remaining one household or ten days after the marriage. in the income group of Rs. 51-100 is also a simple Main occupation and per· capita household in type of family. come ahd family type· Statement XII 70. The earning Capacity of an individual TYPESOF FAMILY BY AVERAGE ANNUAL depends upon the occupation he takes up and the HOUSEHOLD ,1NCOME RANGE type of family he lives in. The first needs no ex­ Per capita Family type Total No. of planation. As regards t he second condition, it is income ,.- __---..L. ._-- households ;n true to say that a person I iving in a joint family and range Inter- the income in R,. Simple mediate Joint Other group working along with the other members of the fami:­ Iy in common land owned by the joint family, may (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Ilot have ample opportur. ities to t'xhibit his or her t- SO Nil skill in one field or other and th~reby his or her 1 cantril ut:on to the total fimily income may not be 5t:.. loo 1 2 4 12 ~ubst<.:,tid. And even if the individual carninO'<> is 101-200 6 substantial, it forms part of the funds of the joint 201-300 8 1 9 :(amily. Further if he or, she wants to control the 8 30!-'~OO 6 expenditure so as to have a good surplus income 50! &.over 1 2 4 by the year end it may not be possible in the joint 4 8 34 family where both the income amI expenditure are Total 22 Beggar common to one and all. But in a simple family Grand Total 35 where there are only a husband and wife and their unmarried children, their totl1 income may be in­ 72. The four types of families are simple, i. e., ereased if they work hard and spend less. There­ husband and wife and unmarried children; inter­ fore, the type of family one lives in also, to a cer­ mediate, i. e., married couple and 11llmarried bro­ tain extent, determines the per capita income irres­ ther/sister and one of the p;f.rents; joint, i. e., pective of one's occupaticn. Further, the per capi­ married couple with married sons/daughters. or ta annual income varies because of the number of with married brothers and others, i. e., other than members in each type of family. In a joint family the above three. From the above it is evident that where there are more than 10 persons, even though there are 21 households earning more than Rs. the total income is more the per capita income be­ 201-300 on an average per am1um while only 13 comes less. Table 24 speaks about this aij>ect. households are earning less than Rs. 200 per year.

71. Taking into consideration the main ~ccu­ Expenditllre pations, it may be obs'erved that those engaged in agriculture alone, except one teacher, are having 73. Broadly the items of expenditure in a :1n average annual household income of more than village are food, clothing, house repairs, a,;;ricultu­ Rs. 500. Th~re are four households in the annual re, purchase of utensils and other valuables like household income group of Rs. 501 and above. Of jewellery and performing socio-religious. functions them two are 'other type' of families and one is a like marriage and death. In reality, very few in the simple f

items of expenditure at least an approximate figure annual expenditure on food :-tiune is Rs. 1,080. The with some marginal error can be arrived at. Fur­ two households together arc !.pending on an average ther the expenditure pattern among different house­ 53.40% of their total incom'; flll food, 17.7t:();, on holds varies according to the various occupations clothing, 10.97% on medicines and on all the other they are engaged in. Therefore, to give a com­ items the expenditure is less than 10~~. They .l.re prehensive picture of the expenditure pattern, occu­ not spending anything on ed ucation as their child­ pationwise expenditure on different items is given ren are still attending the local school only. in the following paragraphs. Tr(/der (doth) T(achers 77. This household is a Iso in the income !_C roup 7·!' There are three teachers ill the village of Rs. 1,201 and above. Food, clothing, fuel ;1'ld , .. orkin;; in two elementary schools. They are spen­ lighting and miscellane()u~ items account for ding 52 03% of their total earnings on food alone, 74.10%, 20.58%, 1.65% :lntl 3.67% of the tot:

o~ all the remaining items except travelling (5.55%), Masonr" mIscellaneous (5.33%) and land cess (5.04-%) is less than 50/0 only. On the whole the expenditure on 83. This household ~ in the income range of all agricultural operations comes to 28.07% of the Rs. 301-600 per annum probably indicating that total expenditure which is next only to food which there is not much work for a mason in the village accounts for 30.79%. Two of these II households or in the neighbouring villages. Further the wage in the income groups of Rs. 601-900 and Rs. 1,201 rate in the village is also very low when compared and above have spent an amount of Rs. 1,300 and to that in towns. About 2/3 of the expenditure of Rs. 1, 700 respectively fr,r marriage which forms the household is spent. on food, 10.74% on cloth­ 4.74% of their total expenditure. Surprisingly ing and 9.92% on smoking. In terms of rupees the 5.55% of their expenditure is spent on travelling. expenditure on smoking came to Rs. 108 per an­ Only 0.340/. of their expenditure was spent on num, i. e., Rs. 9 per month which is di~proportiona­ drinks. tely high compared to the earnings; perhaps the householder is too much addicted to the smoking Pig rearing habit and cannot exercise any restraint in the mat­ ter. So also is the case with drinks which account 80. This is the main occupation for one house­ for an expenditure of Rs. 96 per annum. hold only. In its budget food claimed a share CaslJ(Jl lab out' of 79.37');. of the expenditure while other items like clothing, fuel and lighting, smoking and liquors 84. Eight households are engaged in casual -claimed a share of 9.92%, 3.97%, 4.76% and 1.9R% labour as their main occupati0n. Of them 5 house­ holds are in the income group of Rs. 901-1,200; 2 respectively. The household is in the income are in the income group of R".601-900 and one group of Rs. 901-1,200 per annum. There is no is in the income group of Rs. 301-600. Together expenditure on travelling and education. they have spent 75% of their income on food and another 10% on clothing. The rem lining 15% of Toddy tapping tbe expenditure is distributed over 7 other items 81. One of the 35 households surveyed in the such as smoking (6.32%), fuel apd lighting (2.33%), group of Rs. 1,201 and above per annum, is enga­ etc. About 2.15% of the expenditure is on drinks ged in this occupation. 64.39~. of its income was which they consider highly essential next to food. spent on food alone. Among other items of expen­ Sometimes the casual labl'lurers are paid in kind ..Iiture drinks and clothing account for 11.59% and during the harvesting season. A few of thrm may 8.89% respectively. The expenditure on smoking even get food free either in the morning or in the was B.69% of its income. Usually a toddy tapper evening sometimes in case they had been affiliated may be drinking from the stock available with him with the concerned households for a long time. None as and when he likes. But when questioned about of them has spent anything on education. the expenditure on drinks he just calculated it at the prevailing rate and gave an approximate figure Watchman as the agriculturists do regarding the expenditure 85. The watchman is engaged by the Village on food. Panchayat. This household i'l in the income range of Rs. 75-101 per month. The expenditure Carpentry pattern shows the same trend as tha t of the other 82. In this occupation also there is only one households in the sense that the expenditure 011 homehold in the village. It is in the income group food claims a share of 70% while sm:)king account, of Rs. 60 [-900 per annum. Food and clothing con­ for 13.50% .Clothing gets costs 7.50% of the total ex­ stitut~ 83.34·~ of its expenditure while all the re­ penditure. m'lining items of expenditure are met within the Hair drt ssing l'emaining 16.66% of the expenditure. One pecu­ liarity of this household is that it had incurred an 86. There is only one household engaged in expenditure of 4.23% on house rent which is not to this occupation. It is in the income group of be Seen among the budgets of other households. Rs. 301-600. Nearly 53% of its income is spent on ECONOMY

'food. The householder is educating his Bon in a IS lD the income group of Rs.901-1,200. As the nearby town and the remittances on this account household possesses some cultivable land, the in­ ,came to 27.43% of his expenditure. Expenditure come is relatively high. 67.81% of this expendi­ ture is spent on food. Though the members of the on all the other items except agricultural operations household usually wear the washed clothes of the is less than 5% only. customers the expenditure on clothing is' reported to

~Laundryjng account for 18.08% of total expenditure'. The next highest percentage of expenditure, viz .• B.68 is on 87. The washerman household in the village smoking.

Statement XIII

COMMON ITEMS OF EXPENDITURE

No. of Food (% to total ex- Clothing (% to total Smoking ('Yo to total Drinks ('};, to total Occupation households penditure) expenditure) expenditure) expenditure)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

:1 Teacher 3 52.03 15.83 2.04

~ Village servant 6905 7.03 6.14 11.51 3 Trader (kirana) 2 53.40 17.78 4.83 4 Trader (cloth) 74.10 20.58 5 Trader (cattle) 82.80 11.15 6 Cultivatiou 11 30.79 12.41 2.25 0.34 7 Pig rearing 79.39 9.92 4.76 1.98

8 Toddy tapper 64.39 8.89 8.69 11.59 9 Carpenter 68.70 14.64 3.72 ']0 1'lason 66.11 10.74 9.92 8.81 11 Casual labour 8 74.99 9.63 6.32 2.15 12 Watchman 69.77 7.50 13.50 13 Hair dresser 52.66 4.71

.14 Washerman 1 67.81 18.08 8.63 217

88. From the above it is evident that food, its size, besides the occupation and earning capa­ clothing, smoking and drinking claim a major share city. That is why the recorded percentage of 'of expenditure among almost all the households. 20.58% for the h:>useh:>ld with tr.ldin; in cloth as All the households except those engaged in a~ricul­ main occupation, perhaps, cannot be considered as ture have spent half or more of their incomes on high. Among the 11 households with agriculture food alone. Clothing is the second primary need as the main occupation the average expenditure on . of any human being. They have incurred an ex­ clothing is 12.410/0' penditure ranging from 4.77% among the barber household to 20.58% among the household with 89. Smoking is a habit wi th m')~t of the inha­ trading in cloth as the main occupation on this bit:lnts of this village. Ollt of 35 households 32 item. The expenditure on clothing' depends lIpon have reported their expenditure on this item. Each of thf'se 32 households have spent on ~moking more lihe sex and age of the members of the household and than Rs. 2 per every Rs. 100 they have earned. 70 CHAPTER 'IV

90. The expenditure on drinking is the highest ding to the'l President, in the first one' or two yearl>, (11.59%) in the case oitne household wlith toddy of his stay, he (the Pres'ident) had sent more 'than tapping' as the main occupation. Next is the villa.. Rs. 15 to Rs. , 20 thousand per: annum~ ; He says­ ge servant who "las spent 11.51% of his income on that be had spent more than Rs. 50,000 on, his. liquors. The mason also has spent a considerable education so far. Subscquentl'y when the boy'wa~ proportion, viZ., 8.81 % of his income on drinks; awarded some scholarship, he stopped sending'the One household each with the main occupations of . money. As Sri Subb~ Rao got a dowry of, more washing,' casual labour, pig rearing and cultivatioli thari Rs. 35,000 in mlilrriage in the form of land, have spent 2.17%, 2.15%, 1.98% and 0.34% respec.. eveidf ho had to pay ,'back a part of the' expendi­ tively of their incomes on drinking. ture incurred on his education at the time of' division of property, he would still have some pro­ Expenditu" on ,ducation perty besides the bright prospects of becoming a Chemical Engineer and earning a handsome pay. 91. Some of the local boys are studying in the The elder brother who failed to come upto the Zilla Parishad High School at Manikonda, a near- ' expectation 'of his father in the matter of education by big village. They pay the school fee,' purcha~e ' need not forfeit his due share in the property for books, etc., and also engage 'tution master'. But no the sake of his brother. 'In this way, as far as possi­ household maintains any accq_unt of the expendi­ ble, no injustice is done to any of the,sons among ture incurred on children's eduE,ation. Of the 35 the Kamma households, at the time of distributing­ households surveyed only three--one of a Brahmi.n the property among them even if a heavier invest­ teacher another a Golla household and the third a , : . - me'~t is made on one in education or in any other­ Kamma 'household, the latter two being agricul- field. tural households--could report the approximate amount spent on their children's education.. The Household budget Brahmin and Golla households have ~pent some­ thing m'ore than Rs. 50 a'nd less than Rs.: 101 per 93. Having thus studied the income and ex-·' annum -While the Kamma household has spent an penditure pattern in the preceding paragraphs, the appro~imate amount of Rs. 2,000- per annum on household surplus and deficit amounts can be education. The children of the first two households deduQed from Table 31. Of the 35 households. are still studying in the high school. They take surveyed, one has no regular income as the house­ meals in· the morning by about 9-00 a. Ill. and go holder lives on begging. Among the remaining 34- to school and return home by 5-30 p. m. every day. house holds, 9 have got surplus budgets and all the Except the expenditure on books, tution fee, etc. remaining 25 households are having deficit budgets, there is no extra expenditure on food, etc. The only. EOn of the Kamma household is studying M. Sc. at Andhra University, Waltair. As he has to live in 94. The total income and expenditure of all a hostel'and pay tution fee, etc., the expenditure the 34 households taken together are Rs. 81,781 and comes to about Rs. 2,000 per annum. Rs. 91,620.72 respectively. Among the 9 house­ holds with surplus budgets arc 3 households each 92. In general, the expenditure on education with cultivation and casual labour as main occupa.. among Kamma households is relatively much larger tions, two households with teaching as the main than in ho~seholds of other castes. Sri Surapaneni occupation and one household with kirana trade­ Subba Rao, the second son of Sri Surapaneni Hari-' (retail trade in grocery) as the main occupation. purushotham, the President of the Village Pan-, The respective surplus amounts of the above ~ chayat, is studying for his Ph. D. in Chemical households are Rs. 1,361, (3), Rs. 90 (3). Rs. 1330, 'Technology in some American University. Accor- (2) and Rs. 214 (1). '

[Statement XIY} ECONOM,Y 7.1..

Statement XIV

HOUSEHOLDS WITH SURPLUS AND DEFICrT BUDGET BY INCOME RA~GE No. of bouseholds with surplus an<\ deficit amounts in rupees during 1965-66

-Income ~------~-~------~Less than Rs. Rs. . R,. .Rs. Rs. R,. Rs. range Rs. 5 5-10' 11-25 2&-50 . 51-100' 101-200 201-500 501 & above

S ,D S D - S D s D s D S D s D' s D

(1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (1) (8) (9) (to) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17)

'300 & less 301-600 2 601-900 2 '901-1200 4 /

,1201 & above 2 2 2 2

Total 2 2 1 3 11 2 6 oS: Surplus, D: Dc:ficit

95. From the above it is scen that amang the rich, medium and poor cbs3iaed according te) the 9 households having surplus budgets, one household economic condition of all the households. is having a surplus of less than Rs. 5, two house­ Statement XV holds between Rs. 26-50.3 households between Rs. 201-500 and 2 households have a surplus of more FAMILY BUDGET OF SRI SURAPA~ENI HARIPUR­ than Rs. 500. Five out of these 9 households are USHOTHAM FOR THE YEAR 1965-66 having an annual household income of Rs. 1,200 and above while three out of the remaining four Income Amount Expenditure Amount households are in the annual household income (1) (2) (3) (4) group ofRs. 901-1,200 and the remaining one h')use­ Rs. Rs. Agriculture 25,000 Food S,OOO hold is in the income group of Rs. 601-900. Thus Livestock ' 1,000 Coffee 500 it appears that those who are earning a little more products Fuel '" lighting 125 than Rs. 75 p.m. on an average are capable of Clothing 4,000 saving a little every year. Correspondingly, the 25 Travelling 2,500 households with deficit budgets, are also found in Recreation 2,000 Smoking ,aU the income groups except Rs. 300 and less in 1.000 Barber, washerman, etc. 100 which there is no household. Eleven households Agricultural labour, etc. 5,000' are having a deficit of Rs. 201-500 each while 6 Land cess 2.500 households are having a deficit of more than Rs. 500. ]\Ianures 3,000 'There are three households each with a deficit of Total 28,000 25,725 Rs.IOl-200 and Rs. 51-100. And' the remaining two households have a deficit of Rs. 5-10 only. 97. This is a household of 8 members. The However, out of the 13 households having' more head of the household Sri Surapaneni Haripurus-_ -than an incomeofRs. 1,201 per annum, 8are hav­ hotham, a Kamma by caste, is the Preside'nt of the ing deficit budgets. So also in the income group Village Panchayat. He is also a member of the Rs. 901-1,200,7 out of 10 households are having Andhra Pradesh Congress Committee. He has two ·deficit budgets. daughters and two sons and all of them are married. The eldest son who had studied up to S. S. L. C. ·Case studies looks after the agriculture of 70 acres of land. He 96. To give a rough idea of the income and had purchased a Russian m3.de tractor in 1963 and expenditure pattern in the village, a few household conducts all agricultural activities under his super­ budgets are presented below. These four house­ vision by engaging attached agricultural labourers ~h()lds are selected one from each c~tegory of very and casual labourers. He also owns a car which CHAPTER IV he purchased in 1963. As he takes an active part and had studied only llpto V class. He has only· in the taluk and district politics, he goes to various one son who discontinued his B. E. course and taken places very frequently. Besides agriculture, he had up some contract works in Nagarjunasagar Dam at also undertaken some contract works connected Macherla recently. The son is married and has a with Nagarjunasagar Dam at Guntur and appointed daughter and a son. Though the ance5tral property a ,Manager to look after the ",'orks and he goes now of 50 acres was divided among themselves, the and then to the work spot for supervision. Accord­ agricultural operations are supervised by himself. ing to him, the income and expendi ture in contracts He insured his life for Rs. 15,000. The son also are just balancing and therefore, there is no surplus insured his life for Rs. 15,000. Though the surplus, income from that source. It mayor may not be according to their budget estimate is less than quite true.' The expenditure pattern given above Rs. 2,000, in reality it is likely to lJe more than appears to be quite exaggerated. In fact he doe.s Rs. 5,000. At the time of the survey, when ques­ not maintain any sort of account for all the items of tioned about their actual expenditure on food, expenditure and therefore, taking it for granted clothing, etc., out of fear of being taxed for excess· that all his statements are correct, he has a surplus of income over expenditure, the respondents give of only a paltry amount of Rs. 275. He purchased huge figure on all items of expenditure and do not a tractor for Rs. 11,000 and a car for Rs. 11,000 reveal the actual position. The expenditure 011 during the year 1963. Though he had not revealed food, etc., cannot be calculated precisely since they the amount of debt he owes, it is said that it is never purchase rice, pulses and several other items more than Rs. 15 to Rs. 20 thousands. Further, used for food. The imputed value of all such items until a few years befort» he used to finance his may give the enumerator a very approximate pic­ second son's education at U. S. A. which cost him ture at best. more than Rs. 20,000. In reality, he leads a life of extravagance and does not mind spending for Statement XVII any right cause. Hence, all the people of poorer FAMILY BUDGET OF SRI DANDAMUDI VEERA­ section of the village respect him very highly for RAGHAVAIH FOR THE YEAR 1965-66 his philanthrophic and humanitarian outlook of life in spite of certain personal dra\\·backs. Income Amount Expenditure Amount (1 ) (2) (3) (4) Statement XVI Rs. Rs. Agriculture 4,500 Food 1,260 FAMILY BUDGET OF SRI AKKINENI GOPALA­ Livestock 430 Fuel & lighting 40 KRISHNAYYA FOR THE YEAR 1965-66 products Clothing 750 Income Amount Expenditure Amount Handloan Travelling 50 (1) (2) (3) (4) 360 Education 2,000 Washerman and barber 120 Rs. Rs. Agriculturaloperatiom Agriculture 7,850 Food, coffee, etc. 4,000 and manure, 1,000 Livestock 1,080 Fuel & lighting 40 Total 5,290 5,220 products Clothing ] ,332 99., This is a middle class family of Kamma Principal re- Travelling & recreation 500 caste. The head of the household owns 10 acres of ceived back Smoking 240 wet land and cultivates it for himself with the help Loan 300 Insurance premium 2,673 of hired and attached agricultural labour. He is 4,000 Intere.t on loans 1,080 the father of one son and three daughters. With his meagre income and a big family, he is some how Agricdturallabour 800 managing to finance his son's University education. J\fanures, etc. 600 His son has come out successfully in the M. Sc. (Nu­ Total 13,230 11,265 clear Physics) examination of the Andhra University in the year 1966. The three daughters also are 98. This household also belongs to Kamma studying in high school. He does not have any huge caste. The head of the household is aged 50 years debt and somehow makes both ends meet within his. ECON'OMY resources. Incidence and causes oj debt Statement XVIII 102. To appreciate full y the position regarding debt it is necessary to analyse and see whether they FAMILY BUDGET OF SRI GUNTAKANI SANJEEVA are incurred for productive or unproductive pur­ RAO FOR THE YEAR 1965-66 poses. It may happen that an amount borrowed Source of Items of at a reasonable rate of interest is helpful in earning Income Amount Expenditure Amount a higher income in some cases. Table 37 show& (1 ) (2) (3) (4) the position by cause of debts. Rs. Rs. Statement XIX Wages 1,000 Food 900 Lighting 3S TYPE OF DEBT BY HOUSEHOLDS AND AMOUNT Clothing 12S No. of house- Amount of Smoking 2S Type of debt holds in debt debt in Rs. Percentage

Total I,OCO 1,086 (1 ) (2) (3) (4)

100. This is a poor family belonging to Chris­ 1 Productive S 20,400 6397 tians. The head of the household and his wife 2 Unproductive 19 11,490 36.03 work as casual labourers and agricultural labourers during busy agricultural season. He has two son s Total 24 3',890 0000 and both are below I years age. Except the son ° 103. In fact the total n umber of households in who is going to school, he and his wife and the debt is 23, but as one household has raised debt more second son are illiterates. Even the son who goes than once the total of the households is shown as to school attends to some casual labour during the 24. It can be seen that a little less than two thirds long agricultural season and earns a little. He of the total debt of Rs. 31,890 is for productive pur­ could not say how he made up the deficit. He poses. These include items like purchase of land takes hand loans from the Kamma landlords and (two hou seholds-Rs. 17,000), household cultiva­ repays them as and when he has some surplus earn- tion (one household-Rs. 2,000) and business run Indebtedness by the household (two households-Rs. 1,400). As many as 19 households have borrowed a total 10l. It may be seen from Table 36 that 23 or amount of Rs. 11 ,490 for unproductive purposes 68% of the 34 households surveyed were indebted such as marriages (8 households-Rs. 7,810), sick­ in all to the extent of Rs. 31,890 by March 1966. ness (5 households-Rs. 1,680) and ordinary wants The average incidence of debt per household comes (6 households-Rs .. 2,000). Of these, the first and to Rs. 1,386. 52. Of these 23 households, 4 in the last items, i.e., marriages and ordinary wants claim income group of Rs. 301-600 raised a total loan of a total expenditure of Rs. 7,810 and Rs. 2,000 res­ Rs. 2,850, i.e., an average of Rs. 707.50 per house­ pectively which are rather high but cannot be hold in debt. In the next income group of avoided because of such factors as social prestige of Rs. 601-900, 4 out of the 6 households were in debt the households in the village. Secondly the villagers to a tune of Rs. 4,350, i.e., an average of Rs. 1,087 are usually compelled to borrow for meeting their per household. Six out of the 10 households in the day-to-day expenditure because their income is not income group of Rs. 901-1200 have incurred a total regular. Immediate! y after the harvest of the crops debt of Rs. 1,650, i.e., Rs. 275.00 per household on everyone in the village will be having some amount an average. In the income group of Rs. 1,20 I and of money in their hands with which they first of all above there are 69% or 9 out 0 13 households which clear the outstanding loans and then purchase a few are in debt. They have all made a total debt of pairs of dress to the members of the household; and Rs.23,060, i.e., an average ofRs. 2,562.22 per house­ make some purchases of certain indispensable goods hold in debt. A further analysis of the Tai)]e like utensils, etc., for the household purpose. But shows that the incidence of debt in the lowest in­ in the end they find themselves in financial straits. come group of Rs. 301-600 is more (80%) when During the rainy season there will not be much compared to all other income groups. work for the labourers who spend what all they earn 74 CHAPTER IV·

without any reserve for any rainy day, and there­ households raised a total loan of Rs. 4,100, from pri­ fore, they invariably raise loans and are indebted vate money lender at the rate of 12% interest. But always. So to meet the expenditure of the day-to­ in the yea; 1964-65 th~ maximum number of house­ day requirements they raise petty handloans some­ holds, i.e., 9 have m:lde a total debt of Rs. 7,960 times or execute promissory notes and borrow a few and all of them from private money lender only. hundreds of rupees at a time from the private money And except one of them who paid 16% interest on lender. This they may do more than once in a Rs. 160, the rest of the loan of Rs. 6,800 was taken year. So again they pay the old loans and start at the rate of 12% only. In the year 1965-66, as many afresh with the . The ,. expendi ture of as 10 households borrowed Rs. 9,330 from three Rs. 1,680 incurred by 5 households on sickness does different sources and only three of them took Rs. not look very high as in one household the patient 1,390 from a private money lender a tara te of 12°;" was admitted in the District General Hospital, interest. Among the remaining 7 households one took Guntur, and an expenditure of more than Rs. 1,500 a loan of Rs. 600 from a private money lender had to be incurred. without any interest, two households took Rs. 240 from a private money lender, one each from the Credit agency and rate of interest Rural Bank and the Land Mortgage Bank an 104. In the absence of facilities for borrow ing amount of Rs. 1,000 and Rs. 4,000 respective1 y at money at a cheap rate of interest, the villagers are an interest of 6i% per annum. The remaining two driven, as it were, to the private money lend er in households made a loan of Rs. 100 (one household) spi te of his exorbitant rates of interest to take loans, from a private money lender and Rs. 2,000 (one only to meet their requirements. Of the total debt household) from the Rural Bank at the rate of 8% of Rs. 31,890, a SUm of only Rs.3,000 was lent by interest (Table 39). the Rural Bank and an amount of Rs. 4,000 bv the Land Mortgage Bank. The rest of the amou'nt of Communitywise position of indebtedness Rs. 24,890 was lent by private money lenders. Only one household got a h:lnd loan of Rs. 600 from a lOS. Prior to 1951 only one household of private money lender without any interest. Four Kamma caste was in debt to a tune of Rs. 5000. households raised a total loan of Rs. 5,240 at the Again during the decade of 19")1-51, only one rate of 6t% interest per annum. Of these 4 house­ Kamma household was in debt to a tune ofRs 5,000. holds two took Rs. 240 from a private money lender In the year 1962-63 two households, i.e., one house­ and one took Rs. 1,000 from the Rural Bank and hold each of Chakali (washerman) and Christian the other took Rs. 4,000 from the Land l'vfortaacre communitv incurred a debt ofRs. 300 and Rs. 1,200 Bank. One household raised a loan of Rs. 100 ho~ respecti vely. In the year 1963-64, 6 households a private money lender and another household belonging to Balija (one household), Christi:lll (~ raised a loan of Rs. 2,000 from the Rural Bank at households), Kapu (one h:msehold) and Mangall an interest rate of 8% per annum. A private money (one household) have raised loans of Rs. 500, lender had advanced two loans of Rs. 5,000 each to Rs. 600, Rs. 2,000 and Rs. 1,000 resp.-:ctively. So also t",:o persons at an interest rate of 9% per annum. in the year 1964-65, three Christian households have Nmeteen households raised a total loan of Rs. 13,790 incurred a total debt of Rs. 1,600 and one house­ at an interest rate of 12% per annum from a private hold each of Balija, Golla, Kapu, Madiga, Mangali money lender and one household made a debt of and Yerukula castes have m'lde a loan of Rs. 1,000, Rs.160attherate of 16% interest. Prior to 1951 Rs. 1,500, Rs. 1,500, Rs. 200, Rs. 1,000 and Rs. 160 only one among the 35 households surveyed was in respectively. In the year 1965-66, 8 households debt to the tune of Rs. 5,000, borrowed from a pri­ belonging to Golla (2 households), Kamma (3. house vate money lender. During the decade of 1951-61 holds), Muslim (one household), Uppui (one only one household made a debt of Rs. 5,000 and household) and Viswabrahmin (one household) that too from a 'private money lender. These two castes have made a debt of Rs. 140, Rs.8,360, took the loans at an interest rate of 9%. In the year Rs. 600, Rs. 30 and Rs. 200 respectively. From the 1962-63 two households raised a total loan of above it is evident that a large number of Kammas Rs. 1,500 from private money lender at 'l rate of among all castes in the village are in debt (Table interest of 12% per annum. In the year 1963-64 six 38). ECONOMY 75

Sale and purchase value of assets household had invested Rs. 800 in the purchase of a building. From this also it is evident that most 106. Particulars regarding the sale and pur­ of the people in the village are interested in investing chase value of assets during the last 30 years are their surplus earnings, if any, only in land and given in Table 40. During the 30 years ending 1965 livestock or other tools, etc., which are helpful in assets \\'orth Rs. 19,950 were sold by 8 households. agriculture. As the lands are very fertile and pro­ The particulars are-five households sold land vided with regular supply of water for irrigation by worth Rs. 17,800 and one household each sold canals from river Krishna the out turn of crops is buildings, livestock and tools and equipment valued generally high. In view of these advantages every at Rs. 1,500, Rs. 500 and Rs. 150 respectively. In one in the village usually thinks of improving his the year 1965-66 one household sold land worth landed property even incurring debts therefore. In Rs. 2,500. During the same period of 30 years fact one ryot commented that today in this village assets worth Rs. 1,98,050 were purchased by 18 there are more ryots ready to purchase land but households. The details are-IO households pur­ none to sell. This kind of attitude among the rural chased land worth Rs. 1,56,050, two households folk in spite of rapid urbanisation in the region is purchased a Russian tractor and other agricultural rather a welcome feature and portends prosperity implements worth Rs. 15,200, 3 households purcha­ of the rural areas. sed buildings worth Rs. 11,800 and one household purchased machinery for Rs. 11,000, one household Prosperity index purchased livestock for Rs. 2,000 and one house­ hold purchased jewellery worth Rs. 2,000. During 108. During the last ten years 9 households have acquired property worth Rs. 1,72,700 and the year 1965-66 no assets were purchased by any invested Rs. 22,000 in buildings, etc. During the household in the village. From the above analysis same period they incurred a debt of Rs. 30,960. it is clear that the local people have been very Therefore, the net amount of investment or savings fruga I in their expenditure and 90% of the net is Rs. 1,63,740, i.e., Rs. 16,374 per annum, a fairly earnings either from land or any other source were high amount for such a small village with a few invested in lands only. This shows their extra­ agricul ttl rists. ordinary interest in land and agriculture which is the backbone of India's economy. Amounts inves­ Trends of change ted on livestock, machinery, etc., except those spent on the jewellery and buildings, indirectly help the 109. With the increase in the transport facili­ improvement and extension of agriculture. The ties, more and more rural people are being influe­ low investment of Rs. 2,000 on jewellery shows their nced by the urban effects; and with the speedy lack of interest in investing on a dead capital goods. replacement of the joint family system by a simple family, individualism is now manifesting itself in Capital formation several walks of life and is bringing about changes in the traditional and established patterns of life. 107. It can be seen from Table 41 that out of In former times, said, an old farmer, these labour the total capital formation of land and goods worth classes understood their position and behaved Rs. 1,98,050 as much as Rs. 1,82,200 was made by themselves well. If they worked satisfactorily they II households of Kamma caste only. Four house­ were treated well. In fact, with the passage of holds have invested in land to a tune of Rs. time, the relations between the cultivating owners 1,41,000, two households on tools and equipment and the labourers became more and more intimate. worth Rs. 15,200, two households on buildings In many cases they used to be treated as members worth Rs. 11,000, one household on machinery of the family itself and although both parties worth Rs. 11,000, and one household each on lives­ maintained the traditional caste di stance, the tock and jewellery worth Rs. 2,000. Of the re­ master and the servant could always take each other maining 7 households two households of Balija, two into confidence even on matters of a delicate and households of Golla, one household of Mangali personal nature. But now most of the labourers caste and one Muslim household have invested in belonging to Mala and l\ladiga castes are aware of land the sums of Rs. 8,600, Rs. 4,900, Rs. 1,000 and the privileges provided to them by the Government Rs. 550 respectively. Besides this one Muslim in respect of ed ucation and jobs, etc., and those 76 CHAPTER IV who are serious about pursuing some service other They are not satisfied with the traditional arrange­ than traditional labour have started fleeing, as it ments of payment. However, the system still. con­ were, to the towns and cities. And those who are tinues more or less in its established and traditional still illiterate are also quite well aware of the village, form. Urban contacts, education or attraction of district and even State politics and many have got something better or more remunerative, may dis­ leanings to one political party or the other. Some tract a young man, causing him to refuse to continue of the literates among them either read a daily news­ his traditional service with a family to which they paper or hear when others read them out. This were attached for a lorig time, bu t one of his poorer sort of awareness enables them to fight for reasona­ and less ambitious brothers or cousins will always ble wages (or some times unreasonable also) and be willing to take up the work. there is unity among themselves at least to the 110. Most of the agriculturists in the village extent of extracting wages correctly according to are fully aware of the latest methods, implements Some Government order; but generally they do not and all the latest innovations in agriculture that agree that they should be equally serious about the have been brought to their notice by the Block quantum of work that has to be turned out. There­ Development authorities. Some of them who have fore, the problem of labour in the village is so studied up to the graduate level even take the soils serious that sometimes the labourers dictate terms for testing by the Soil Expert, when they find that to the ryots and the latter, having no other way the yield of a particular crop of a particular variety except to accept their terms, yield to their demands. has not been up to the standards given by the This is more so in this district as most of the Agriculture Extension Officer of the Block. Cross labourers are educated upto the primary standard breeding among the buffaloes and cows is also at least. And some of them have sent their sons attempted by a few ryots. for higher education to colleges where they are given scholarships, free lodging and boarding faci­ Ill. With the introduction of several new lities. One of the old ryots said that during the strains of paddy seed, etc., the progressive ryots of busy agricultural season they find dearth of labour the village have been much benefited and any in­ due to non-eo-operation of the local labour force. novation in the field of agriculture will be welcomed Grown up boys who do not see eye-to-eye with their by the local ryots without much doubt. They are parents usually neglect their service at some ryot's ready to give up the traditional practices provided house or farm and flee to Vijayawada where they the new ones offer them better yields with less in­ pull a rickshaw or do some other casual labour work vestment and wastage. This is truly a progressive and eke out their Iiveliho::>d and visit cinemas, trend worth appreciating among the ryots of Mare­ clubs, etc., without any bossing of their parents. dumaka. Chapter V

CULTURAL LIFE AND VILLAGE ORGANISATION

-General who live together under the same roof ma y be very large. The social organisation of Maredumaka village is a complex cultural framework built round the 5. In a joint family, property is held in com­ traditional Hindu social system represented by the mon and owned jointly, and the actual share to ·caste organisation. Though the primary unit of which each member is entitled, in the event of the village society is the family, unitary or joint, separation, is affected by each birth or death. This caste division determines and decides all social arrangement is not disturbed even if some members relations. A study of Maredumaka can best be of the family have to reside far away from the home made by a survey of its caste structure as it actually in different parts of the country by virtue of their -functions in the village. In the caste-cultural con· calling. When at home, all share the food prepared figuration, entry into a social status is a function of in a single common kitchen. In fact, in popular heredity-individual achievement, personal quality parlance, the chief criterion of the joint nature of ·or wealth have, according to the traditional pre- the communal family arises largely from the fact of scription, no say in determining the social status. the common kitchen. The ancestral property and the income arising from it, along with the earnings ,Language of the individual members, constitute a common 2. Out of the total surveyed population of 178, family fund out of which the expenses of the whole Telugu is the mother tongue for 176 persons and family are met. The assets-money, land, houses, is the mother tongue for the remaining two jewellery and cattle-like other important matters, persons who are Muslims. These two Muslims can are looked after by the father or the eldest son, or also speak, write and read . Only some senior male relative. But, in financial mat­ 10 persons who are all students know English (Table ters, all adult members are usually consulted and -44). A few students who have studied at Banga­ their consent obtained when considerable expendi­ lore and Hyderabad can understand and ture on any major item is involved. Every earning Urdu languages and some of them can speak in member contributes his share to the family fund. -those languages also. Every member also has a right to it, and the neces­ sary and legitimate needs of all the family members .Family are generally met from it. Thus all earning members, mostly males, contribute in proportion 3. The families, broadly speaking, are of two to their income and all members-men, women, :kinds, viz., the biological family and the joint or married or widowed and children-whether earning the extended family. The more widely prevalent or not, enjoy the common family resources. This 'type of family is the biological or simple type of arrangement of give and take demands a great deal family of husband, wife and children, but not the of accommodation, love, tolerance and understand­ larger joint family. ing on the part of all members. This joint family system in which all are bound to contribute accord­ 4. In a joint family, when the sons grow up to ing to their earnings and where all are entitled to -manhood and marry, they do not leave the parental be maintained from the family funds according to household and go out and live in separate dwellings, their needs, is, in practicr., a kind of socialism. -but occupy different rooms in the parental residence though not necessarily secular in spirt. All the along with their children and grand children. The adult members follow the principle, 'Give what you .daughters of the family, of course; on getting can and take what you need' . married leave their parental home and become members of the joint family to which their husbands 6. - In short, the joint family system is the belong. And so, naturally, the number of those common ownership of the means of production and 78 CHAPTER V

the common enjoyment of the fruits of labour. Both to render the population immobile and did not: inherited and personally acquired belongings are encourage a d~ring and defiant spirit. regarded as common property; and the supreme 10. Further, the joint family is definitely a. authority is the family council, of which the head force against the freedom of the individual. Indivi-· of the family, generally the eldest male, is the ex­ dualism has several drawbacks, but the scope that ecutive officer but not the dictator. The family it offers to secure experimentation, innovation and, may consist of dozens of penons-grand parents, ultimate change in a society that offers resistance to­ uncles, sons, grandsons, with their wives and chil­ reform is of great advantage. The individual in dren and the ties of loyalty to which it gives rise are the joint famil y is not an independent uni t; he is at intense. Indeed, to many Hindus, of the older best a co-ordinating part. And the group family generation, the duty owed to other members of the stands in the way of the free and full development joint family appears something far stronger than of the individual family. Often even gifted and; any duty owed to the State. exceptionally endowed individuals are pulled down to share the mediocre life of less gifted members of" 7. It is in a joint family that every member the joint family. The joint family leads to extre-· receives his first lessons in forbearance and tolera­ mely crowded living, especially in our towns and nce. It takes all sorts of persons, knit by ties of cities where vcry large houses are beyond the com­ consanguinity, to make a joint family. And, natu­ mand of the majority, and where privacy is a rare­ rally, misunderstandings, w~ong and unjust inter­ privilege. The home is characterised by the hudd­ pretations of others' doings in the family, and together of children, men and women. Indi-­ bickerings are bound to occur, especially when girls vidual attention to the children in their upbringing from different families of varied cultural, social out­ is absent, with the result that their physical con-­ look and economic background are brought together dition and their mental outlook in general are often: by the brothers who marry them, to live under the far from satisfactory. common roof. However, these very human fraili­ ties often bring into play the nobler side of human 11. Above all, the joint family breeds a kind" nature. One remarkable result of this kind of of authoritarianism. To some, the leadership of the' communal living is that fewer men are left in a elders in the family is a dictatorship of love, but it desperate state of misery and poverty. The family is doubtful whether it ha~ always been so, or is. ties stretch so far and wide that e._ven the most generally so today. It invaHabl y exalts the opinion distant and under-privileged member can find of the elders, on all issues, irrespective of their shelter under the joint family roof. The result is merits and curtails freedom even in several purely that there have been historically no poor laws or personal details of the individual's life. In its. poor houses run by the State for the penniless and patriarchal pattern, even civic loyalty is sacrificed destitute, the chronically sick and unemployable. in favour of filial authority. The joint family system in practice has been India's 12. The greatest drawback of the joint family traditional method of insurance against sickness, has been its conservative and reactionary attitude' old age and unemployment. towards women, their position in the family and. the prospects of their progress. Barring the posi­ 8. The joint family affords the best training tion of the old mother (or the old widowed sister or in the humanities. Love and affection are carried the wife of the eldest brother) who may be called beyond the narrow circle of the biological family to the head of the women's section, the lot of the girls ~mbrace relatives of the second and third degree who come. into the family by marriage is often and the close adjustment necessary in a family of unhappy. While the position of the mother-in-law many members living together develops and pro­ in the Westfgives rise only to an annoying joke, the motes understanding and tolernce. mother-in-la w in the Hindu home is the proverbial' tyrant. The reason for this tyranny is very simple. 9. But it has its own drawbacks. While the The arrival of a daughter-in-law in the family joint family in its historic role served a distinct need usually signifies the availability of someone who,.. and. preserved certain desirable features of the though not exactly a servant, will be the uncomp­ family in India in the face of heavy odds, it tended laining~ drudge of the family. The joint family is CULTURAL LIFE AND VILLAGE ORGANISATION 79

"so constituted in practice that the affection. sympa­ assertiveness,. with the result that discontent and -thy and understanding of the husband are largely petty squabbles are the order of the day in many ,denied to the bride. The effect of this emotional families run on a joint basis. Lastly the intensi­ 'lack on the sensibility of a young woman torn from fication of the struggle for existence coupled with the the familiar moorings of her own home and placed growth of the individual aspiration has been one of in a new family amidst strange surroundings can be the important factors influencing the disintegration ,deadening. But today the joint family has outlived of joint family in this village. its utility and is an anachronism in modern India. 'W'hatever its meri ts in the past, the superimposi­ Leisure and recreation tion of a thin veneer of western civilisation and 15. There are no organised pastimes or forms modern values on our society has shaken the joint of recreation. This is because of the fact that a majo­ family rudely, although it has not destroyed it rity of the villagers remain busy most of the time -completely. toiling hard to earn their meagre subsistence. Rich people who have spare time spend it either by play­ 13. In Maredumaka also the age old joint ing cards or chit-chatting at the library building "family has lost its value and is slowly giving place where they gather invariably in the evenings. A -to the simple type of family. This is evident from few rich spend their leisure with their concubines the statistics given in Table 43. A simple family who also live within the village. The children ,consists of husband, wife and unmarried children. usually play their simple games like hide and seek, An intermediate type of family consists of married country cricket, etc. 1\,10st of the women do not couple and unmarried brother/sister and one of the have any recreation at all. They pass their leisure parents. A joint family consists of married couple time in idle gossip talking mostly about the day-to­ with married sons/daughters or with married bro­ day domestic affairs or nnrital alliances, etc. A thers 'sisters and the other type is one that does not few who possess radio sets hear women's program­ come under the above three categories. Out of the mes, etc., in the midda y and Vivid Bharti and other 35 surveyed households as many as 23 are of simple programmes broadcast by the Radio Stations situa­ type, 4 are of joint type and 8 are of other family ted at Vijayawada and Hyderalnd. types. T\\'o of the four joint families are found among Kamma and one each among Golla and 16. Among men, a few go to the local library Yerukula castes. A majority of the simple type of where some read newsj'lapers, magazines and novels families are found among those who are engaged in and a few young boys play cards. A few households casual labour or other labour work. The nature regularly get newspapers like Andhra Prabha and of occupation generally determines the type of Andhra Jyoti, two Telugu dailies being published family in the rural parts. from Vijayawada. Occasionally some of the elder as well as younger boys go to cinemas at Vijaya­ -Trends of change wada. Though Gudivada is nearer to the village than Vijayawada local people are habituated to go 14. The present day tendency among the to the latter. Hardly there seems to be any change younger people in this village also, as elsewhere, in the utilisation of leisure hours by the people in "especially among those who have had some educa­ the present generation as compared to the old days tion or urban contacts, is to set up separate simple except that a few men and women go to the library families of their own. With the rapid development and hear the radio. Yet conversation is an impor­ ,of communications, a larger number of people are tant pa~time in the village. giving up their traditional callings and migrating to towns to eke out their livelihood by taking up Religion better employment., Secondly the loss or decline of ,old family occupations has, in many cases, made it 17. Religion plays a tremendous part in the impossible for the family to maintain its cohesion. life of the villager as atheistic tendencies have not Thirdly the growth of a spirit of individualism is yet influenced the village life. Though austere 'hostile to an institution of which the corner stone is purity in thought, word and deed is not the ideal, -co-operation and collectivism. Fourthly the spirit numerous beliefs and ceremonies portray the villa­

eating and sleeping is made gay by colourful festi­ Ganganamma is situated under a neem tree on the­ vals, singing of sacred songs and ringing of hells. north-west of the village (Figure 22). Behind all this gaiety and revelry there is the simp­ le heart of the villager offering sincere worship, 20. A day previous to the celebration the' whether it be to a God or to an animate tree which drum beaters of Madiga callte go round the village' to him, is sacred. The villagers believe that the announcing the programme for the morrow and lives of human beings are ordered by various deities asking the people to get ready. The local washer-­ and that a man's wealth or poverty, health or sick­ man cleans the stone iqol. The ground around the ness, prosperity or adversity, etc., depend on these idol is beda ubed with dung and decorative designs· divinities. The Gods worshipped in the village are are made with muggu (lime powder or corn flour). Siva, Venkateswara, Rama, Anjaneya, Vighneswara and Narasimha of Hindu pantheon of Gods and 21. On the next day, each household prepares Christ by the Christian households. Almost all the special meals for offering it to the deity. The food. Hindu households worship Lord Venkateswara as is cooked in a brand new pot which is duly decora­ their household deity. The three Saivites belong ted with marks of vermilion and turmeric paste. to Kummari (potter), Balija and Viswabrahmin Most people prepare this at their homes but a few castes. Lord Rama is worshipped by three house­ prepare it near the shrine. Men, women and child-· holds of Kamma and one household each of Golla ren dressed in new clothes repair to the shrine. and Kapu castes. Anjaneya is' worshipped by one While the drum beaters beat drums incessantly at: Kamma household. Lord Vighne!fwara and Nara­ the place where the idol is situated, majority of the simha are worshipped by one household each of people who participate in this ritual very often sacrifice a fowl or a goat. When all the people gather Kamma and Y,wadi C;J stes. All the 11 Christian households worship Christ though most of them at the shrine the Chakali performs puja by sprink-­ also visit Tirupati, the famous Hindu pilgrim centre ling vermilion, turmeric powder and neem leaves of Lord Venkateswara (Table 45). and offering incense to the deity. Then one after another come forward and offer puja and, the sacri­ Village deities ficial animal duly decorated is also brought to the scene where its head is separated from the body by 18. Grama Devatas or village deities do not the Madiga with a sharp knife. The head and' actually come under the purview of Hindu icono­ forelimbs of the sacrificed animal are left in front graphy though most of them are Saivite deities who of the shrine; the rest of it, along with the cooked have been adopted for worship by the lower classes food brought in a new pot, is carried home by each. of people. The idols of these deities are installed family and when all the sacrifices are over the in places outside the village in small structures or people return home and feast on the rice and meat., under trees. Further these deities are propitiated with flesh, blood and liquor. Usually they are in­ PotharaJu stalled not as images but as some objects like a 22. It is a male deity symbolised in a wooden trident, or a small piece of stone fixed to the ground post situated in the centre of the village under a symbolizing them. Most of them are female dei­ neem tree opposite to the present library building ties and bear names like Ganganamma, Pochamma, as shown in Figure 23. Propitiation of this deity is etc. The names of those village deities are not the done only when the Ganganamma is worshipped. same in all parts of the country. The names of the He is supposed to be the brother of Ganganamma. deities as also the way of worship differs, though only to a degree, from one part to another part in Tirupatamma Tirunala the State. Worship of all the village deities is done by non-Brahmins. Ganganamma and Potharajn 23. Every year a fair is held in memory of Tiru­ are the village deities of Mared umaka. patamma, a woman supposed to have possessed miraculous powers at Tenneru village at a distance Ganganamma of one mile from this village where a small temple was constructed in her memory. The fair is held 19. She is propitiated as and when epidemics in the month of Phalgunam (February-March) every like cholera spread in the village. A stone idC'l of year and most of the people of the neighbouring CULTURAL LIFE AND VILLAGE ORGANISATION 81 villages attend the function. Animal s3crifice is in Sita on Srirama Navami day in the temple. Th'ere vogue. On this occasion fowls, goats, rams and were only two trustees during 1965-66, viz., Sarva­ even buffaloes are sacrificed. About 50,000 people shri Akkineni Koteswara Rao and Lin~am Veera­ congregate and celebrate the fair. On the nights raghavaiah. There is no priest to perform regular of all those days some entertainment programmes worship. But the only Brahmin teacher who resides like Harikathas are arranged by the organising by the side of the temple performs puja on certain committee. important occasions only. Until 1963 the local elementary school was housed in the temple premi­ Temples ses. The Village Panchayat has electrified the temple. Figure 24 shows the stone idol of Hanuman, Ramala_yam-l the teacher and the pupil s of the school. 24. One of the two temples of Rama in the Ramala)'am-2 village is situated in the midst of Kamma house­ holds. Some 200 years ago it was constructed by late 26. Some 35 to 40 years ago one late Sri Sri 11aganti Tirupatayya of Golla caste. There is a Ramadas Ramaswamy , a Kapu by caste, tank locally called Pottivanikunta in the north-east migrated to this place from Kapavaram, his native of the village. In those days while digging the tank village, due to marital alliance. He had no child­ a stone idol of Hanuman was found by the diggers. ren and adopted his brother's daughter. He got the Many people tried to unearth it but in vain. But temple constructed mostly from his earnings and when Maganti Tirupatayya tried to lift it it came installed the idols of Srirama and Sita on a Srirama out easily. Having brought it out, people tried to Navami day. carry it to a safe place and employed 12 cuts but all of them failed due to its heavy weight Again 27. The present trustee is Sri Chiruvella Maganti Tirupatayya was asked to lay his hand Ramaiah. He collects 0.50 P. to Re. 1.00 from the and when he did he could actually carry it on his Gollas, Goundlas, etc., and performs Srirama own cart to hi s hou se where it was kept upto 1946. Navami every year. Local Kammas also participate Then one day one of the elders in the village got a in the celebration of Srirama Navami. dream in \\' hich Hanuman appeared and ordered him to keep His idol without any shelter and at 28. The front tile roofed verandah was cons­ the same time wanted that Lord Rama's picture tructed with the donations collected from various should be kept under a roof and His idol should be neighbouring villages. kept opposite to it in the open space. Accordingly a pi cture of Lord Rama \\ as kept inside a separate Festivals house for the purpose and opposite to it was kept 29. The is crowded with the idol of Hanuman in the open air without any festivals in all months. Some are observed by shelter. certain sections of population and some by the other 25. In 1946, when the old structure fell down hut there are some festivals observed by all castes the present temple was constructed by the villagers. and in all parts of the country. Not all the festivals One late Sri Pallapotu Subbaraidll of Golla caste are observed by the people of this village. donated It acres of land to the temple. Later his Statement XX heirs claimed a share in the said property. U Itima­ tely they came to an agreement and executed a deed CALE:,\DI\R OF FESTIVALS OBSERVED BY THE electing five of the local elders to act as guardians PEOPLE OF },lAREDUMAKA VILLAGE of the property given to the temple. Srirama SI. Tidhi in Corresponding Navami, marriage of Sri Ra,ma, used to be celebra­ No. Name of festival Telugu month English month ted on an elaborate scale. But in the recent past (I) (2) (3) (4) for some unknown reasons the function is not celeb­ Hindu Festivals rated so elaborat~ly. There is a strong belief among Ugadi (New Year's Day) Chaiha Suddha March-April the local people and' people of the neighbouring PaJ)'ami villages that issueless women will be blessed with 2 Srirama Navami Chaitra Suddha lV!arch-f\pril children if they perform the marriage of Rama and ,/Vavami 82 CHAPTER V

3 Vmayaka Chaviti Bhadrapada August-Septem- 32. People take oil bath early in the morning Suddha Chaviti ber on the festival day. Grown up children go about 4 Dasara Asviyuja Suddha Septem ber- to collect mango leaves and neem twigs and make Padyami to Da$ami October festoons by fastening them together to a long string 5 Deepavali Asviynja October. and decorate the main gates of houses with them. Chaturdasi and November Amavasya After everyone is dressed for the occasion all sit down for the tasting of the U gadi pachchadi, the N {;w 6 Sankranti Pushyam (Makara 13th to 15th Year's chutne.y. The Andhras are especially known Sankramanam) jan~·ary for the pungent chutneys and pickles, c. g., avaka_ya 7 Sivamtri Magha Bahula Februarv- (mango pickle) they prepare and consume through­ Chaturtlasi .March out the year. It is no wonder, therefore, that the Chri!ttian Festivals Telugu New Year should start with the testing of a chutney. But the chutney itself is of special signi­ New Year's Day lst January ficance. A finely ground paste of slightly bitter 2 Christmas 25th December tender flowers of the neem tree, fresh tamarind, slice~ of ra \V mango, bits of sugarcane, jaggery Hindu festivals and salt, it has a flavour, all its own. The bitter Ugadi ingredient of neem leaves is to make us aware that life is not all s'vveetness. Bitter and sweet it is 30,. Ugadi in Telugn means the beginning of as the chutney. All the special dishes like garelu the yuga On the first day of Hindu calendar (a savoury) are first offered to the lares (household month Chaitra falls the New Year of Andhras. deities) before being eaten. To the Andhras the New Year's day is a festi­ val with more of social significance than religious. 33. In the evening the almanac is read by the It is a day of feasting and rej()icing. New clothes Brahmin or some elderly person and the vi lJagers are worn by all who can afford them. Ritua I has listen to him. However, most of the people in the no part to play on that day. It is observed by all village are not very much interested these days in the Hindu castes and also the local Christians who hearing the almanac read. are converts. 34. The belief that the day's happenings on 31. Hindus have employed luni-solar cycles U gadi will reflect and colour the course of events made by the combination of solar years and lunar in the year ahead induces the people to be happy years so treated as to keep the beginning of the lunar and pleasant on that day so that they could be happy year near that of the solar year. In some parts of throughout the year. New enterprizes are started· India solar year is used, while in other parts lunar on Ugadi day by the . year is followed. The Government of India have adopted a uniform National Calendar, based on the Srirama Navami Saka Era, for civil purposes. This calendar has been adopted with effect from March 22, 1957 cor­ 35. This festival is celebrated by all Hindu responding to Chaitra 1, 1379 Saka 1. For the castes on the 9th clay of the bright fortnight of Chai­ Andhras and other groups who reckon months by the Ira (March-April) in commemoration of Rama, one moon, a year begins on the first of Chaitra. An ex­ of the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu who after planation for this procedure of caklilation is that slaying the demon-king, Ravana, returned to A yo. Lord embarked on his work of creation on dhya along with Sita. On this day, Rama and His the first day of Chaitra. This day is chosen bccam(' consort Sita and His brothers Lakshman:t. Bharata , it heralds a season of jny-Vasanl Ritu or spring s(~a­ Sathrughna and his staunch disciple Anjaneya are son when nature hlossoms. all invoked. A token marriage is celebrated to

1. The pre-eminence of the Saka Era deri"e~ from the flct that it was the earliest to be introduced ill Inoia by the Saka ruling powers and was used exclusively by the l:;"kad"ipi Brahmins (the astrologer caste) for calendar making and for casting horoscopes since 1st Century A. D. This Was done on the ba5is of Sidhalllic (scientific) astronomy evoh'ed from old Indian calendar conceptions. whicb were put i,l a scientific b'lsi, by blending them with astronomical conc('ptions prevalent in the \Vest in the 3rd Century. The S:l.ka era is 78 years behind the Christian era. The Saka era commenc(" on the first lunar Chllitra or the ilrst solar Vaiwkha in different parts of India. CULTURAL LIFE AND VILLAGE ORGANISATION 83

the idols of Rama and Sita in Ramalayam (temple ric and vermilion powder) are sprinkled on it, and of Rama) with all the usual paraphernalia and undrallu (little fried balls of gram sweetened in syrup) rituals of an actual marriage. In a majority of the speci'tlly made for the day are offered to the deity. households at midday an image or picture of Rama After this is done all members of the household bow standing in a clean central part of the m:lin living down before the deity. Many people express their room is worshipped; offerin!Ss of special food wishes, which they then expect will be fulfilled cooked for the day are placed before it and all mem­ with the blessings of Ganesh. The image is allow­ bers of the family bow down to it asking for forgive­ ed to remain in its place for three to twenty-one days ness and blessings. Panakam (jaggery water) and according to custom and convenience and is worship­ vadapappu (soaked green gram dal) are the two spe­ ped every day. When it is removed from its place cial items of offering on this day. In the night a it is taken to the irrigational canal and immersed marriage procession keeping the two idols of Rama in water. and Sita in a palanquin is also taken out to the accompaniment of local musical instruments. Oc­ 38. All Hindus avoid seeing the moon on casionallya Harikatha is also arranged by the local Vinayaka Cl'iaturdhi day to safeguard themselves people. against unmerited accusations during the subse­ quent twelve months under a superstitious belief. Vinayvka Chaviti If by chance, they see the moon, they listen the legelld of Sathrajit which narrates that Lord Krishna 36. This is one of the very important festivals was subjected to the accusation of having stolen the observed by the rich and the poor alike, the scale 'Samantaka' , for having seen the reflection of the celebrations depending on the social and of the moon that day in the ClIp of milk, He was economic status of the family. This festival, dedi­ taking. Sri Krishna was absolved of this accusa­ cated to the worship of Lord Ganesh or Vinayaka, tion by offering puja to Lord Vighneswara. By the elephant-headed God, the son of Siva, is cele­ listening to this legend they are supposed to be ab­ brated on the fourth day of the bright fortnight in solved of the evil consequences. the month of Bhadrapada (August-September). One of the popular deities among the people, Ganesh is Dasara regarded as the God of wisdom and learning. His 39. From Asviyuja Suddha Padyami to Dasami elephant head is the symbol of knowledge 2.nd he (September-October) this festival is celebrated for is invoked at the commencement of any auspicious ten days. It is believed that G::>ddess Kali fought event by the Hindus. He hardly ever moves around with the buffalo-uemon-Mahishasura for 9 days and when he does he is supposed to ride a ludi­ and killed him on the 10th day (Dasami). In rea­ crously small mouse, no bigger than his toe. It lity the festival is celebrated only on the 9th and (mouse) is a deprecatory gesture towards all uncal­ 10th days. led for excitement and movement in life. 40. In no household in the village worship is 37. The Brahmins and Vaisyas first clean the conducted on all the 9 days. But on the last two place where the idol of Vighneswara is to be kept, days almost all the Hindu households celebrate the becla ub it wi th cowd ung and spread some 80ft sand festival without fail. All Hindus take bath early over it. Over the sand they plc.ce some leaf plates, in the morning and worship the Goddesses Lakshmi, spread raw rice on them and cover the rice with a Saraswati and Parvat i. Special sweet dishes, etc. new cloth. Among other castes the idol 'is placed are prepared on both the days by all the households either on a bunch of mango leaves kept on the floor, and enjoyed. or else on a wooden plank. A sacred thread is put on the image and then turmeric and vermilion are Deepavali applied to the idol. A little lamp is lighted and kept burning in front of the image. At the time of 41. Deepavali or the_festival of lights is (lbser­ the principal worship which differs from family to ved on the fourteenth and fifteenth days of the dark family, flowers and leaves of several varieties are fortnight of Asviyuja (September-October). On the placed on and around the image, vermilion and first of these two days, known as Naraka Chaturdasi, akshintalu (rice, coloured yellowish red with turme- Hindus get up very early and have their oil bath. A 84 CHAPTER V popular legend says that Lord Krishna along with arrange bonfires in street eorners. A special pre­ His consort killed the demon-king paration called pulagam (prepared of greengram and Narakasura and returned home earl y in the morn­ rice) and paramannam (sweet rice) are prepared and ing on Chaturdasi day. It is a day of festivity with consumed by all the households on this day. special food preparations and worship. Once only the Komatis used to perform Dhanlakshmi (God­ dess of Wealth) puja in the night invitir.g friends 45. On 14th, i.e., on Sankranti day it is be­ and relatives but nowadays few rich among other lieved that the sun seated in his luminous chariot castes like Kamma also are worshipping Dhalla­ drawn by seven resplendent steeds, journeys north­ lakshmi. The second day is the day of Deepavali. wards into Uttarayano . . From this day winter begins In the night rows of lighted earthenware lamps are to fade away giving place to the warmth and sun­ arranged in front of each house and people of all shine of spring. It is an auspicious time not only castes and all economic positions explode crackers to Ii ve in but to die too. Did not Bhishma, the of various types. ancient Aryan patriarch lying on his bed of arrows, prolong his life by the power of his will, till the Sankranti pUll)lakala set in ? That was because, they say, the Aryans inhabited round the north pole 42. This is an important. festival celehrated where there is one night and one day, each of 6 throughout the entire Telugu country. Also called months duration, in a year. As no religious obla­ l\1akara Sankranti or U ttara yana Sanl~ran ti this tion could be offered to the dead during the night, indicates the Sun's entrance into the sign of Capri­ Ultarayana, which heralded the new long day, was corn (A1akara), which is identified with the Uttara­ considered auspicious. On this day the household )lana or return of the sun to the north or to the deities are worshipped and the new sons-in-law are winter solstice. It marks the return of the sun to invited and offered new clothes and gifts. Alm~ are the , i.e., the gradual lengthe­ given to Brahmins. People feast themselves with ning of da)s. CeleLrated hy all sections of Hindu special dishes like garelu (blackgram cakes), boorelu population in the village from l.Sth to 15th January (a sweet dish prepared with rice flour and jaggery) this festival is also known as Pongal in South Inllia. and other sweets.

43. The name of Bali is associated with this 46. The third and final day of the festival, i.e. festival. It is said that during the period of 15th January is called Kanumupanduga which is Vamanavatara (one of the ten incarnations of Lord important for the agricultural classes. As by now Vishnu) when emperor Bali reigned, people were the cultivators will hav~ reaped the fruits of their happy. Towards the fulfilment of the gift of three year long labour, they would all be happy with feet space granted to Vamana, Bali offered his head their garners fnll of corn. In token of the service for the third foot of space, as He (Vamana) occu­ rendered by the cattle and utility of the agricultural pied the whole earth and the sky with two feet implements they worship the implements, viz, spaces and thus pressed down Bali to Pathalaloka, plough and cart by smearing them with turmeric keeping His foot OI'L Bali's. head. It is further be­ powder and vermilion. The cattle shed is thorou­ lieved that Bali comes from Pathalaloka (nether ghly cleaned and the cattle, especially the cows world) to Marthyaloka (human universe) and views and bulls are given good green fodder. Cattle are Urdhvaloka (higher realms) on this day and in token decorated with flowers, bells and leather ornaments of the arrival of the Great Bali, this festival is obser- and are worshipped by smearing their foreheads and ved to welcome him. . horns with turmeric powder and vermilion marks. All the special dishes prepared on the day are first 44. The festival is celebrated for three days of all offered to the cow. Later in the evening harati from 13th to 15~h January. First day of the festival (flame of prosperity) is waved to them. The bulls a.re not put to work on this d.lY. Cock fights are i~ Bhogi, second day is Sankranti, the main festival arranged in the afternoon and betting also goes on. and the third day is Kanumu also known as Pasuvula Excepting the Brahmin and Vaisya castes all the Panduga in rural parts. On the first day, i.e., Bhogi remaining ca.stes relish non-vegetarian dishes on day all people take bath early in the morning and this day. CULTURAL LIFE AND VILLAGE ORGANISATION 83

Sivaratri District Board consented he convinced the local people about the necessity of such a road and they 47. It is generally observed on the 14th day, all countributed their mi te both financially and i. e., Chaturdasi of the waning moon in the month of physically to complete the road. After 15 to 20 Magham (January-February). The devotees, only years, he expired. Then his wife invited one Sri a few in this village, rise betimes, take bath, gather Sistla Dak3hnamurthy of Kandrika, an Agraharam flowers and perform puja to Siva in their own hou­ village and asked him to manage the schoo!. It was ses, as there is no temple for Siva in the village and under his management for two years. But due to observe fast and night vigil. some local feuds the management of the school was taken over by one Sri Koneru Harinarayana. The Christian festivals school was under his management upto 1939. In the meanwhile the teacher Sri S. New Year's Day left the school in 194-7. 48. The Christians in the village do not seem to be aware of the importance of this festival. Some 51. The present teacher, Sri C. V. S. Sastry, of them just offer prayers in the local school and came in 1948 from Yelamarru, a village in GUdi­ consume special dishes prepared for the occasion. vada taluk of the same district of his own accord to eke out his livelihood. As there was no teacher Christmas for the school he was asked to join immediately and he has heen there since then. The seconrl of the 49. It falls invariably on 25th December every two teachers by name Sri Manikonda Jagannadham year. After offering prayers in the morning in the joined the school in 1956. He is a Kummari by caste and a native of th is vill age. school which is converted into the Church for that day they return home and spend the day in merri­ 52. In 1950 with the inception of the Pancha­ ment exchanging greetings and inviting friends and yat Raj the school was transferred to Zilla Parishad relati veS to participate in the Christmas dinner. along with several other schools. It was housed in the local Ramal

as in 1939. Girls also were sent to the school right in March 1966 there were 77 pupils on roll as from that time. With the joining of Sri G.V.S. against only 36 in 1939. The: following statement Sastry as a teacher in 1948 the strength of the school gives the particulars of students in classes I to V for has gone up considerably and at the time of Survey a period of 28 years.

Statement XXI

PAR TICULARS OF STUDENTS e~ CLASSES I TO V FOR A PERIOD OF 28 YEARS FROM 1939 to 1966

Class I Class II Class III Class IV Class V Total 'r-- ____ J..... ____ ~ Years B G B G .B G B G B G B G Students Remarks

(1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (5)

1939 12 4 4 3 2 3 3 3 25 11 36 1940 7 8 2 o 2 1 3 3 4 18 13 31 1941 7 8 6 3 6 2 9 3 7 o 35 16 51 1942 5 6 3 5 5 4 6 o 6 3 25 18 43 1943 7 8 6 3 3 3 4 4 3 23 19 42

1944 11 5 3 2 5 4 2 4 3 2 ~4 17 41 1945 12 6 2 4 3 5 3 2 2 2 19 41 1946 6 4 5 3 2 4 3 5 J 2 19 18 37 1947 14 6 4 2 3 2 4 5 23 19 42 1948 6 7 9 5 8 2 5 o 4 24 23 47 Sri G. V. S. 1949 7 5 5 4 5 4 7 7 25 21 46 Sastry as Headmaster 1950 4 7 8 5 3 4 3 2 5 4 23 22 45 1951 4 7 5 6 8 3 3 3 4 2 24 21 45

1952 7 3 5 7 4 3 7 3 3 3 26 19 45 1953 9 4 7 4 4 5 3 3 3 3 26 19 45 1954 6 3 10 4 4 6 3 3 3 3 26 19 45 1955 10 3 5 4 8 3 3 6 2 28 17 45 1956 8 5 9 3 5 2 6 1 3 3 31 14 45 1957 11 7 8 4 5 2 4 2 5 2 33 17 50 1958 10 10 9 7 3 6 o 7 35 19 54 1959 9 13 9 9 8 6 2 2 34 26 60 Taken over by Zilla 1960 10 13 6 11 11 2 7 2 2 36 29 65 Parishad 1961 17 6 4 14 4 5 5 1 7 1 37 27 64 1961 16 10 11 9 5 8 4 5 41 29 70 1963 8 15 15 9 8 3 4 3 4 39 31 70 1964 12 16 6 8 12 5 3 3 3 2 36 34 70 1965 8 9 5 11 11 12 8 3 2 33 37 70 1966 13 5 7 8 10 10 7 9 6 2 43 34 77

B : Boys, G; Girls CULTURAL LIFE AND VILLAGE ORGANISATION 87

There are four Lenches, three blackboards, two for the local converted Christians. On an wooden Loxes, one stool, a few maps showing India elevated platform a picture of Jesus Christ is kept anu Andhra Prade;h and pictorial charts showing and all the local Christians congregate in the hut tbe alphabets of English and Telugu. on those Sundays when the Father of the nearby village visits the village. Even then the congrega­ Homan Catholic Missionary School tion \Nill not be attended to by all the people. In spite of every effort by the IVlissionary for the last 54. The second school in the village called the 40 years not llnny of the converted Christians are Roman Catholic Missionary School is situated in yet Ii terates. the hamlet. Figure 26 shows the teachers, pupils and the hut where the school is housed. It was Library started by a Roman Catholic Missionary some two decades back. It is housed in a thatched hut which 57. In 1918 there u~ed to be a library caned was built by contributions made by the villagers. 'Maruti Grandhalayam' opened by Late Sri Keta­ The Missionary bears a part of the expenditure on varapu Sivaramaiah Garu, the first teacher who the school and it is governed exclusively by the starteu the school. But due to village feuds the ~fissionary. Tution facilities are provided up to the whole library of over 3,000 books was burnt to ashes. fifth standard and almost all the students belong to Later in 1960 the idea of reviving the library as an the Sched uled Castes only. excellent media to bring the two rival parties to­ gether struck one Sri Akkineni Prabhakara Rao, an Statement XXl[ engineering student during his summer vacation in NUMBER OF rUfILS ON ROLL IN R.C.M. SCHOOL the village. vVith the active co-operation of the AS ON 18-3-1966 local youngmen and the teacher Sri G. V.S. Sastry the work was started by collecting Rs. 10 from each Class Boys Girls Tototl household of Kamma caste. They formed rules and (1) (2) (3) (4) regulations and formed a constitution for the library. The library was formally opened on 30-9-60 in the I 10 12 22 temple premises. The library was registered on II 7 12 19 25-10-1961, and the Library Authorities of the Zilla III 7 6 13 Parishad, Krishna District, granted an amount of Rs. 150 in 1965 for purchase of books and the grant IV 8 7 15 was increased to Rs. 200 per annum in 1966. The V 5 5 10 present building was constructed by late Sri Musu­ Total 37 42 79 nuri Nagabhushanam Garu at a cost of Rs. 8,000 and donated in memory of his deceased son. He also donated five almirahs each costing Rs. 750 to 55. Though there are 79 pupils on roll only 20 keep the books. The village Panchayat is donating or 25 attend the school regularly, As most of the Rs. 50 per annum. Later a few folding steel cha irs bmilies among Scheduled Castes are very poor and tables were donated by the old women of every member of the family including children aged Kamma caste. Some of the books were donated by above 10 years has to work and earn his or her the local youth and elders. There are at the time bread. A majority of the boys aged 10 and above of survey more than 2,00U books and 90% of them are employed by the local agriculturists as cattle are in Tel11gu. They cover such subjects as politics, grazers on a contractual basis to be renewed. There literature, biography, history, mythology, drama, are 15 wooden planks, 2 chairs, 2 tables, 2 black folk dance and songs, detective and short stories boards, one Bigben time piece, one bell, one globe, There is no monthly subscription. An amount of one map of the world, one map of India, ten slates Rs. 10 per year is collected from each household. and eleven text books. .~n amount of Rs.2 is collected as a deposit from 56. As it is a Missionary school both the mor­ each member and in case the books' are lost the ning and evening sessions start with a prayer of alllount is forfeited alH! the remaining cost of the Christ \\'hich is followed hy Vande Matararn. The books lost is collected at the time of annual pay­ school lora ted in a hut also serves as the church mellt. A llon-trained librarian-cum-clerk named 88 CHAPTER V

Sri Palapotu Satyanarayana, is appointed to distri­ village. Andhra Prabha, and Andhra Jyoti - the two bute and collect the books and he is paid Rs. 200 Telugu d'lily newspapers published from Vijaya­ per annum towards remuneration. The annual wada - and Andhra Patrika and Andhra Prabha-the subscription is collected at the time of harvest. Due to the presence of the library the reading habit two popular Telugu illustrated weeklies also publi- particularly among the Kamma population has shed from Vijayawada; and Chandamama and increased very much in recent years. Other caste Jyoti two Telugu monthly magazines are sub­ people seem to be afraid of borrowing books or even scribed by the library. The building is not yet to read newspapers which ,are kept in the library electrified. The controlling body of the library is due to their low economic and social status in the shown in the following statement.

Statement XXIII

Controlling Body of the Library

SI. No. Name and designation Caste Age Educational qualifications

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

1 Sri Surapaneni Venkata Kuchela Rao, Kamma 29 S. S. L. C. President

2 Sri Dandamucli China Veerilraghavaiah. 40 VIr Standard Secretary

."\ Sri Dandamucli Lakshmana Rao, Memo .. r 30 S. S L. C.

4 Sri Konern Hari Veera Prasada Rao, 25 S S L.C. :\fember

5 Sri Akkineni Nageswara Ran, Member 23 H. Sc.

6 Sri :Musunllru Satyanarayana a/ins 30 S. S. L, C. Janardhana Rao, Member

7 Sri Surapaneni Nageswara Rao, Member 25 IV Form Student

8 Sri Akkineni Prabhakara Rao, ~l .. mber 26 Intermediate

9 Sri Chitturi Narasimha Rao. Member Komati 30 III Form

Village Panchayat won the election as a 'prestige issue. By 1962 the villagers particularly the Kammas seem to have 58. There has been a Village Pancha yat in realised the fact that mutual distrust and fighting the village for quite a long time. But in 1954 for the first time elections were conducted and all the for elections to get a majority in the Village Paneha­ members including the President were elected una­ yat do not help them in any way and th~refore, nimously. The 1957 elections, due to internal came to a gentleman's agreement and as a result feuds took a different shape and there was a tough the elections conducted in 1962 were again unani­ fight for th~ P9~t of President between two' parties, mous. details of which are discussed under village politics; and just by the toss of a coin one Sri Surapaneni 59. The details of the members of the Pancha­ Haripurushotham, who is also the present President yat are given below.

[Statement XXiV] CULTURAL LIFE AND VILLAGE ORGANISATION 89

Statement XXIV

PARTICULARS OF MEMBERS OF THE PANCHAYAT, 1966

81. No, Name and de.ignation Caste Age Educational qualification

(1 ) (2) (3) (4) (!I ) 1 Sri Surapaneni Haripurushotham, Kamma 54 V Standard President

2 Smt. Lingam Damayantamma, 45 IV Standard Vice President

3 Sri VeerJa Murthy, Member Goll" 60 Illiterate

4 Sri Battula Narasimham, Member Krishna Balija 60 -do-

5 Sri Kumbha Addanki, Member Yerukula 50 -do-

6 Sri Golla Gabriel, Member Christian 40 -do- 7 Sri Lam Samson, Member .' 50 -do-

It is thus evident from the above that only two out was submerged and caused great loss to the property of the 7 members of the Panchayat are Kammas of the poorer section. The Panchayat gave grants and all castes in the village are represented in the of Rs. 200 to each household to construct a hut, body. Figure 29 shows the President and mem bers etc. of the Panchayat. Strictly speaking the ChriHians form the majority numerically. Though all castes 60. There is no building of its own for the are represented in the Panchayat the decision Panchayat. The records and community radio makers are only Kammas and all others just obey are kept in a hOUlie belonging to Sri Koneru Satya­ their verdict without any sign of protest on any narayana. The Panchayat subscribes for only one account. That does not simply mean that the Telugu daily newspaper, i. e., Andhra Prabha. The interests of the economically poor are neglected. dry battery radio of the Panchayat is tuned In fact the President, Sri Surapaneni Haripurusho­ regularly during evening hours from 6 p.m. to 9 p.m. tham popularly known as 'Hari Garu', in spite of and most of the youngsters as well as old people his strictly personal drawbacks, is liked so much by hear the programmes with great interest. A loud the people that almost all the economically poorer speaker is kept on the top of the building for the sections of the population hail him in one voice as sake of the people residing in Ramaraopet hamlet. a man of great heart and his charitable and philan­ To a question as to what the Panchayat has done to throphic nature needs no better testimony than the the village so far, the answer readily available on people's voice itself. In spite of the existence of the lips of anyone in the village is that it has brou­ some caste Panchayats, a majority of domestic, ght electric lights and dug wells and laid roads. inter-caste and intra-caste disputes are referred to him and his word is carried out implicitly. In 1965 61. The following statement shows the income due to heavy floods in the Budameru the entire area and expenditure of the Panchayat for a period of inhabited by Yerukulas, Gollas, i. e., Ramaraopet 5 years, i.e., from 1960 to 1965.

[Statement XXV] 90 CHAPTER V

Statement XXV

INCOME AND EXPENDITURE OF MAREDUMAKA PANCHAYAT, 1960-1965

Income 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Rs. P. Rs. P. Rs. P. Rs. P. Rs. P. OPENING BALANCE 762.52 126.36 617.49 749.28 1,035.13

1 Land ceS9 ( .J I 737.62 8.40 421.00 2,601.88 689.55 2 Population grant l 3 House taX 300.28 300.28 372.52 440.84 439.06 4 Profession tax 4.00 4.00 4.00 16.00 4.00 5 License fees 43.00 43.00 35.00 45.36 23.00 6 Registration surcbarges 666.39 4'73.46 2,611.24 %53.40 1,846.30 7 Grass sales 230.00 240.00 250.00 252.00 8 Advancess and loans 1.00 lS.OO 9 Deposits 16.00 50.00 10.00 63.00 10 Interest 1.42 3.67 6.11 11 Contributions 1,011.00 12- Miscellaneous receipts 1.64 0.'33 21.00

Total Receipts 1.752.93 1,076.97 3,756.18 4,221.15 4,349.52 Grand Total including 2,515.45 1,203.35 4,373.67 4,970.43 5,384.65 Opening 8alance

-Contd., CULTURAL LIFE AND VILLAGE ORGANISATION 91

Statement XXV-Coneld.

INCOME AND EXPENDITURE OF MAREDUMAKA PANCHAYAT, 1960--1965

Expenditure 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)

Rs. P. Rs. P. Rs. P. Rs. P. Rs. P. 1 Establishment 240.00 220.00 180.00 300.00 22000 2 Office rent 96.00 88,00 72.00 120.00 88.00 3 Travelling allowances 3.50 4.00 19.00 1.50 1.00 4 Contingencies 16.91 8.55 11.00 18.10 16.00

5 Registers & forms 5.00 16.30 26.75 6 Stationery 34.55 21.55 1.84 4.95 7 Election charges 41.00 Deposits repaid 17800 9 Advance repaid 63.00 10 Roads 541.72 3,027.00 3,12000 2,394.25

11 Culverts & RCC pipes 32.00 2.00 12 Side drains 127.26

13 Wells & tanks 700.14 14 Reading room 6005 31.60 6.00 31.60 3400 15 Radio 130.00 10.00 155.00 130.00 13000 16 Law charges 117.50 17 Library cess 27.29 18 Bonus 19.96 14.70 19 Bducation 15.60 15,00 20 Tools and plant 16.84 100.00 21 PWD" Gross average 75.90 75.00 75,90 77.42 22 Health 113.00 23 Loans 1.00 24 Panchayat Raj Celebration 25.00 25 Miscellaneous items 11.65 26 Agriculture 171.71

Total expenditure 2,389.09 585.84 3,624.39 3,935.20 3,198.07 Closing balance 126.36 617.49 749.28 1,035.13 2,186.58

Grand total including 2,515.45 1,203.33 4,373.67 4,970.43 5,384.6~ Closing Balance 92 CHAPTER V

Caste Panchayat or another. Thus the halo around the Kulapedda'$ head has grown dim. The judgments pronounced 62. A close study of the judicial system of the by him, with the backing of the other members of village reveals that every caste, except the Kamma, the Panchayat, are not always accepted. Fines and Brahmin, Vaisya and Viswabrahmin castes, has its punishments are sometimes ignored and the rules own Panchayat though it is not fully recognised and regulations laid down by the Caste Panchayat among the high castes, as it is among other lower are violated. One does not hesitate much to com­ castes. All the Caste Panchayats are more or less mit shameless deeds, for, what matters if one'. similar in structure and in the powers they wield. prestige is lost? It can be redeemed by a feast. However, Caste Panchayats have not completely 63. The head of a CalitePanchayat is known as lost their grip. When an y case is not decided by a Kulapedda. Usually the office of the Kulapedda is here­ Caste Panchayat it is referred to the Village Pan­ ditary and on the death of a Kulapedda his eldest son chavat where representatives of all castes and the succeeds him. If the eldest son, due to physical or Pre~ident of the Village Panchayat take into consi­ mental infirmity or any other reason, is not fit for deration the arguments of both the parties and then the office, it passes on to the next son. If he has no deliver judgment which is then accepted without male issue, his nearest male relative takes up the any protest. office. Even after appointment, ,the Killapedda may forfeit his job, if found unfit for or unworthy of his Village leadership high calling. He convenes and presides over the 65. It is essential to know what sort of people Kula Panchayat meetings. If for some unavoidable are elected as members and the President of the reasons he cannot take the chair, he deputes some­ Villao-e Panchayat and what causes contribute to b • one else to do so. the prestige of the recognised leaders of the VIllage. There are many qualities praiseworthy or other­ 6 t When a meeting is to be held oae of the wise, by the possession of which a m1.n may earn members of the Panchaya t, announces the time and for himself a position in wh!ch he commands the place for it, at any gathering or a subordinate is rcspect and obedience of those around him. Wealth, sent round with the message. The person at whose age, intelligence, honesty, kin~ness, being born of request the Panchayat is convened pays 0.50 P. to a good famil y, ,til th~se and several other factors the servant who informs all the caste households make a man important. But all these qualities are about it. Usually the meetings are held in the seldom possessed by one person and nei ther are evening so that all the members can attend them. they all essential for gaining popularity. For The cases taken up by the Caste Panchayat deal example, a man may be very poor and yet be res­ with promiscuous love affairs, fornication, family pected because of his intelligence or honesty, or feud., disputes over land affairs and other incident$ a man may be leading a wanton life but others look which would lower the reputation of the caste as a up to him because he is rich. The best '''lay to knoW whole. As a rule, the meetings are held in the what makes a villager eminent is to pick out a few village of the person chiefly involved in the case. respected people in the village and see why others But sometimes they are held in other villages also, respect them. particularly in the village in which the Kulapedda resides. The person, when proved guilty is no 66. The local teacher Sri G. V. S. Sastry is a. longer regarded as a member of the caste, but he/she Brahmin by caste and he is very poor. He is very can retrieve his/her lost position by paying the fine sober and reserved and does not interfere in any imposed on him/her by the Panchayat. The puni­ quarrelS unless his opinion is invited. Besides, he shment varies according to the nature of the crime. had run the school successfully for a long time and Very often the offender has to arrange a feast for all the elders feel grateful to him because he educ

67. Sri Akkineni Koteswara Rao is a Kamma from the Land Mortgage Bank or Co-operative by caste aged about 55 to 60 years. He owns some Society. It is reported that in several cases the .30 acres of wet land and cultivates his land by Village Officers and the Revenue Inspector and in ,employing hired labourers. He is an orthodox man some cast's the Tahsildar unduly delay the issue of with puritanic outlook. He has studied Sanskrit the required certificates resulting in postponement ,and Telugu classics like and Maha­ of agricultural operations and some loss thereby. bharata and even now reads Geeta and other books Some of the villagers know that it is wrong to give on philosophy. Further he never interferes in any an y gratification either to the Village Officers or the other's affairs unless his advice is sought for. Even Revenue Inspector, for they know that they are then he weighs the arguments of both the parties paid by the Government for their work, but because and expresses his opinion and does not bother if it the certificates have to be sent along with the loan is not carried out by them since he never gives his application in proper time and also because they ,advice of his own accord. He does not press a will have to go to the Tal uk he:ldquarters to get a man too much for payment of either the loan or certificate for themselves spending at least Rs. 5, interest, if he is unable to repay. He helps others petty ryots would rath~r prefer to pay somethi.ng to to the extent possible and does not expect any the local officials and get the things done locally reward from them. Therefore, he is very popular rather than go all the way to Vijayawada and waste among the villagers. Yet he holds a humble opi­ a good lot for the samc thing. It is also said that nion of himself. People respect him for his influence Police constables also are not honest and do not with the officers of the Zilla Parishad, Taluk Office, hesitate to take sides and hush up even criminal etc. Even though the village got an approach road cases for some consideration. Some of the Block laid by the Zilla Parishad at the instance of the officers also are reported to be influenced by such President of the Panchayat, the local people say, dishonest means. For instance the villagers are that it is because of Sri Koteswara Rao alone that generally ignorant of all the tcchnical formalities the Zilla Parishad fulfilled its promise. He always that have to be fulfilled before any development works for the welfare of all the people in the village work relating to the village· is sanctioned. It is and at the same time doe~ not like publicity. reported that the concerned Block officials instead of guiding them properl v in filling up the forms, 68. Sri Lingam Veeraraghavaiah also belongs etc., correctly, tease them and harass them and help to Kamma caste and owns less than 20 acres of land. them only after long dela y when they do not find He is always willing to help anyone in trouble. any use for the scheme. Thus developmental mea­ Even people from the neighbouring villages within sures intended to improve the productive capacity ( radius of 5 miles approach him for mediation and of the agriculturists have oeen failing quite often. help which he seldom rejects. All people irrespec­ The villagers feel that official red tape and the selfish tive of caste approach him for his advice in any interest of the officials do not a 110w the poor ryots to trouble. Sri Koteswara Rao and this gentleman play their role in developmental measures in the playa dominant role in the social character of the field of agriculture, animal husbandry, communi­ . villagers as a whole and are con side red as ideal cations, etc. people by all the youngsters in the village. Village politics

.Illegal gratification 79. It is not at all an exaggeration to say that there is no village in India without politics- either 69. Bribery seems to be on the increase not due to communal feelings or due to dominanCe of ,only in cities but in villages also. Generally, both the rich over the poor. This village is not an excep­ the giver and the acceptor of bribe are to be bla­ tion to the general rule. There are both the factors med, but this rule' cannot always be applied in influencing the different sections of population in ,cases of bribery in villages, for some of the villagers the village. Though Kammas are second only to who give bribes do not realise fully that it is wrong the Malas and Madigas in numerical strength they to do so. Besides this there are other justifications. wield power because of their possession of 95% of FOT instance, the Village Officers and the Revenue total cultivable land in the village. The labour Inspector must certify the extent of land under the class people such as Mala, Madiga, Goundla, Upp­ !possession of a ryot before he can apply for a loan ari etc., are not united among themselves and due 94 CHAPTER V

to certain a ffiliations since some generations certain (I) (2) families among them are closely associated with 4 Sri Vallabhaneni 4 Sri Dandamudi Ramaiah> certain families of Kamma caste. The office of the Siv<1ramaiah 5 Sri Koneru Sub rahman- President of the Village Panchayat is a highly res­ 5 Sri Koneru Venkata- yam pectable one in the village as he is represented in ramaiah 6 Sri Koneru Seetaramaiah, the Zilla Parishad and at Samithi level also as 6 Sri Koneru Satya- a representative of the village. So a few rich fight narayana 7 Sri Chalasani Venkuta Subbaiah among themselves to occupy that post. Among 7 Sri Akkineni Laxmi- Kammas themselves there have been very many naray"na 8 Sri Dandamudi Lakshman Rao internal feuds and in some cases certain households were boycotted by certain households for functions 71. All the above persons are related to one' like marriages. But they came to limelight only in another in one way or other. They are all cousin 1956 for the first time \I hen one Sri Surapaneni brothers, or nephews or uncles in their con sangui-' Gopalakrishnayya was elected as President of the neous relationship, but they were divided, as it Panchayat. After his election due to ill-health he were, into two rival groups, In one family the entrusted his duties to one of his cousin brothers, Sri fa ther may belong to one party, wife and son to Surapaneni Venkatara.tnam, and asked one Sri another and so on. A year before the date of elec­ Akkineni Gopalakrishna yya to be the adviser to the tions the President Sri Surapaneni Haripurushotham President. The latter, i e., Sri A. Gopalakrishnayya started his election campaign by helping the labou­ got the village road laid by investing his own funds. rers working in his favour. The tactics employed to But he took the contract of laying the road for him­ win maximum votes for each member and ultima­ self and received the amount from the Panchayat tely to the group were so different and surprising later. In the next elections conducted in 1959 that they need special mention. As the election took Sri Surapaneni Haripurushotham, the present Pre­ place on a day when there were heavy rains in the sident of the Village Panchayat, insisted that either village, both the parties employed their double he should be elected unanimously as President or bullock cart s to carry the voters from their homes, elections should take place. Both the parties which to the polling booth. It became a great problem for have been there in the village since long, have ex­ the voters to get into any of the two carts. If one pressed their confidence in one Sri Akkineni Kotes­ goes in one party's cart the otper who is also a rela­ wara Rao who acted as a mediator to bring an tive like the former, will certainly take him as his amicable understanding between the two parties opponent. Some old men and women were, as it but in vain, as they agreed to disagree. Then elec­ were, carried from within the house to the cart and tion took place and Sri Surapaneni Haripurusho­ there, on the road, started the real fight for exhibi­ tham was elected by a majority of only one vote. The ting one's strength. If one party's cart came earlier 15 Kamma households in the village were divided than the other, the former claimed the right over into two parties, as shown in the statement below. the persons' going to the polling booth in their Cart and the other party though a late comer, fought on Statement XXXVI the ground that the voters are its close relatives. Though blows were not exchanged, heated discu­ TWO RIVAL PARTIES DURING 1959 ELECTIONS FOR ssions and use of obscene language rented the air' VILLAGE PANCHAYAT that day and both parties somehow managed to' restrain themselves and avoided bloodshed. Further Favouring the candidature Favouring the candidature a majority of the debts of the labourers were written of Sri Surapaneni Venkata­ of Sri Surapaneni Hari­ ratnam purushotham off by the landlords by way of destroying or return­ ing the promissory notes executed at the time of' (1) (2) giving loans. It is said that both parties paid in a com_ 1 Sri Surapaneni ~esava­ 1 Sri Vallabhalleni Madhu­ petitive spirit more than Rs.200 per each vote and narayana sudanarao the total expenditure seems to have gone up to Rs. 30,000. Some of the labourers have gained from 2 Sri Akkineni Gopala­ 2 Sri Koneru Basava krishnayya Suhbaiah both the parties. This clearly shows how group' rivalries manifest themselves in, the village life in 3 Late Sri Musunuri 3 Sri Dandamudi Veera­ the struggle for power. Ultimately all the seven. Nagabhushanam raghavaiah members of the Panchayat out of the 14 contested, CULTURAL LIFE AND VILLAGE ORGANISATION 95 were elected by 580 votes. By a single vote of and other changes that are taking place around ·confidence by a neutral Sri Lingam Veeraragha­ them. vaiah; who is considered to be one of the two perfect gentlemen of the village, Sri Surapaneni 73. Playing cards with or without stakes is a Haripurushotham was elected as President. The pastime for some of the elders and almost all elections were over but the tension of mutual hatred youngsters of the village. They play cards either remained for one year and during that period inter­ in the verandah of the library. or in Ramalayam .dining, etc., on all social functions like marriages of Ramaraopet or in one of their houses. This among both the parties waS completely stopped. pastime is more actively pursued during rainy sea­ Later slowly the younger generation started break­ son when they do not have any work and in summer ing the ice and on one fine morning all the elders when during day time they do not go to fields~ ·of Kamma caste congregated in one place and rep.. Going to cinema at Vijayawada is a common habit ented for their 'folly of taking bath in public' (to with a majority of the younger generation. When­ use the phrase of Dr. C. R. Reddy) and resolved ever they feel like seeing a cinem'l they go to mati­ not to commit such a costly blunder of spending nee show and return home by about 8-00 p. m. Rs. 30,000 for the meaningless purpose of votes in 74. Drinking native toddy and liquor is a future and started living united just as before. habit with many people in the village. A few rich Figure 30 shows all the elders among Kamma caste may get sometimes costlier liquors like whisky, rum, who are united today while Figure 31 shows the brandy and beer from Hyderab:.td whenever they prominent youth with the Economic Investigator, go to that place on some work. Otherwise in the :Sri V. D. Chary, amidst them. A hard won election ordinary course they drink toddy, 10caIl y called though it is, a few wise among them realised that it kallu, without any stigm:t. is futile to spend money and fight for power and 75. When the Investigator interrogated a ryot made the subsequent elections in 1962, a great fea­ of the neighbouring village about the people of this -ture in the history of Maredumaka village by elec­ village he commented that many adult males inclu­ ting all the members incl uding the President unani­ ding quite a few old people in this village have :mously. Even today there are, no doubt, certain concubines and that the concubines generally belong misunderstandings among themselves but they are to the lower castes like Mala and Madiga. This is not allowed to give vent to them. Somehow the an open secret and even the elders themselves village politics have been completely forgotten and acknowledged it when questioned about the fact. there is now an appreciable understanding and Some of the lower caste people are reported to be appreciation of the vital needs of the village as a making a good living at the cost of their landlords 'whole and to achieve that end, everyone strives to on this account. Sometimes a few rich people also -contribute his own and if he cannot afford to do so, take their concubines to far away places like Hyd­ -he is keeping quiet, allowing others to do it, instead erabad to spend a few days happily in an altogether -of creating troubles through his interference. different environment.

-Other cultural activities Bhajatz Mandali

72. Twenty-nine out of 35 household heads 76. There used to be two Bhajan Mandalis 'surveyed are in the habit of going to the local lib­ sometime back, but now b::>tn of them are defunct 'Tary in the village either for reading newspapers or as the members have not evinced proper interest to 'for borrowing novels, etc., for home reading. Twen­ continue them. Religious and devotional activities ty-five household heads reported that they listen to like Harikatha and Purana kalakshepam are never ar­ the radio. There are 7 radio sets in the village ranged by the people in the village. To an outsider including the one in the Panchayat. Ten households they present a picture of atheism and both in their are in the habitofreadingd~tily newspaper regularly word and deed they are more materialistic than spiritualistic. Not that they do not believe in the (Table 46). From this it may be deduced that the existence of God but they simply do not believe in -people of this village are more enlightened and any pomp and show in celebrating any puja on any well informed than a majority of the rural folk. festival or conducting a Bhajan, etc., which means a who are still unaware of the rapid technological lot of expenditure which they dislike much. 96 CHAPTER V

77. There is a Village Volunteer Force in the duct and deviations. The caste system has a stron-­ village with the Karnam as the leader. But it is ger hold in the rural parts than in the urban places. not active now-a-days due to inactivity among the For an authentic account of the exact nature and members. extent of the hold of caste in determining the codes of conduct, how far the traditional codes actually­ Inter-village relationship control the day-to-day modes of behaviour, whether or not there are differences between the accumula­ 78. Maredumaka is a small village with one ted tradition and common practice, if so, of what hamlet locally called Mala or Madiga gudem as both nature and to what extent, and if not, how tradi-­ the castes are residing there. The entire labour re­ tion makes allowance for the various types of chan­ quired by the agriculturists in the village is drawn ged conditions, like physical necessity, altered from the hamlet and in busy agricultural season, as economic relationships, new legal presumptions the cultivable land is more, labour from neighbour­ and fast changing political set up-for all these, ing villages like Tenneru, Tarigoppula, Manikonda some idea of the social relations in the context of and Komatigunta is brought for completing the the actual cultural milieu is essential. As caste operations within the scheduled time limit. The still holds sway in the rural set up, a study of the­ labourels of the hamlet depend exclusively on the inter-caste relations in the village matrix will throw main village for their livelihood. Some of them light on this aspect. are working as attached agricultural labourers in some of the households of Kamma caste in the 80. At the outset, attention is focussed on how village. There is no practice of lending agricultu­ the various castes behave and react towards the ral implements, seeds or manures among the ryots Kammas who have been the dominant group both, themselves; They only discuss about the progress socially and economicall y in the village since its, of the agricultural operations and measures to be inception. Due to the possession of more than 90%, taken for controlling any crop and animal diseases, of the entire cultivable land in their hands, Kam­ etc. The village blacksmith-tum-carpenter prepa­ mas hold all the other castes in a position of econo­ res all the required agricultural implements, carts, mic subordination. The following paragraphs give­ etc., and he is paid both in kind and cash according an idea as to how the other castes participate in the' to the implements made or repairs undertaken. This activites among the householqs of Kamma caste. village depends upon Tenneru for postal cummuni­ cations. All the caste-Hincus consult the Brahmin Birth of a baby purohit of Tenneru village for fixing up auspici­ ous days for all the socio-religious functions. For 81. At the birth of a child in a Kamma house­ raising huge loans most of the ryots depend upon hold the Brahmin is invited on the tenth day after­ the rich in Manikonda, a village at a distance of delivery to fix an auspicious day and time for celeb­ 4 miles from this village. The local grocery mer­ rating the naming ceremony. He is also requested chants purchase all their requirements in the whole­ to suggest a name according to the birth star sale market at Vijayawada or at Kankipadu in of the child. Accordingly the Brahmin purohit re­ smaller quantity. The nearest cattle fair is held at fers the almanac and suggests a name to the child Gudlavalleru where the local ryots purchase and taking in to consideration the star at the time of its sell cattle. The people of this village depend for birth and the names of the ancestors of the house­ most of their domestic goods, dress, entertainment hold head. In return he is given some quantityof' and other official work 01]. Vijayawada, the nearest rice, dhal, vegetables, ghee, milk and curd, etc., town to this village. Very often the local people which will be sufficient for a meal for his family" visit Kankipadu and Manikonda for petty purcha­ as he does not accept cooked food from the Kamma ses. Regarding marital alliances, etc., this village household. Besides the above items which are aIr depen ds upon several other neighbouring villages. called svayampakam he gets sambhavana-cash present of Rs. 5 to Rs. 10 depending upon the economic' Inter-caste relationship pOSition of the household. Among other castes the Chakali (washerman) participates in the birth cere-­ 79. Caste is the traditional regulator of all mony. The wife of the washerman affiliated to social relations in India. It provides codes of con- each household collects all the clothes of the woman. CULTURAL LIFE AND VILLAGE ORGANIZATION 97 worn during the ten days of pollution due to deli­ Puberty very and washes them. In return she is given a 84. 'When a girl attains puberty in a Kamma cash payment of Rs. 5 to 10 and a saree and a blouse household, the Chakali twasherman) participates in piece which may be old or new, depending upon the function besides persons from Kamma house~ the economic position of the household in question. holds. The Mala attached agricultural labourer cuts As long as she washes the soiled clothes of the child a green palmyra leaf and the washerman keeps it i.e., upto a year or so, extra payment is made to in a corner of a room and spreads a white cloth on her. The Golla, Goundla, Potter, Mala and it. The washerwoman collects the menstrual clo­ Madiga castes people do not participate in the thes regularly and washes them till the final bath ceremonies of child birth but attend the feast given is given. On the last day when the girl who attai­ on the lIth day or the 21st day after child birth. ned puberty is given bath the washerwoman takes Even when these people are invited for a feast they away, as a custom, the clothes which the girl wore do not dine together with the other higher castes. at the time of attaining puberty. Besid es this, she The Mala and Madiga castes occupy the lowest also gets a new saree and a blouse piece plus a few position in the social hierarchy and they are served rupees as present. Further, along with the rela­ food separately. tives and friends all the members of the washer man family which is associated with the household, and Tonsure ceremony the attached agricultural labourers of the household 82. Except when it is celebrated at some pil­ are entertained to a feast. But in serving food the grim centre like Tirupati or Vijayawada, the local washerman and Mala attached agricultural labou­ Brahmin, Barber, and Chakali participate in this rers are not treated at par and the former is not function celebrated in a Kamma household. The allowed to dine with the latter sitting in the same Brahmin as usual is consulted to fix an auspicious line. In fact the washerwoman takes food first and day and time. On the appointed day the barber th~n serves food to the Malas. Once there used to be cuts the hair and receives some cash as gift besides a custom of Mangalis (barbers) playing on sannai food for his entire family for one day. The washer­ (wind instrument) on this occasion. But it is !lOW man and people of other castes like Golla, GounJla, gi ven up. But as the custom demands it, though Afala and Madiga, attend the feast, if invited. he does not perform his duty, he gets his share of Even otherwise the washerman, and the attached food or paddy and a little cash payment as gift. agricultural labourer's belonging to Mala or The Brahmin is consulted invariably to find out J.\;ladiga castes ask for their inam and they are given whether the star of the day when the girl attained cooked fnod which they take home to eat. But the puberty is auspicious or not. If it is not auspicious Brahmin who does not accept either food or water and if she is married, the father-in-law of the girl from a Kamma household takes uncooked food items will suitably be informed so that he may take all like rice, dhal, vegetables, etc., to his house. the necessary steps to perfom such ceremonies which help avoid any unforeseen misfortunes that might 83. Ear boring ceremony of girls involves the befall his son's married life. If she is not married participation of goldsmith caste. The auspicious by that time the parents themselves take all neces­ sary steps to perform all ceremonies as prescribed day and time is fixed either by a Brahmin purohit by the Brahmin purohit to assure a happy married or by the Viswabrahmin himself. In any case on life for the girl. As usual the Brahmin is honoured the day the function is celebrated, the Viswabrah­ by presents in cash and kind. min brings two gold ear rings and pierces them in Marriage the ear lobes of the girl. In return, as he does not accept cooked food or water from Kamma house­ 85. At Kamma marriages, in most of the cases hold, he is given svayampakam plus a few rupees as th: Brahmin performs the ceremonies of lagna, etc. RIght from the begining till the end, in all ceremo­ a gift. No other caste has anything to do with this nies associated with marriage, the Brahmin purohit ceremony. But the attached agricultural labourers officiates. The auspicious day and time to celebrate belonging to Mala or Madiga caste working in the the marriage are fixed by the Brahmin. On household are offered food freely on that day. the day of marriage he recites some Sanskrit slokas 98 CHAPTER V

from sacred books at every stage and solemnizes the (taking the bride and the groom seated in a palanquin marriage. Among Kammas the prevailing custom in a procession round the village) is not in vogue is to perform the marriage at the bride's residence. now, as a custom they are taken in a palanquin The Brahmin purlJhit accompanying the groom's from the vididillu (temporary lodging arranged for party and the Brahmin purohit of the bride's party the groom in the bride's ,'iHage during the period take active part in arranging the arivmi kU1l.dalu (sac­ of marriage) to the bride's hQuse and back. Persons red pots), pendli jJuta (a wooden plank used in marri­ belonging to washerman caste only carry the palan­ age). After the groom ties the AfanJ;al,a JUtram (sacred quin and in turn they are suitably rewarded by marriage 1C)cket) around the neck of the bride, the payments of both cash and grain. They are all married couple go round the fire thrice and walk given food freely on the marriage day. PeopJe of together for seven steps. The two priests recite other castes like Golla, Goundla, Yerukula and slokas appropriate to each occassion together in one Mala and Madiga do not have any specific work in voice. After that one of the priests takes an oath the marriage but those who are known to the house­ from both the bride and bridegroom to lead a har. hold head performing the marriage may be invited monious life, treating each other as equals, with to attend the ma.rriage and the accompanying feast. love, regard and respect. In the initial stages of the marriage function the respective Brahmin purohits Death perfom the ceremony of calling out the nameS of the forefathers of the bride and the brideg-room and 88. When a death OCCurs in a Kamma house­ hold the Brahmin is invited to officiate and conduct invoke their blessings Both the Brahmin purohit! the ceremonies connected with it. First of all the are honoured suitabl y by gifts of Ca 8h, clothes, rice, news is conveyd either by the attached agricultural etc. As they do not accept food from Kamma households dining ;::rrangements for the Brahmins labourers of the household Or by the washerman to relatives and friends of the nearby villages. The of the groom's party are made in the house of the Brahmin officiates over the initial ceremony at the Brahmin of the bride's party by supplying all the house before the corpse is taken to the crematorium. food articres. After completion of marriage at the The obsequies on the 3rd and tlIe 10th day after bride's residence the· groom's party accompanied death are also conducted under his supervi~ion by the Brahmin goes to its village where the new Iy when the ancestors of the dead are offered til with wedded couple usually propitiate their household \\:ater to propitiate their spirits. On all these orca­ Gods like Venkateswara and perform without fail, sions the Brahmin receives gifts from the members Satyanarayana Vratam. The Brahmins again offici­ of the bereaved family. As he does not accept ate over these functions and narrate the story food from a Kamma household all the necessary of Satyanara yana Vrata klahatmyam to the invited reCluirements for his meal are supplied to him. audience and in return receive gifts of money, fruits, clothes, etc. 89. On the 11 th clay a few rich househo1ds may donate a cow to the Brahmin. It is believed 86. The attached agricultural labourers of that if a cow is given in charity to a Brahmin, the Mala and i\1:adiga castes actively co-operate in soul of the departed would get it and, by catching ere.cting pandals, getting paddy husked in the mill, hold afits tail, cross the mythical river Vaitarani pounding of turmeric powder, etc., and procuring ·in order to reach the heaven. Some households all the required grocery, etc. The washerman and also donate wooden planks called peeta/u, palmyra the members of his family find themselves engaged leaf fans, winnows, etc., to the poor and Brahmins in cleaning the utensils and fetching drinking water especiaU y. etc. The b'\rbers provide music with nati.ve instru­ ments like sannai while the potter supplies all the 90. The Barber, Goud, Golla and other castes required pottery including the ariveni kundalu (the like Mala have nothing to do with the Qt'ath in a sacred pots) to be used in marriage. Kamma household. The KatikafJari, the wiltchman of the crematorium, belonging to Madiga caste per­ 87. Besides (his the washerman serves as a forms his duty. postman in distributing the wedding cards among the friends and relatives of the household residing 91. On the 11th day thewasherwomanaccQm­ in the neighbouring villaglts. Though the vo~regimpu panies the widowed woman to the bank of a lake or CULTURAL LIFE AND VILLAGE ORGANIZATION 99 a well outside the village and breaks the bangles, one caste entering the streets in which other castes removes tali and bottu. And the barber shaves the live though there are separate habitations for each heads of all the agnates of the household cleanly on caste. They mix freely, take part in common reli­ the same day. gious functions and worship in the same temples, the only distinction being that Harijans like Malas Inter-caste relationship among other castes and Madigas worship separately Ganganamma and other local deities whereas the other communities 92. Formerly the affairs relating to each caste worship Srirama, Lord Venkateswara, etc. Conser­ were looked after and controlled by a hierarchy vative practices die hard; the caste Hindu allows starting with a headman for a village and ending the Harijans to enter into the temple, sit with him with a or overall chief for the entire caste. in a coffee hotel or even go together to a wedding The influence they had over the members of the feast. But to enter each other's house and be wel. caste was unlimited. Social delinquencies were come guests is too much for them. The most chastised with punishment ranging from fines to ex­ interesting feature is that both parties abhor such a communication. Sometimes even corporal punish­ freedom where normally one would expect the ment was awarded and the erring members were Harijan to fight for his legitimate place in society. subject to acts which would degrade them in the Probably the agricultural labour being drawn exclu­ eyes of others. The power exerted by such hierar­ sively from the Harijan community for several chies was great among castes of low order like Mala generations has imbibed the servant-master rela­ and Madiga and tribes than among the superior and tionship to such an extent that it will take years numericall y strong castes. It did not exist in Brah­ before this psychological complex is shattered and mins. It was never powerful among Komatis. With the Harijan takes his legitimate place beside a caste the march of time, with the village ceasing to be Hindu. the unit of society and with occupational mobility cutting across caste pattern, the decline of power of 94. An account of the social functions celeb­ these hierarchies began. The civil and criminal rated among the households of all the castes other courts which were recognising the rights vested in than Karnmas, and participation of each caste in caste hierarchies, could not, however, uphold any each other's household functions is given in the act which offended the provisions of the established following paragraphs. laws of the country. When disintegration of the age old system began in the beginning of this century, BaJija some castes started regional associations partly for uplifting the respective caste members and partly 95. People of this caste do not accept cooked for consolidating the strength of the caste. Most of food from castes like Chakali, Christian, Kummari, these associations were formed by backward castes Madiga, Mangali, Muslim, Viswabrahmin, Uppari, like GoundIa, Chakali, Kummari and Mangali. For Yanadi and Yerukula. But water is also not accep­ two or three decades, those associations collected ted from Christian, Mala and Madiga castes. They funds from the members and were very active. They accept water from the other castes only ifit is served worked for the educational and cultural advance­ in a metallic tumbler but not in an earthen pot. ment of the respective communities. They made Traditionally they are considered in the caste hier­ representations to the Government regarding the archy next to Brahmin, Vaisya, Kamma and Kapu backwardness of their castes and obtained a number and above all the other castes. Only due to long of concessions. With State laws becoming ail-com­ residence with the other low castes these people are prehensive and with the guarantee of equality to all invited by the other castes to take part in marriages people irrespective of caste, creed or race, those and other functions. Even on those occasions they associations also began to decline. do not accept food from all but give presents like clothes to the newly wedded couple depending upon 93. However the caste hierarchy' still continues the closeness of association with the family. Only to be a force to be reckoned with, though it doe~ not when people of Kamma and Brahmin castes pass manifest in the unpleasant manner in which it waS through the street they get up from the place where exhibiting itself in the past. People call on each they were sitting as a mark of respect and for all other and there are no restrictions on members of oth~rs they do not show the same respect. Use of 100 CHAPTER V

kinship terminology with other castes like Golla, \ themselve's. Among those castes he serves, the Goundla is not in vogue in this caste. They draw \Chakali does not ~ccept food from Visw~brah~in. wa ter from the same well which is used by all the tUppari and MuslIm. The payment for hIS serVIces castes in the village except the Malas and Madigas. varies from caste to caste and household to house­ hold among the same caste. Among the households Brahmin with agriculture as main occupation his payment is generally made in kind, i.e., paddy, the quantity 96. The only Brahmin in the village is a tea­ of which depends upon the number of members in cher in the local school. He does not accept either each household. Certain households may agree to food or water from any caste in the village except offer one time meal free, besides an agreed quanti­ Kammls from whom he accepts only water. He is ty of paddy. The households of the Brahmin and invited by all castes except Mala and Madiga castes the Vaisya who do not have any cultivable land to attend the marriages, etc., in their houses and he make monthly cash payments depending upon the simplY goes to shower his blessings upon them but members of the household and the terms of agree­ never accepts cooked food. All caste people except ment. The services of Chakali among the house­ Kamma, respect him by raising from the seat when holds of l\1angali and Kummari castes are not he passes through the street. Kammas due to their rewarded in the usual pattern of cash or paddy. economic superiority do not cons_ider him superior On the contrary they, i.e., the Mangali and Kum­ in any respect. In his own way the Brahmin respects mari serve him with their caste occupations like all the Kammas by rising from his seat and offering shaving and cutting the crop by the barber and them a seat whenever they go to his house or school. supplying the required pots by the potter. Some­ He helps others to the best of his capacity and does times the Goundla who is engaged in toddy tapping not offer hi, services of his Own accord and unless he also supplies the required liquor to him at a cheap is approached he does not even attend any meeting rate in return to the washerman' s service s. because he is conscious of his poor economic condi­ tion. He purchases all his requirements at Kanki­ 98. Tho services of Chakali are essential in padu or Manikonda and seldom depends upon the several socio-religious functions among all the castes local people. In the initial stages the local elderly except Mala and Madiga and he is invited to take Kammas, no doubt helped him by providing him a part in them, He respects all, by always keeping free house, etc., and recently they have allowed himself standing before all other communi ty people him to have electric connection to his house from 'except Mala, Madiga, Yanadi, Yerukula and Mus­ the RamaJayam which was electrified at the Cost of lim communities whom he considers inferior to his the Panchayat. There is an appreciable under­ own caste in social hierarchy. But with Kummari, standing and amicability between the Brahmin Mangali, Golla, Goundla caste people he does not and other castes in the village. The children of ~how any distinction and even sits on the same cot the Brahmin usually address some of the elders ~n which they sit. Using the kin~hip termi~ology among Kammas in terms of kinshi p relationship like is quite common among Chakah, Mangah and mamayya (maternal uncle) and tatayya (grand-father). Kummari castes. Saluting any elder! y person of the same caste or any other superior or inferior Chakali caste with closed hands is not a habit among all the castes. And on the contrary the Chakali due to his 97. The local Chakali (washerman) is engaged long association with certain households even uses in his traditional occupation of washing clothes. Second person singular in addressing a Kamma Under the age old Jajmani system it is one of the gentleman or woman. service castes available in almost all villages. He and his wife collect the soiled clothes regularly Christian from all the households with whom they have con- , tracts at about 11'-00 a. m, and wash them in the 99. Eleven households have been surVt'yed nearby tank and dry them in the sun and return among the Christians. All of them are COJ1verts them by sunset. But he does not serve the com­ from Hindu casteS like Mala and Madiga. In spite \munities like Yanadi, Yerukula, Mala and Madiga. of conversion which took place some decades back i Women among these castes wash their clothes for at the instance of some Missionaries under the pre- \ CULTURAL LIFE AND VILL~GE ORGA~IZATIO~ 101 text of providing all the civic and social amenities ing the people of all other Hindu castes. But the at par with other higher castes in the society t these persons of the present g~neration especially the 'Christians have not forgotten their original customs youth who had some education are indifferent to­ and 'habits and in fact they are only known and are wards the other Hindu castes because of their called by others with their original Hindu names numerical preponderance; sometimes they feel like Ramudu, Krishnudu, Appadu for men and themselves equal or even superior to the Kammas. Lakshmi, Yadamma, etc., for women. No doubt Further the entire labour force required by the Kam­ they do have their own Christened names but seL rna agriculturists is drawn from this community. dom they are used by themselves and much less by That is, in a way, the Kammas have to depend upon other castes. This conversion (though some them for the successful completion of agricultural acknowledge their wholehearted acceptance) has operations in time. To a great extent there is unity not brought even an iota of change in their outlook among these two castes, Mala and Madiga, and as well as in the outlook of other Hindu castes because of the absence of the same among Kamma towards them who still treat them as Malas and agriculturists the former dictate terms to the latter. Madigas. Other Hindu castes do not take food But because of their economic depression, in spite of and water fn,m them. But they accept both food their indifferent attitude, they are constrained to be and water from all castes except Viswabrahmin and always under the obligation of Kammas. Those Muslim. Untouchability has been in practice who strongly resent the rule of Kammas have taken among these two castes, Mala and Madiga them­ to some different occupational pursuits and do not selves for quite a long time. The Mala used to respect them at all. Therefore, there are two as­ consider a Madiga as terribly inferior to him. They pects among the ChristIans regarding the habits of never used to accept either food or water from each sitting, saluting and addressing. People of older other; they never used to draw water from the same generation who still follow the traditional pattern well. This sort of rigidity among :tvlalas and ?\·fadi­ do not sit on a stool or a cat whenever any Kamma gas is there still among several other vilIa!:{es even or allY other caste man passes through the street. today in spite of law prohibiting untouchability As there is no custom of saluting he just enquires between the higher castes and these two castes. the welfare of the higher caste man when he meets But in this village conversion into Christianity him for the first time in a day in a casual manner. -surprisingl y has brought a great change among both When he goes to any household of the higher castes oof them. As they are considered to be Christians he sits on the floor or keeps himself standing till in a broader sense unlike Malas and Madigas as he finishes his work there. There is no practice of in Hinduism, there are no differences of castes using kinship terms with any other caste persons among themselves. Inter-dining is in vogue among except among themselves. these castes in this village. They invite each other to all the social functions and partake food wi thout Golla any stigma. But when the question of finding out who is who arises they come out with an open re­ 100. Sheep and goat rearing was their traditi­ mark that so and so was a Mala or IVIadiga before onal occupation but no one follows it now. They conversion. Except this most prominent and per­ have taken up either to agricultural or causal labour ceptible change in their inter-caste relationship as their main occupation. Those who possess a few nothing more is worth mentioning regarding their patches of land cultivate their own land and also relationship with other Caste Hindus. They (Chri­ stians) are not allowed to draw water from the wells take others' lands on lease. But a majority of them u3ed by Caste Hindus. Elders among them have eke out their livelihood by working as casual or

::not deviated from the traditional pa ttern o~ respect- 0 agricultural labourers.

Chapter VI

SOCIAL REFORMS-AWARENESS AND ATTITUDE

'IIntroduction are the heirs for their mother's property. The changes in the Inheritance of Property Act are Since Independence, various social and econo­ known to a majority of the land owners. Twelve mic legislations have been enacted by the Govern­ persons are aware of the recent changes made in ment to eradicate the age-old and deep rooted social Hindu Adoption Act but only two of them could evils such as drinking liquors, child marriages, describe the real importance of such changes. So untouchability, etc. However, several villagers also 11 persons are aware of the changes, that have are not aware generally of these social legislations been brought in the Hindu Succession Act but only ,due to the prevalence of illiteracy. But in this two of them could tell the nature of those changes village even the illiterates are quite well inform~d (Table 66). -of these and other legislations as well due to their association with some political party or the other. 3. It can be seen from Table 63 that 18 out There is a high degree of social awareness among of 27 households surveyed have expressed their the people of this village. views about the inheritance of property. The re­ Inheritance maining 9 households do not possess any land and as such they have no opinion to offer in this regard. 2. There is much controversy among Kammas Except four out of ten castes, viz., Golla, Mangali, who are rich agriculturists regarding the inheri­ Viswabrahmin and Yanadi, the remaining reported tance of property. No doubt, among aU castes in­ that the daughters also are entitled to share the cluding Kammas, the sons are entitled to receive father's property along with sons. But 11 house­ the property of the fath~r as legal heirs. B'lt with holds of all castes opined that sons alone should the af.tounding increase in the payment of dowries inherit the father's property. One Golla person to the bridegrooms in respect of the marriages of who has no daughters felt that the son and any ,girls among Kammas, this problem has become other relative who might look after him in his old more compl~cated. The amount of dowry given to age may also take a share in his property. a daughter in marriage will be usually in the form of land mostly and a little in cash. So, in almost all 4. Again the heads of the 11 households who rich Kamma household5 the sons, if well educated want their sons alone to inherit their property felt and well placed professionally, get handsome dow­ that there should not be any discrimination with ries but all the dowry will remain in the names of regard to sharing of the property among the sons their wives only. Secondly it is a custom among themselves depending upon marital status, etc. That them that the dowry amount or the revenue recei­ means they opt for equal distribution of father's 'ved from land received as dowry, from year to year, property among all sons (Table 64). 'should not be spent on other members in the house­ hold. So it becomes incumbent on the part of the 5. Among the6 households which advocate the ffather to maintain atleast a rough account of the daughters also should share their property, three -expenditure involved for son's education, etc., desired that daughters only should in herit the pro­ and dowry given to each daughter in her mar­ perty to the exclusion of the sons. They are of the riage and finally settle the individual accounts of view that after all, son is a son until his wife comes property of the sons and daughters at the time of whereas a daughter is a daughter for ever. But the -effecting the partition of the property. The pro­ remaining three households want, rather reasonably perty is equally shared among sons, after all the well,that their daughters should inherit the property -daughters are married, irrespective of the age along with their sons equally (Table 65). The .and marital status. It is also customary to divide caste-wise distribution and age group particulars of the property among the sons, wife and daughters these 6 household members are given in Table 67 . .although the shares are not equal. The daughters It is seen that heads of 4 households of Kamma and 104 CHAPTER VI one household of Kapu, who are in the age group 9. The villagers }lelonging to Scheduled Castes, of 51 years and above and the head of one house­ feel that the GcverI'ment is 'hesitant in pushing thr­ hold ofKummari who is in the age gronp of 31-40 ough welfare schemes for these communities. Funds years want that their daughters should inherit the earmarked for such schemes often remain unspent or property equally with sons. are diverted to other purposes and that if any scheme 1'01' their welfare is sanctioned the imp le­ Untouchability mention is either delayed or progressed at a very 6. In the rural areas, untouchability is almost slow rate. It may be wrong to suppose that untou­ as prevalent as it used to be before 1947 in spite of chability is being practised in open defiance of the legislation prohibting it. Amongst the Scheduled law. There may be stray ca:les where this is true and Castes themselves some castes arc particularly des­ more especially in certain rural areas where the evil pised and virtually boycotted. Madigas are consi­ persists in its worst form, due to ignorance of law. dered inferior in social status by Malas who also 10. Reservation for Scheduled Castes and Tri­ belong to Scheduled Castes. These two castes bes in recruitment to the services may be helpful observe untouchability among themselves. They for sometime but perpetuation of this priveIege may do not inter-dine or allow other communi ties to create a feeling of aloofness and may not be condu­ draw water from their wells. They are not allow­ cive to nation:d integration. As the Lokur Commi­ ed entry into temples. The law regarding untouch­ ttee on Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes has ability, that is, the Untouchability (Offences) Act, observed, there are some among I-Iarijan leaders 1965 is not sufficiently publicised among the people who would not mind reservation in services and for whom it is meant. The number of cases regist­ other economic concessions being withdrawn if the ered under this Act has been negligible. Mere political concessions granted to the Scheduled legislation may not be abJe to eradicate this soci3l Castes are kept intact. The so called higher castes evil unless there is an enlightened social awareness and the bureaucracy have not been very helpful in among all classes of people. the campaign against untouchability and at the 7. Persons belonging to Mala and Madiga cas­ same time it is found that influential sections among tes are denied adequate interest free loans to which Harijans are also interested in perpetuating social they are entitled. In fact the various facilities distinction for their own narrow purposes. given to them in law are denied to them in practice, Family ptannin~ because of their ignorance about their rights. 11. 'He who pL:lnted the tree, \\'ill see to its 8. The Scheduled Castes comprise mainly of bei ng watered properly', expresses the common landless agricultural labour. The distinction drawn sentiment as regards family planning. Even persons between the economic and the social aspects of the holding reasollable views 011 most matters relating problem is unrealistic and do~ not solve it effecti­ to women, distrust the recommendation of birth vely. The Scheduled Castes are not courageous control appliances. They think that any large use enough to take advantage of the Untouchability of these modern appliances might imperil social Act and other facilities, for the simple reason that morality. they are not independent economically, most of them having to depend for their living upon the 12. The local people are quite enlightened and higher castes. They are, therefore, nervous in try­ generally have two views relating to family plann­ ing to assert themselves. They cannot be expected ing. Old and conservative people e:lfpressed their to play their own part in this task of social self-im­ discontent regarding the policy of Government in provement so long as they do not attain economic this regard. And a few viell educated young men independence. Thus, the malady is manifold. also shared their opinion. According to them what The strong prejudices of the so-called high castes, seems like a population problem is in fact an the ignorance .and economic dependence of the economic or political problem. One enthusiastic Scheduled Castes themselves, the ineffectiveness of youngman went 011 saying that 'if a nation's wealth various agencies meant to ameliorate their living is not growing with sufficient speed, it is due to the­ conditions have all been responsible for their pre­ (lefic~encies in productive and distributive spheres." :lent position in the society. An old gentleman observed that when we interfere" SOCIAL REFORMS) AWARENESS AND ATTITUDE 105

"With life"s mysteries it can have un~n()wn evil con­ it is accepted by economists th~t industrialiiation sequences in the moral and geq~tic; .phere. lie and eduqtion inevitably bring down the fertility. posed a questiQn as to how we would be able to ~now That means proper utilisation of the instrumenu of the mystery of the unborn man who Dlight have a economic and .odal transformation will create COJl­ new message for humanity and affirmed that the ditions Gondueive for the spontaneous reductioJl greatest capital is the inventive genius of man. of birth rates. Therefore, he stresses that econo­ Hence the new born child, he felt should be regar­ mic development should serve mankind and raise ded not as an extra mouth to feed, but as an addi­ the level of living of all human beings. The solu­ tional mind and an additional pair of hands which tion, therefore, is to improve the economic condi­ would m~ke a contribution to the progress of man­ tions, rather than to allow them to dicta te what the kind. He further added that while po.pulation size of the population should be. influences other things, it must not or cannot be influenced by deliberate means. Economic deve­ 16. But one school of thought which regards lopment is a means and pop1;llation an end. To family planning positively cites various advantages tamper with the latter for the benefit of the former to the family of moderate size, such as good health seems a perversion. of the mother, psychological benefits through free­ clc:m frem fear of unwanted progenies and greater 13. f Yet another old man with conservative out­ opportunities for all persons for social and econo­ look in this respect said that ifbirth control were to mic development, etc. be legalised it would only be a matter of time before such monstrous practices as abortion, mercy killing Statistics relating to FamiJy Plann1ng and the destruction of the old were accepted as Awareness moral and legal. He felt that nature left to itself would solve the problem effectively. When the 17. Out of the 35 household~ selected for Sur­ Investigator tried to explain the inevitable necr­ vey, 28 heads of the households are aware of family ssity of family planning in view of the shortage of planning, and of these 23 have approved it. Of food supply, growing unemployment, etc., he (the these 23 approving family planning, 8 knew the informant) bluntly told the investigator that we nearest Family Planning Centre also. Three per­ would be sinning if "we don't protest against the sons wanted to adopt family planning after 2 child­ dishonour which the Government is going to bring ren, 12 wanteEl to adopt it after 3 children and 8 to the Hindu women, against those who try to cor­ wanted.to adopt it after 4 children tTable 58). rupt and degrade her, pulling her down from the Age oj the head of the household ancient honoured place to a shameful position. We would find ignorant bellies rushing irlto free love; 18. Twenty-three persons like to adopt family prostitution would acquire the force of whirlwind; planning, but after having two or three children, and an infinite number of happy homes would trem­ etc. The communitywise and agewise distribution ble, fearing infidelity; unbridled instinct would of these 23 persons are given in Table 59. Three become a beast trying to satiate its appetite on persons, i. e., two Christians who are in the age virtue; who could ever revive the highest morals group of 31-40 years and 21-30 years respectively, the Hindu woman everstood for, after they had and one Mangali who is in the age group of 31-40 been torn to pieces." He further added "that to years wanted to adopt family planning after oppose population growth is to oppose civilization. two children. Twelve persons expressed their Population control is discrete genocide. Population desire to adopt family planning after 3 children. control is new cannibalism." Among these twelve persons six are in the age group of 51 years and above-, five in the age 14. "Married couples who from the first night group of 41-50 years and one in the age group of conspire against the race will become the butchers 31-40 years. The communitywise distribution of of the greatest Hindu culture. This is the new these 12 persons is as follows. Six persons, i.e., one opiate of civilization. The wombs of Hindu women each belonging to Chakali, Christian, Golla, Kam­ will be sliced by Malthusian knives," he concluded. ma, Kapu and Yanadi communities, are aged 51 15. Contrary to this vehement criticism of an years and above. Three Kammas, one Brahmin old man, an young and educated man expressed that and one Christian are in the age group of 41-50 106

years while the remalllwg 'One Chfist'iiln is' aged below 4-0' 'year~ want ·to' adopt family plannin'g b~ween 3lL-4Q years. Eight 'persons wanfed to nlclhods' there 'miy' not be mtrch use because by adopt family planning'aft,er' ha:qirig 4 children; they that ii me 'they might' have become mothers of more axe; 3, Christians' in the' age groups of 41-50 and than 3' to' 4- children.' U~4Q years, 2 Gallas 'one e'ach in the age grollp of ',: 5J,'and above ,and 31-40 yea,rs, 'one Balija; aged bet­ . 21. It can be seen from Table 60,that 5 wom en Ween 41-50 years,' and One Gonndla and one Kum'" aged between 21-30 years want to restrict the num­ marl aged between: 31-40' yeats: ' aer of their families 'after 4 children while an 'equa l number of women whO[ are in the age groups 0 f 19. From the above'it is evident lhat out of 41-50 and 31-40 yeats also want to adopt the family the .1 I ,communities repreretited by 23 persons, S planning after 3 children and surprisingly no ChristIans are willing to adopt family planning. woman in these two 'age groups (31-40 and 41-50) An orthodox Christian would not agree normally expressed desire to have only two children and no for family planning as it is against- Christianity. more. From this it can be inferred that the idea of However, in this village Ohristians alone as a single restricting the family to only two children does not community, have outnumbered all other Hindu appeal to a majority of women who are in the age castes in this regard. All the four households of group of 21 - 30 years, a highly fertile period in Kamma caste covered by this survey have approved the reproductive age of women. of famil y planning. In fact almost all the young men below 35 years of this caste have either under­ 22. Duration of marriage is another important gone vasectomy or got their wives sterilised after aspect of fam.ily planning for, the longer the dura­ two or three children. There are hardly three or, tion of marriage the lesser will be the desire to ha ve' four youngmen of Kamma caste wh') hlve m )re more children. This is partly true in this village than 2 children. Even some of the old and conser:­ also. Table 61 speaks about this aspect. Fourteen vative persons who advocate four or more children persons who were married more than 20 years ago :seem to favour family planning in certain sitU:ltions. wanted no more children, but 6 persons who were One old man of Kamma caste who is in his sixties also married for the same period wanted more has two sons to share his 70 acres of land. One of children. Three persons who were married for them is a civil engineer and the other is studying 16 to 20 years do not like to haveany more children M. B. B. S. The eldest son, the Engineer, has while an equal number of persons of the same du­ three sons while the younger son is yet to be mar­ ration of marri.age want to have mOrC children. ried. The old man, when enquired about his opi. But among those whose duration of marriage i.s nion regarding family planning, expressed displea- between) 1-15 years, 4 want no more children while 1iure about his eldest son having three sons, because One with the same duration of marriage wants more he feels that his property of 70 acres, after dividing children. Surprisingly there are two persons who among his two sons equally, would further get split were married for only 6 to 10 years but did not up into three parts for the eldest son. Instead he feels want any more children, while another two persons his son would have undergone vasectomy operation who entered the marital life about the same period after two sons. This shows that not only the wanted to have more children. Thus, while the poor who cannot afford to feed and bring up their duration of married life may have some relation to children but also a few of the rich and propertied famil y planning attitudes, people may also be indi. want to restrict the number of children. ned to stop producing children due to several other reasons like economy, health, earning capacity and Attitude towards Family Planning the nature of the family, etc.

20. The desire to adopt family planning and 23. The income of the individual, is also !l.U he SucceSs thereof depend much upon the age of important factor in the matter of family planning the child bearing woman. If more women in the along with the above said factors like age of the ear ly ages of reprod uetion, i. e., between 20 to 30 child bearing woman, age of the male and duration years adopt methods to reduce the number of child­ of married life. It has been an enigma for most of ren the programme will be successful. On the the demographers and sociologists as to why the contrary. even if more women above 30 and poor have mOre children than the rich. Perhaps SOCIAL REFORMS; AWARENESS ANI? ATTITUDE lO7 fertili ty is low among some of the rich due to their tor and the Legislators of the State and the Centre, living conditions and food habits, etc. It is observed and six others to be elected in the prescribed man­ by many, rather sarcastically, that the act of ner, was evolved, as the institutions in which the reproduction is the only available hobby to the peop.Ie's representatives have their sayinthe formu­ poor and indolent like teachers who generally have lation and execution of policies and programmes a large n umber of children. It is also said that would be beneficial to the community. The consti­ persons with more income usually do not like to tution of Gram Panchayats was, therefore, speeded have more children. There appears to be some up in order that the entire rural areas come under truth in this statement. Out of 23 persons who one or the other of the Gram Panchayats. did not want to have any more children as many as 13 are having an annual income of more than Panchayat Samithi Rs. 1,200/-, seven are in the annual income group 26. The Sarpanches of all the Gram Pancha­ of Rs. 90 1-1,200 and the remaining three are earning yats in a Block constitute the members of the Pan­ between Rs 601 and 900 per annum. As against chayat SamithL Apart from these members, the this, there are II persons who want to have more members of the Legislative Assembly of the State children. They are 4 in the annual income group representing a constituency which comprises th.:; of Rs. 1,201 and above, 2 in the income group of Block are also members of the Panchayat Samithis. Rs. 601-1, 2CO, one in the income group of Rs. 601- The members of the Legislative Council of the 900 and 4 in the income group of Rs. 301-600, per State specified by the Government as members of annum (Table 62). the Zilla Parishad will become membeJ s of one of the Panchayat Samithis in the district. The Fan­ Democratic decentralisation chayat S8mithi has been pbced in complete charge 24. Decentralisation of authority and the of the implementation of the Community Develop­ participation of people in administration have ment programmes and ill addition the Government always been considered by great thinkers from the have also entrusted to it the extension activities of time of Socra tes, as the chief embodiments of any the varic us deye]cpment departments of the Govern­ democracy. In order that these two egsential ment such as Agriculture, i\nimal Husbandry, requisitts find place in the fabric of the Indian Fisheries, Industries, Education, Co-operation, democracy, on the recoll',mendations of Sri Balwant Social Welfare, ·Women's vVelfare, etc. The Block Rai G. Mehta C0mmittec team, 'Panchayat S3.mi­ Development Officer is the Chief Executive Officer this' were constituted for each of the Community of the Panchayat Samithi and he is assisted by the Development Blocks-wherein the people are pro­ Extension staff. The President of the Panchayat vided opportuni ties for partici pa ting in the process Samithi exercises administrative control over the of a dministration. All developmental works bene11- Block Development Officer for the purpose of imple­ cial to the community and coming within the ambit mentation of the resolutions of the Panchayat of Community Development were entrusted to the Samithi and its Standing Committee. people's own elected representatives. Panchayat Raj administration 25. The idea of democratic decentralisation waS thus conceived and the nucleus for this revolu­ 27. The developmen t of administration in the tionary movement was the age old Village Pa.ncha­ district plays an important role as an instrument of yat. The three-tier system in which the Panchayat socio-economic change in rural society. Theoreti­ Raj institutions are linked one with the other con­ cally the role of administration in the Panchayat sisting of the Gram Panchayat with its directly Raj programme is that of providing technical advice elected Sarpanch and members, the Panchayat and guidance to Panchayat Raj institutions and Samithi at the block level with the Surpanches of executing developmen tprogrammes. The fundamen­ Gram Panchayats, the legislators of the State and tal approa ch to be followed in the execution of deve­ six others to be elected in the prescribed manner as lopment programmes is that of Community Develop­ its members, and the Zilla Parishad at the district ment which seeks to involve the village people in level .consisting of the Presidents of all the Pancha­ their own social and economic development, thereby yat Samithis within the district, the District Co11ec- making the village masses effective working groups 108 CHAPTER VI in programmes of development. It is assumed by yat belong to Congress Party (Table 82). the founders of Panchayat Raj programme that decentralization of powers and functions to Pancha­ Panchayat Samithi and Zilla Parishad yat Raj institutions will result in the participation 31. Twenty-six out of 35 informants are satis­ of the local community in development programmes fied with the functioning of the Panchayat Samithi which would enable the administration to imple­ and Zilla Parishad and the rest are not satisfied ment the programmes more effectively. (Table 83). 28. It is no doubt true that administration is a technical process; but administration is a part of 32. Only 25 out of 35 informants are aware the governmental process which can empirically be of the existence of the Gramasevak and again 13 of understood largely in its relation to the politics of them know his functions. And only 3 of them said Government, the social structure and economic that the Gramasevak was working satisfactorily. organisation of society. In fact the socio-cultural, Many in the village feel that the Gramsevak is very political and economic context in which the ad­ often asked to do some odd jobs by the President of ministration functions provides a dynamic para­ the Samithi and he has no other go except to meter for administrative behaviour. The tensions cumply (Table 81). and conflicts in the administration caused due to complex interaction between administration and 33. In spite of the existence of the Village society can only be solved when 'there is a balanced Panchayat certain castes still feel that their own form of development in which the political process and traditional caste Pancha yats should exist. In is responsive to the needs and iss1.les of the society this village Christian, Golla, Madiga, Vaisya and and in which the political leadership is committed Yanadi communities have their respective Pancha~ to an organisational and administrative revolution. yats. But 11 out of 18 households of the above communities feel that their respective caste Pancha~ Awareness of the functions of the Panchayat, yats should continue side by side with the statutory Panchayat Samithi and zma Parishad village Panchayat According to them, as the Pa1J chayat Village Panchayat comprises elected representatives of different castes in the village who are not quite 29. Table 80 shows that out of the 35 house­ aware of all the customs of each clste, cases like holds selected for this survey as m'lnyas 27 heads m~ganaLi cannot be decided eff~c.tively by the P.1l1- ·of households could tell the correct per~od of exis­ chayat. Further they feel that any case regarding tence of the Village Panchayat. When e.lquireci immorality among women or divorce in a particular about the amenities provided by the Panchayat for caste should be discussed by the elder members of the wtll being of the people they all in one voice, the same caste as they know well both the contesting said that it laid roads, dug wells and brought parties personally. But if such cases are reported electricity to the village. Of the remaining 7 house~ to the Villag~ Panchayat, the President and other hold heads some said sarcastically that there is a elderly members belonging to other castes may not Panchayat but as it has not done anything to their be able to do justice due to s:)me consideration or benefit it is as good as non-existing because it is other. Hence they prefer indi vid ual caste Pan­ controlled by Kammas who according to them have chayat to the Village Panchayat. No doubt when not provided any amenities to them. Only two or a caste Panchayat fails to arrive at an unanimous three people are iudifferent to express their opinion decision in any case relating to that particular about the Panchayat due to the fear of their caste the same is agreed to be ref~rred to the superior Kammas. Due to constant feuds among Village Panchayat and its decision is obeyed impli­ Kammas themselves to capture power in the Village citly (Tables 84 and 85). Panchayat a majority of the other caste people do not like to comment upon the working of the Pancha~ Co-operation yat and thereby incur the wrath of one group m 34: The Manikonda Rural Bank, Land Mort­ power. gage Bank and Krishna Co-operative Bank are the 30. Twenty-eight informants belonging to 14 three organisations advancing loans to the local castes said that most of the members of the Pancha ~ ryots. Ten persons, 6 belonging to Kamma, and SOCIAL REFORMS, AWARENESS AND ATTITUDE 109

·<.one each to Balija, Kapu, Kummari castes and a paid to the agricultural and other labourers. The 'Christian are aware of those three banks and 9 of local labourers who are aware of all these things them were in fact benefited by them. Eight out of demand a higher wage and also work strictly those 9 have taken loans from the Rural Bank situa­ according to the time sched ule as ordained by the ted at Manikonda, the neighbouring village and Government. It is also felt by the villagers that · only one took a loan from the Land Mortgage Bank, the farmer is terribly harassed by the Government · Vuyyur (Table 86). officials like Tahsildar, Deputy Collector, etc., time and again to purchase some National Savings Bonds 35. Only 8 persons-four belonging to Kamma or State Government 10 years' loan certificates or · caste and one each to Balija, Kapu and Kummari donations to flood or famine affected people and so · castes and a Christian are members of the Mani­ on. And in fact no farmer is happy with agricul­ konda Rural Bank. And of these 8 members, only ture as ,Hl occupation as he has to struggle hard two are having an individual land holding of more throughout the year and in the end he is not paid than 25 acres. One is having between 16 and 25 well for his surplus produce. Yet, in spite of all acres and another is having between 10 and 15 these hardships the local farmers are still sticking acres. All these four members belong to Kamma to agriculture and adopting all the latest methods caste while the remaining four belonging one each and implements to produce more foodgrains. to Balija, Kapu and Kumari castes and a Christian · are having less than 10 acres each (Table 38). Socia] awareness 37. Table 68 shows that as many as 32 out of 36. Table 87 shows that of these 8 members 7 35 persons interviewed knew the district headquar­ are literates and the remaining one, who is a Chris­ ters. Thirty-four knew the headquarters of the tian, is an illiterate. From the above it is evident taluk in which this village falls. Only two out of that most of the agriculturists are not only aware of 35 persons failed to tell the headquarters of the the Co-operative Bank and Land Mortgage Bank in Panchayat while 13 are not aware of the headquar­ the area but are also availing of the credit facilities t~rs of the Panchayat Samithi and 14 are not aware provided by them. This does not mean that the of the headquarters of the Zilla Parishad. Thus local ryots are out of the clutches of the money the new names such as Zilla Parishad and Pancha­ lenders. In reality the total loan gi ven by the Lank yat Samithi have not yet become quite familiar to does not form even 30% of the total debt of the a majority of the villagers. But almost all of them househCllds covered by this survey. OLlt of the know the nearby rivers, i. e., Godavari and Krishna total debt ofRs. 31,890/- an amount of Rs. 7000/­ and the great Nagarjunasagar Project being const­ was obtained from the Rural Bank (Rs. 3,000,'-) ructed on the river Krishna. Theyalso know the and Land Mortgage Bank (Rs. 4,000/-) and the at Vijayawada. remaining amount of Rs. 24,890/- was borrowed from private money lenders. This fact throws Attitude towards survey light upon the working of the Rural Credit Socie­ ties in the sphere of agriculture. The local farmers 38. No informant was reluctant or non-co-ope­ complain that the time wasting formalities of the rative to answer all the questions relating to his/her Banks which advance them loans, force them to go to personal and economic condition. l'viore over the any money lender. If the Banking formalities are enlightened few among Kammas, especially the minimised and the loans are advanced at the appro­ youth, have shown a great zeal and enthusiasm in p.riate time, the farmers may be able to produce co-operating with the Investigators in canvassing more. Besides, the local farmers complain that no the schedules among other castes and as already Government organisation has been able to supply observed under the item, Family Planning, some of the required manures to them and as such they are them have really criticised the Government rather driven as it were, to the black marketeers who sell vehemently, with regard to its policies relating to the manures at an exhorbitant rate and the farmers Family Planning, credit, party politics, etc. It is in the interest of greater return from the land are noteworthy that even among the illiterate agricul­ prepared to pay high prices for manures. Thus the turists there are some who know about the techno-' cost of agriculture has gone up. Adding to this, logical and other changes that are taking place in the Government has fixed the minimum wages to be the country. They also know the latest slogans 110 CHAPTER VI like 'Am'am HaramHa'i' of late Nehru, and 'Jai coffee. "Vomen in thrir homes usually do not fair Kisan and Jai Jawan' of late Lal Ba hadur Shastri as to perform puja to Lord Venkateswara on every­ a good number of them read daily newspapers and Saturday. And some of them even observe fast on listen to the radio, regularly. Saturday night. Besides, on festivals like Krishna­ shtami, Ramanavami, Dasara, the Brahmin purohit· Sanskritization is invited to officiate over the puja of the respective Gods in their houses. Occasionally when a Brahmin 39. Professor M. N, Srinivas has put forward a hypothesis on the ba3is of his ethnographic data purohit is not available due to some unavoidable­ from Coorg, a process of acculturation to which he reason the women themselves read out the respec­ has applied the term Sanskritization. lie writes- tive slokas from the published books and perform the puja. This has become possible owing to the "The caste systen. is far from a rigid system in which availability of cheap and popular editions of all the the position of each component caste is fi~ed for all time, }\[ovement has always Lern posoiLle, ar.d especially so in epics, and other religious and semi-religious the middle regions oftl·c hierarchy. A low caste was dble, books in Telugu. Previously they used to depend in a generatIOn or twO, to ris" to a higher position in the hierarchy by auopting vcgetananism and teetotalism, and entirely upon a Brahmin Purohit for all such things by Sanskritizing its ritual and pamheon, In short. it took and for fixing up auspicious time and day, to under­ over, as far as possible, the customs, riles and beliefs of the Brahmins and the adoption of Brahminic way of life by a take any journey or new work, agricultural opera­ low caste seems to have been frequent, though theoretically tions, or marriage, etc. But now-a-days they refer forbidden This process has been called 'Sanskritizatiof)', as certain Vedic rites arc confined to the Brahmins and to the Telugu almanac for day-to-day affairs and the other two tWIce-born castes." I approach a Brahmin only on special occasions like He further adds that - fixing up a muhurlham for a marriage or construction of a house, etc. "Sanskritization mea)1S not only the adoption of new Cllstoms and habits, but also exposure to new ideas and values which have found frequent expre,sion in the vast 42. The war and postwar years were a boom body of Sanskrit literature, sacred as well ,ecular-Karma. period for the Kamma farmers, who own nearly 80 Dharma. Papa, l\Iaya., Samsara and Moksha are examples of the most common Samkritic theological ideas and when per cent of the fertile land in the village. High pri­ a people become Sanskritized the;" w-ords occur frequently ces for both food and cash crops made many Indian in their talk. These ideas re~('h the common people peasant proprietor castes newly rich, but for the through Samkritic myths and swries ",".". The Kammas, owning and cultivating very fertile land, development of communications carried Sa)1,kritization to areas previously inacce%ible and the spread of literacy the boom was specially potent. Economic betterment carried it to groups, ""estern technology-railways, the led to Sanskritization of the customs and way of life interrlal com bustion engint", 1're". radio avd plane-has of the Kammas. \Vith the economic betterment aided the ;pread of Sanskritization "2 Kammas acquired political power and this led to rapid Snnskritization. This does not imply tl1:1t 40. In Maredvmaka village the Kammas economic betterment will always ultimately lead to owing to their sound economic po~ition and educa­ Sanskritization. Other castes inchlcling the Sche­ tion acquired political pown 3I;rlleadership in the duled Castes i. e .. :Mala and 1Iadigas, ;tl~o have no Village Panchayat which enabled them to become douht improved their economic position since Inde­ more Sanskritized than others. pendence but they are not as Sanskritized as Kam­ mas beca llse they have not been able to acquire­ 41. Almost all Kammas eat meat; some of political power within the village itself. them even eat pork and drink alcoholic liquor, women enjoy greater freedom among them; and 43. In the village life the high castes and low widow marriages are allowed. There have been castes generally live with a consciousness of homo­ significant changes in their dress, diet, manners, geneity and interdependence and al so a sense of' speech, etc. than among others in {he village. security born of living together. They accept and However, in the matter of [(Jod and drink also most deny. they unite and separate, they live as good of them avoid taking: meat, even egg and any liquor neighbours but show their claws aEd teeth, more on every Saturday which is considered to be an often, t han they did before, in spi te of the process auspicious day due to its affiliati0n to Lord Venka­ of Sanskritization or perhaps because of it. teS\vara. Those who h,we radios hear Suprabhatam Sanskritization might have enabled some C:lstes to, of Lord Venkateswara on the morning of every raise their collective status in the society but at the Saturday, take head bath early in the morning and Same time th(' social distnnce between castes may: wear clean drelis bef'lre taking the regular morning have increased thereby.

L Prof. M, N, Srinivas. Religion and Society among the Coorgs of South I11dia (Oxford: 1952), p, 30 2. Prof. M. N, Srinivas, Castes in Modern India and other Essays (: 1962). p. 48 Cbapter VI,

CONCLUSION

Throughout the world the river valley deltas 4. But unlike the dominant group Kammas,", are known as the 'cradles of civilization' since time the rest of the population is a heterogeneous group.. immemorial. Many ancient civilizations such as with a number of castes and sub-castes within it. those of the Greeks, Romans and Chinese have Internal conflicts abound in this group where each flourished on the banks of great rivers only. So also caste claims superiority over the other, generating a the Indus Valley Civilisation of the fertile plains of perpetual rivalry among them. The notion of­ the Punjab (Five ri vers) watered by the great tribu­ joining hands and making a common cause which taries of the Indus had a rich culture over two would benefit them is seldom considered. Members­ thousand years before Christ. The Ganges plain, of each one of these castes are loyal to their own or the region from about Delhi to Patna or the area group and this loyalty is strenghened by hostility between the Ganges and its tributary Jamuna, towards every other non-privileged group. The has always been the heart of India. Here, in this leaders among them are not of much help to their' region known as Aaryavartha, the land of the respective castes themselves. Such of the leaders· Aryans, her classical culture was formed. So also as coming from these sections owe their position to to the South of Vindhyas, the two great Godavari the patronage of the dominant group-Kammas. and Krishna river basir.s were the seats of great Hence they come easily within the orbit of their civilizations and empires of Andhras in the past. influence. Like the natural leaders these also tend Verily, these two delta systems are the birth places to be conservatives, not favourably disposed towards­ of the Andhras' culture. The Krishna delta has change. This explains the paradoxical, yet true, been among the most prod uctive lands in the coun­ reports that the stiffest resistance for the implemen­ try and has supported a very large population. tation of welfare measures to remove the social disabilities inherent in the tradi tional system, 2. The analysis of the social and economic life comes not merely from the dominant group but alsoo of the people inhabiting Maredumaka village in from the non-privileged groups for whose uplift Krishna delta indicates that the village is progres­ they are meant. sing well.

Social life 5. 1 here fore, in the social set up of the village 3. The Kammas who come next to the Scheduled the emergence of a dynamic and responsible leader­ Caste people numerically are economically well-to­ ship is slow. No doubt, the Panchayat Raj has do and socially occupying a high status. This is an helped to increase mass consciousness in rural important caste which occupies a vital position in India. But it has unleashed forces that are a chal­ the social organisation of the village. All the other lenge to the traditional leadership based on here­ castes are so placed in the system that they subserve dity, caste, wealth and age. As a result, a new the best interests of this caste. Their fortunes leadership, active and vibrant, is gradually emerging depend on how well they serve this caste and help in the village but at a slow pace. The reasons for it to organize the life in the village. This caste this are not far to seek. Illiteracy and drinking are being comfort a bly placed in the traditional set up tte two great evils rampant among the Scheduled is ready to accept any change if it is to its advant­ Castes who form the majority group in the popula-­ age but it is most apprehensive of any change among tion of the village. They are not quite interested other castes in the village. The leaders from this in educating their children in spite of the facilities. caste derive their leadership from the traditional provided by the Government and are rather scepti­ order. They are apprehensive of any change in cal about its utility. Drinking not only devours; their treatment of other economically backward bUlk of their income but also it leads to frequent castes in the village for the fear that it may jeopar­ quarrels, dissensions and worst of all to indebted­ dise their pre-eminent position. ness. CHAPTER VII

: Economic life 7. Further, the quantum of loan advanced by co-operative credit societies and rural banks hardly 6. Nearly 90% of the total cultivable land is covers the agricultural needs of the member, thus , owned by Kamrnas who have adopted the modern keeping his non-agricultural needs unfulfilled. This methods of agriculture and also use all available gra ve ~ituation which every agriculturist faces fertilisers. Due to non-availability of required every year, drags him into the clutches of other credit fertilisers and seeds at the appropriate time the agencies. Again the amount of loan advanced by farmers are not in a position to produce more. the co-operative bank is fixed on the basis of aver­ Water is also not made available for the second age cost of production of the crop. The average crop. Even for the first crop the water is not let cost is fixed arbitrarily. The cost of production of out in the canals in time by the P. VV. D., authori­ a crop depends upon the inputs. They differ froro tielt. Besides, the absence of a Government credit farm to farm depending upon the size of holding. agency to advance loans at the required time has cropping pattern, soil, technique of cultivation and compelled the farmers to take loans from private the nature of farm family. Fixing of an average money lenders who charge very high interest. cost unrelated to reality does not, therefore, meet Further there is no organised market to sell the the requirements of the members. A gap between surplus produce. Due to subsistence level of agri­ the loan sanctioned and the actual requirement of culture which leaves little marketable surplus, the member widens when some extraneous conside­ growing demand for agricultural commodities and rations, which are always there in reality, are faulty distribution, the farmers are lured to maxi­ shown. Due to all these practical difficulties the mise profit by selling the marketable surplus at the local farmers are unable to produce more and sell 11ighest price offered by the commission agents. The the marketable surplus to any Government agency inadeq ucy and ineffectiveness of the Co-operative at a reasonable price fixed by the Government. marketing societies naturally compel the farmer That is why the farmers do not reveal to any to market his crop elsewhere. Diversity and lack Government official the net marketable surplus of ·of standardised practices for marketing agricultural foodgrains with them. In reality they keep more 'produce gave private traders full scope in manipu­ than 50% of their surplus produce in disguise and lating prices and exploiting the farmers. These sell only a fraction of the remaining half to Govern­ :private traders, the local farmers observed, advance ment agency. If appropriate steps are taken to 'credit to them liberally without many formalities. clear the bottle-necks in distribution of fertilisers, They have also got a wider net work of their men to seeds and manures, to improve credit facilities collect the surplus of the agriculturists. They even and to establish organised mark("ts to sell the marketable surplus, the local farmers wha have go to the field of the farmers and collect the goods acquired appreciable knowledge of all the latest 'on the spot which the co-operative marketing socie­ developments in the field of agriculture, will .ties seldom do. certainly make the village more prosperous. APPENDIX

TABLES

All the Tables presented herein are based on the data collected in respect of 35 households surveyed in Maredumaka Village in March 1966.

TABLE 1

Area, Houses and Population

Population ;\]"ame ·of village Area No. of Number of ------"------Year hamlet 1n Sq. miles Density house~ household, Persons Males Females

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

1961 .Mared umaka 1.03 1,075 201 231 1,044 524 520

Source: -Pr:mary Census Abstract, 1961.

TABLE 2 Size and Composition of Households

Single member Two or three members Four to <;x memher, SeH'n to nille members Ten members and over Total -----'------, -----'------." - ----_\_------_.. --_------~-. No. of ]\;0. of No. of No. of No. of );0, of house- house- house- house- house- house- holds holds ~,f F' holds 1\1 F holds ~[ F holds 1\1 F holds ~r F

(1) (2) (3) (4) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16)

35 10 II 13 16 35 44 8 26 36 '} 4

,\1 . ,\1 a Ie;" F: Females [ 2 ] APPENDIX

TABLE 3 Households and Population by Religion, Sect/Sub-sect and Caste/Tribe/Community

Not belong- ing to any Total num- sect or sub- ber of Religion Sect Sub-sect sect households Persons Males Females

(I) (1) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

HINDU

Balija 2 2 13 3 10

2 Brahmin Vaidiki Telaganyam 8 4 4

3 Chakali Tellakulu 9 5 4 4 .... Golla 2 2 6 3 3 Yerra 2 19 12 7

5 Goundla Kamandla 2 8 3 5 6 Kamma 4 4 29 12 17 7 Kapu Saivaites 5 4

8 Kummari Desasthulu 3 2

9 Madiga 5 2 3 10 Mangali 4 2 2 11 Vaisya '" 9 4 5 12 Viswabrahmin 4 3 13 Uppari Tirmandar ... 2 14 Yanadi Reddy Yanadi 6 3 3

15 Yerukula Woora Kundhli 5 3 2 Yerukula Yerukula

MUSLIM Shaik 2 CHRISTIAN Roman Catholics 4 11 4 7 Christ Mis- sionary Service 7 7 30 16 14

Total 19 55 178 81 97 TABLES [ 3 ]

TABLE 4

Population by Age Group and Sex

Age group (in years) ,.--______~ ___~.r._ ____ ~ ______.. Total of all ages 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 _____ 1____ -. ___ ._l_~_---.... ,'-- ___L ___ -., Caste/Tribe I ,.----~!._----- r------.., r------r----c --- , Community 1\I F M F 1\1 F 1\1 F 1\1 F 1\1 F M F

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15)

Balija 3 10 3 2 3 2

2 Brahmin 4 4

3 Chakali 5 4

4 Christian 20 21 2 2 4 2 2 3 3

5 Golla 15 10 3 2 4 2 2

6 GOllndla 3 5

7 Kamma 12 17 1 2 2 3 2 3 2 2

8 Kapu 4

9 ··'Kummari 2

10 l\Iadiga 2 3 2

11 l\Iangati 2 2 12 Muslim

13 Vaisya 4 5 2 2 2

14 Viswabrahmin 3 2 15 Uppari

16 Yanadi 3 3 2

17 Yerukula 3 2

Total 81 97 10 12 10 23 4 10 7 3 5 11 4 12

-Contd. M: Males, F: Females [ 4 ) APPENDIX

TABLE 4-Conclri.

Population by Age Group and Sex

Age group (in years) r------~------'~------.------__.. 30-34 35-39 t,0-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60 and above ,-- ___1 ___ - r--__L __ -~, ,.--___L. __ ~ ,--- !~-_.----."" Caste/Tribe;' ,.------'----, r----·----~ ,..----'------." Community ]\1 F ]\1 F ]\1 F M F M F 1\1 F M F

(I) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28) (29)

Balija

2 Brahmin

3 Chakali

4 Christian 2 2 2 4 4 2 3

5 Golla 2 2 3

6 Goundla 1

7 Kamma 2 2

8 Kapu

9 Kummari 1

10 Madiga

11 Mangali 12 Muslim 13 Vaisya 14 Viswabrahmin .,. 15 Uppari 1

16 Yanadi 1

17 Yerukula

Total 11 2 4 5 8 4 2 7 5 1 1 11 6

M: Males, F: Females TABLES [ 5 ]

TABLE 5

Population, by Age Group and Marital Status

Total population Never married ]I,farried Widowed

,--____J _____ ~ .------"------.... ,,------!-----~ r------'-----~ Age group Persons Males Females ::I.fales Females Males Females Males Females

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)

0-4 21 )0 )2 10 12 5-9 33 10 23 10 23 10-14 14 4 10 4 10 15-19 10 "I 3 7 3 20-24 16 5 ) 1 4 11 25-29 16 4 12 4 12 30-34 11 11 11 35-39 6 2 4 2 4 40-44 13 5 8 ...• 5 8 45-49 6 4 2 4 2 50-54 12 7 5 7 5 55-59 2

60 & 17 11 6 10 3 3 above

Total 178 81 97 35 46 45 49 1 3 [ 6 ) APPENDIX

TABLE

Population By Age Group, Sex, Education

Literate" withoat edu- Primary or Junior Total Illiterate cational st.lndard Basic ,--_____ ._L ____--..., CastejT:ibe Age group ,.-_____t __ ~ __ __... r---.------_-----... ,------"------, Community in years P III F P ~f F P 11 F P 11 F

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14)

Balija 0-4 3 3 3 3 5-9 3 2 2 10-14 3 3 3 3 15-19 20-24 25-29 2 2 2 2 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 ... 55-59

60 & above

Total 13 3 10 10 9 2 1 :

2 Brahmin 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 2 25-29 30--34 35-39 40--44 45-49 50-54 55-59

60 & above

Total 8 4 4 2 2 5 3 2 TABLES [ 7 ]

6 and Caste/Tribe/Community

Matriculation/Higher Secondary P. U. C. Graduates Post Graduates ,-_____.L ____ ~ ,...-- ____-L ____-. r----_...J._____ -.... r-----_}._-----...., Age group Caste/Tribe/ P M F P M F P M F P M F in years Community

(15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (2) (I)

0-4 Balija 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60 & above

Total tfI

0-4 2 Brahmin 5-9 10-14 15-19 1 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39

40-~4

45~49 50-54 55-59 60 & above

1 1 Total -Contd. ( 8 1 APPENDIX

TABLE

Populatlon By Age Group, Sex, Education

Lilerate without edu- Primary qr Junior cational standard Basic Total 111 iterate ~ ______t______, ~, - ____~_I _____ ~ ".- ______L ______Caste. Tribe! Age group ,,------...., COH1munity in years P M F P M F P M F P M F

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (J4)

3 Chakali 0-4 1 2 5-9 Z 2 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 r 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59

60 & above

Total IJ 5 4 9 5 4

4 Christian 0-4 3 2 3 2 5-9 6 2 4 4 4 2 2 10-14 4 2 2 4 2 2 15-19 4 3 3 3 20-24 25-29 3 3 3 3 30-34 2 2 2 2 35-39 2 2 2 2 40-44 6 2 4 5 4 45-49 50-54 4 4 4 4 55-59

60 & 5 2 3 5 2 3 above

Total 41 20 21 36 17 19 2 2 3 1 2 TABLES [ 9 ]

6 and Caste/Tribe/Community

Ma triculation/ Higher Secondary P. U. C. Graduates Post Graduates r-----J._----~ r----__l.....------.... _____-L ____-., ,.--____.I_ ____~ A~e group Caste/Tribe/ P M F P M F PM F P M F m years Community (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (2) (1)

0-4 3 Chakali 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60 & above

Total

0-4 4 Christian 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59

60 & above

Total

-Contd. [ 10) APPENDIX

TABLE

Population By A~e Group. Sex, Education

Literate without edu~ Primary or Junior Total Illiterate . cational standard Basic ,-___--L. ____ ---. ".--___-L _____ ,--____ -L ____~ Caste/TribeJ Age group ,--____ -L ____--"'I Community in -years P M F P M F P M F P 1\1 F

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) (12) (13) (14)

5 Golla 0-4 3 3 3 3 5-9 6 2 4 4 3 10-14 '15-19 3 2 2 2 20-24 1 25-29 3 2 2 I 30-34 2 2 i 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 2 2 2 2 55-59 1 60 & 3 3 2 2 , above

Total 25 15 10 13 8 5 4 1 3 6 4 2

6 Goundla 0-4 2 2 5-9 10-14 1 1 15-19 20-24 25-29 1 30-34 I 1 35-39 1 1 40-44 45-49 1 1 I 50-54 .... 55-59

60 &: aboyt

Total 8 3 5 8 is 5

P: Persons, M: Males, F: Females TABLES [ 11 ]

6 and CastefTribe/Community

Matriculation) Higher Secondary P. U. C. Graduates Post Graduates ,------_}._--__:----. .,------'------., ",-- _____L ____ -., ,,--_____.1- ____ --. Age group Caste/Tribe) P M F P M F P M F p M F in yean Community

(15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) '(21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (2) (1)

0-4 5 Golla 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60 & above

2 2 Total

0-4 6 Goundla 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60 & above

Total

-Contd. [ 12] APPENDIX

TABLE

Population By Age Group, Sex, Education

Literate without edu- Primary or Junior Total Illiterate cational standard Basic ~ ,.---_____t_ ____ ,.--_____L ____ ~ Caste/Tribe I Age group r-----...)._-----.... ,.----._ _.I-_!_-----.... Community in years P M F P M F P M F P M F (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14)

7 Kamma 0-4 3 2 3 2 5-9 5 2 3 3 2 10-14 2 2 2 2 15-19 20-24 4 3 2 2 25-29 4 2 2 2 2 30-34 2 2 35-39 40-44 45-49 2 2 50-54 3 2 2 2 55-59 60 & 2 above

Total 29 12 17 7 1 6 4 2 2 13 4 9

8 Kapu 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 ... 45-49 " 50-54 55-59 60 & above

Total 5 1 4 2 2 1 1 I 1

P: Persons, M: Males, F: Females TABLES [ 13]

6 and Caste/Tribe/Community

Matriculation/Higher Secondary P. u. C. Graduates Post Graduates ..--_____L ____ -.... ,-- _____1..... ____-. r------.J...... ----- ~-----L-----. Age group CastejTribe/ P M F P M F P 1\1 F P 1\1 F in years Community (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (2) (I)

0-4 7 Kamma 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 2 2 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60 & above

2 2 ' ..... 2 2 I I Total

0-4 8 Kapu 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60 & above

Total

-Conld. [ 14 ) APPENDIX

TABLE

Population By Age Group, Sex, Education

Literate without edu- Primary or Junior Total Illiterate cational standard Basic ,--_____1_____ --.. Caste Tribe! Age group ,---~---!----.--...... , r----~------...... , r------.., Community in years P 11 F P M F P 11 F P M F (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11 ) (I 2) (13) (14)

9 Kllmmari 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20--24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59

60 & above

Total 1 2 1 1 1

10 Madiga 0-4 5-9 2 2 2 2 '\ 10-14 15-19 20--24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40--44 45-49 50-54 55-59

60 & above

Total 5 2 3 4 1 3 1

p, Persons, M: Males, F: Fern"de_; TABLES [ 15]

and Caste/Tribe/Community

Ma triculation/ Higher Secondary P. U. C. Graduates Post Graduates

,--__-L ___ ---... ,..-______J._ ___---.. .-_____.J..._ ____-., ,.--____..J- ____~ Age group Caste/TribeJ P M F P M F PM F P M F in years Community

(15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (2) (1)

0-4 9 Kummari 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29

... - 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59

60 & above

1 1 Total

0-4 10 Madiga 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-2' 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59

60 & above

Total

-Contd. [ 16 ] APPENDIX

TABLE

Population By Age Group, Sex, Education

Literate without edu- Primary or Junior Total Illiterate cational standard Basic ,-____ _.L ____~ ~

..J..... ____ ~ r-____ ~ Caste/Tribe/ Age group ,.-_____.L ____ ,--_____.L. ____ Community in years P M F P M F P M F P M F (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14)

11 Mangali 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 1

35-39 ... \ 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59

60 & above

Total 4 2 2 3 2 I I

12 Muslim 0-4 .!Ifr 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 1 45-49 50-54 55-59

60 & 1 above

Total 2 1 1 2 1 1

P: Persons, M: Males, F: Females TABLES [ 17]

6 and Caste/Tribe/Community

Matriculation! Higher Secondary P. U. C. Graduates Post Graduates ,..-____--L_____ r------L----~ r------L----~ r------L------..., Age group Caste/Tribe! P M F P M F P M F P 1\1 F in years Community (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (2) (1 )

0-4 11 Mangali 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60 & above

Total

0-4 12 Muslim 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 .... 60",,& above

Total

-Contd. [ 18] APPENDIX

TABLE

Population By Age Group, Sex, Education

Literate without edu- Primary or Junior Total r--____-t.. ____~ ____Illiterate-L. ____ ....;.... cational standard Basic Caste/TribeJ Age group r------.J.._ ____ ~ ,-----A----1 Community in years P M F P M F p M F P M F (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) ( 13) (14)

13 Y,aisya 0-4 2 2 2 2 5-9 3 2 2 1 10-14 15-19

20-24 2 2 2 2 25-29 1 . 30-34 1 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60 & above

Total 9 4 5 4 1 a s 1 2 2 2

14 Viswa- 0-4 brahmin 5-9 2 2 10-14 15-19 20-24

25-29 1 1 30-34 1 1 35-39 40--44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60& aPOve

'fotal 4 1 :3 2 :& 2 1 1

P: PersOns, M: Males, F: Females TABLES [ 19 ]

6 and Caste/Tribe/Communit,

Matriculation/ Higher Secondary P. U. C. Graduates Post Graduate, ,...-____ _.L ____ ~ ,--____-L ____-"""I r------....L-___ ---., ,..-_____L ____ ~ Age group Caste, Tribe/ P M F P M F PM F P M F in years Community

(IS) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (2S) (26) (2) (1)

0-4 13 Vaisya S-9 10-14 IS-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60 & above

Total

0-4 14 Viswa- brahmin 5-9 10-14 15-19 2il-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 • 60 & above

Total

-Contd. [20 1 APPENDIX

TABLE

Population By Age Group, Sex, Education

Literate without edu- Primary or Junior Tot,d Illiterate cational standard Basic ,-____L_L ____-... r-______-c ___--..-..., Ca,te, Tribe, Age gronp I~------!------"l ,------"------., Community in years P M F P M F P M F P M F

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) (12) (13) (14)

15 Vppari 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34

35-39 ."\ 40-44 2 2 45-49 50-54 55-59 60 & above

Total 2 1 2 1 1

16 Yanadi 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 3 2 3 2 25-29 30-34 35-39 1 40-44

45-49 1 1 50-54

55-59 1 1 1 60 & above

Total 6 S 5 2 ,3 1 1

P: fersons, M: Males, F: Females TABLES [ 21 ]

6 and Caste/Tribe/Community

Matriculation! Higher Secondary P. U. C. Graduates Post Graduates ~ ____ _.L_____ ,.-____ .-1.... ____---., ~----_L---_~ r- ____-L ____ --. Age group CasteiTribe/ P M F PM F P M F P M F in years Community (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (2) (1 )

0-4 15 Uppari 5-9 • 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60 & above

Total

0-4 16 Yanadi 5-9 10-14 ... 15-19 .' 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59

60 & above

Total

-Conld. [ 22] APPENDIX

TABLE

Population By Age Group, Sex, Education

Literate without edu- Primary or Junior Total Illiterate cational standard Basic ,.--_____L ____--.., ,..-_____L _____ --.. Caste/Tribe! Age group ,,-----_.I._.------., r------~----~ Community in years P 1\1 F P M F P M F P M P'

( J) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) nO) (11) (12) (13) (14)

17 Yerukula 0-4 5-9

10-14 .,. ~ 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59

50 & 2 2 ibove

otal 5 3 2 5 :5 2

P: Persons, M: Male!'>, F: Female, TABLES (2g)

6 and Caste/Tribe/Community

Ma triculation/Higher Secondary P. U. C. Graduates Post Graduates ,,--- ____-L ____~ r----_._.-----"'"\ ,--_____;_ ____~ ,--_____.t._ ____~ Age group Caste/TribeJ P M F P M F PM F P M F in years Community

(15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (2) (1)

0-4 17 Yeruku1a 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59

60 & above

Total [ 2!] APPENDIX

TABLE

Population by Age-Group,

Literate without Primary or Total Illiterate educational standard Junior basic r---__.-_,...,L _____ ----." ,.--______,l_ __ • __ ---.., I ,--______-L _____--.., Age group r------.., in years P M F P M F P M F P M F

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (l I) (12) (13)

0-4 22 10 12 22 10 12 5-9 33 10 23 17 4 13 12 5 7 4 3 W-14 14 4 10 9 2 7 4 2 2 15-19 10 7 3 6 4 2 4 3 20--24 16 5 11 5 2 3 3 3 5 5 25-29 16 4 12 9 8 4 3 30-34 11 11 5 5 2 , 2 35-39 6 2 4 5 2 3

40--44 13 5 8 9 3 6 3 2 45-49 6 4 2 3 2 3 2 50-54 12 7 5 9 4 5 2 2 55-59 2 60 & 17 11 6 13 7 6 2 2 2 2 above

Total 178 81 97 113 46 87 21 9 12 35 17 18

P: Persons, M: Males, F: Females. TABLES [25 ]

7

Sex and Education

Matriculation or ,-___Higher .-L Secondary ____ -.., P. U. c. ,-___Graduates.L.- ___ -.., Post Graduates r---___.L----~ r-----__.,l_-----~ Age group P M F P M F P M F P M F in years

([4) (15) (i6) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (1)

0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29

4 4 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59

60 & above

5 5 1 2 2 1 1 Total [26 ] APPENDIX

TABLE

Household Heads by Caste/Tribe/Community,

Illitera.te males (by age group) . Caste/Tribe! ~------~------~------~----~60& Community 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 :5-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 above

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (ll) (12) \ 13) (14)

Balija 2 Brahmin 3 Chakali 1 4 Christian 2 1 4 2 5 Golla 2· 6 Goulldla 7 Kamma 8 Kapu .." 9 Kummari 10 Madiga It Mangali 12 Muslim 13 Vaisya 14 Viswabrahmin 15 Uppari

16 Yanadi I 17 Yerukula

Total .. , 5 2 2 4 7 TABLES f 27 ]

8

Age Group, Sex and Literacy

Illiterate females (by age group) r------______~ ______~ 60& Caste;Tribej 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 10-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 above Community

(15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (I)

Balija

2 Brahmin 3 Chakali 4 Christian 5 Golla

6 Goundla

7 Kamtna

8 Kapu

9 Kumtnari 10 Madiga 11 Mangali 12 Muslim

13 Vaisya 14 Viswabrahmin

15 Uppari

16 Yanadi

17 Yerukula

Total

-CQntd. [ 28 j APPENDIX

TABLE

Household Heads by Caste/Tri bel Community.

Literate males (by age group) , ______~ ______L ______... ______~ ____~

Caste, Tribe! ' 60& Community 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20--24 25-29 30--34 35-39 40--44 45·'-49 50-54 55-59 above

(I) (28) (29) (30) (31) (32) (33) (34) (35) (3t-) (37) (38) \39) (40)

Balija

2 Brahmin Chakali 4 Christian 5 Golla

6 Goundla

7 Kamma 2

8 Kapu 9 Kummari 1 10 Madiga Jl Mangali 12 Muslim 13 Vaisya 14 Viswabrahmin 1 15 Up pari

16 Yanadi 17 Yerukula

Total 1 2 2 2 3 1 4 TABLES f 29 ]

8

A~e Group, Sex and Literacy

Literate females (by age group) ~------~------~ 60& CasteiTribeJ 0-4 5-9 10--14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 abov .. Community

(41) (42) (43) (44) (45) (46) (47) (48) (49). (SO) (51) (52) (53) (I)

Balija

2 Brahmin 3 Chakali

4 Christian 5 Golla

6 Goundla

7 Kamma

8 Kapu

9 Kummari

10 Madiga 11 Mangali

12 l\f llslim

13 Yaisya

14 Yiswa brahmin 15 Uppari

16 Yanadi

17 Yerukllia

Total

-Contd. [30 I APPENDIX

TABLE Household Heads by Caste/TrIbe/Community,

~ ______Total males (by A ______age group)

Caste; Tribe, 60 & Community 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 above

(1) (54) (55) (56) (57) (58) (59) (60) (61) (62) (63) (64) (65) (66)

Balija 2 Brahmin 3 Chakali 4- Christian 2 2 4 2

5 Golla 3

6 Goundla

7 Kamma 1 2

8 Kapu \ .. 9 Kummari 10 Madiga 11 Mangali 1 12 Muslim 13 Vaisya 1 14 Viswabrahmin 1 15 Uppari

16 Yanadi 1

17 Yerukula

Total 1 7 4 4 7 1 11 TABLES [ 31 ]

8

Age Group, Sex and Literacy

~ ______Total femalesA ______(by age group) ~

60 & Caste/TribeJ 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 SO-54 55-59 above Community

(67) (68) (69) (70) (71) (72) (73) (74) (75) (76) (77) (78) (79) (1)

1 Balija 2 Brahmin 3 Chakali 4 Christian 5 Golla 6 Goundla 7 Kamma 8 Kapu 9 Kummari 10 Madiga

11 Mangali 12 Muslim 13 Vaisya 14 Viswabrahmin 15 Uppari 16 Yanadi 17 Yerukula

Total

-Concld. {32 ) APPENDIX TABLE

Deaths by Marital Status. Age Group and Sex

Males ~------~------~ Caste/Tribe/ Marital 60& Community status 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 above ( I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (6) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15)

1 Balija Never married Married Widowed

Separated & Divorced

2 Christian Never married Married Widowed

Separated & Divorced \ 3. Goundla Never married Married Widowed

Separated & Divorced

4 Kamma Never married Married Widowed

Separated & Divorced

5 Mangali Never married Married Widowed

Separated & Divorced

6 Vaisya Never married Married Widowed

Separated & Divorced

7 Viswabrahmin ~ever married 1 Married Widowed

Separated & Divorced

Total 2 1 3 TABLES [ 33]

During Last Five Years by Caste/Tribe/Community

9

Females 1------...------"------. 60& Marital Caste/Tribe! 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-4445-49 50,.5455-59 above status Community

(16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (:4) (25) (26) (27) (28) (2) (1)

Never married Balija Married Widowed

Separated & Divorced

Never married 2 Christian Married Widowed

Separated & Divorced

Never married 3 Goundla Married Widowed

Separated & Divorced

Never married 4 Kamma Married Widowed

Separated & Divorced

Never married 5 Mangali Married Widowed

Separated & Divorced

Never married 6 Vaisya Married Widowed

Separated & Divorced

2 ~ever married 7 Viswabrahmin Married Widowed

Separated & Divorced

3 2 Total APPENDIX

TAB L E 10.

Deaths by Causes, Sex, Age Group and Caste/Tribe/Community

Number of females in age group

,.---. ______N umber of males in J...... age ______group (in years) -, (in year) ,-----"----~ Caste /Tribej 10- 15- 20-- 25- 30- 35 - 40- 45- 50- 55- 60 & 5-9 to 60 & Community Cause of death 0--4 5-9 14 19 24 29 34 39 44 49 54 59 above 0--4 55-59 above

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18)

Balija Due to old age 2 Christian Due to old age Due to blood pressure

3 Goundla Slipped into the well

4 Kamma Due to heart failure 5 Mangali Due to old age 1

6 Vaisya Due to motions 7 Viswa brahmin Duo to ilIoe .. 2

Total 2 1 3 3 2

TABLE 11

1961 Primary Census Abstract

TOlal No. of per- Occupied resi­ sons enumerated dential houses (including inmates ,--__...J.._ __--.., of institutions and Scheduled Scheduled Houseless No. of house less persons) Castes Tribes population ,_-___t... ____... ____l..__-., Location Name of Area in sq. No. of home­ ,..--r--L----.., ,.--__..J__~ Code No. village miles hOllses holds P F .1\.1 .F ~i F M F

(1) (2) (4) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) (12) (13) (14)

III M.uedumaka 1.03 201 231 1,044 524 520 9 4 21 22 -Contd. TABLE ll-Contd.

1961 Primary Census Abstract

,.-______WORKERS-L ______, III In mining, quarrying, livestock, forestry, II fishing, hunting and Institutional popu- Literale and edu- ([-IX) I As agricultural plantations, orchards lation cated persons Total workers As cultivator labourer & allied activities ,-___...... t.. ______,,--___-L ___ -... ,--___--t- ___--., r--___L ___ --.., ______-L ____ ---.. r-----L---~ M F Iv[ F M F 1\[ F M F M F

(15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (23\ (24) (25) (26)

217 140 325 229 72 11 187 194

--COTltd. P: Penons, M: Malei, F: Females TABLES [a~]

TAB L E ll-Concld.

1961 Primary Census Abstract

r ______WORKERS-L ______..... ______--.. V VIII In manufactur- In transport, IV ing other tban VII storage and At household household VI In trade and communica- IX X industry industry 1n construction commerce tions In other services Non-worken ,--___-L ___-" ,..-- ___..J._ __--.. ,--_ _t.__ ~ ,-___.t__ __ --., ,.-__~ ___ ~ ,--___.L ___ -.. r-__-L __--, M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

(27) (28) (29) (30) (31) (32) (33) (34) (35) (26) (37) (38) (39) (40)

29 12 20 11 3 13 ]99 191

TAB L E 12 Livelihood Classes Agri- Total No. of persons enumera­ I ted (including Cultivators of land

____Occupied...J.... ___houses-" inmates of institu­ Inmates of insti­ wholly or mainly tions & houseless tutions & house- owned and their No. of Location Code No. persons) less persons Literates ,-__dependants_...J.._ ___ -, and name of Area in No. of house- ,..-----_.._----..... r--~----.. ,----L---.. village square milu houses holds P M F M F M F M F

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13)

1951 CENSUS

95 Maredumaka 1.03 167 188 847 417 430 186 112 103 U5 1966 SURVEY

111 Maredumaka 1.03 35 3S 178 81 97 3S 30 17 1

-Contd. TAB L E 12-Concld.

Livelihood Classes

cultural classes Non-agricultural class persons (including dependants) who derive their principal means of livelihood from ~------~IV ------1...._------_... _--, II Non-cultivating Cultivators of land III owners of land, V VIn mainly or wholly Cultivating labou- agricultural rent Production Other services and unowned & their rers and their receivers and their other than VI VII miscellaneous dependants dependants ,--___dependants...L ___ -..., ,..-cultivation___.L __ ___Commerce-L __ --., Transport sources .--_..,J...._--.. r---__L ___ ~ r-----~----, ,----.)...----., M F !vI F 1\1 F M F M F M F M F

(14) OS) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27)

1951 CENSUS

13 12 190 178 7 4 23 27 81 74 1966 SURVEY

4 4 2 5 21 22

. P: PerlOnl, M : Males, F: Fcmalft [36 ] APPENDIX

TABLE 13

Workers and Non-workers by Sex and Age Group

,--______Total-I,______--., Total workers Total non-workers Age group ,,------_._------~ ~------_t------~ (in years) Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)

0- 4 22 10 12 22 IO 12 5- 9 33 10 23 33 10 23 10-14 14 4 10 3 2 11 3 8 15-19 10 7 3 5 3 2 5 4 20-24 16 5 11 5 4 11 10 25-29 16 4 12 10 3 7 6 5 30-34 11 11 11 11 35-39 6 2 4 4 3 2 40-44 13 '. 5 8 9 5 4 4 4 45-49 6 4 2 5 4 50-54 12 7 5 10 7 3 2 2 55-59 2 2 60 & above 17 11 6 13 10 3 4 3

Total 178 81 97 77 50 27 ·101 31 70 TABLES [.3-7] .

TABLE 14 Workers by Sex, Age Group and Occupations

Village Trader Trader Trader Total Teacher Servant ( Kirana) (Cloth) (Cattle) Cultivator Pig rearer __ _.L._~ ,--. __....A...-_...-.. I~ __L_--., Age group (in .----~-.------. <~-I.....- ...... ,---\...._----. c---I...-~ ,-----'--.-..., years) P M F M F M F M F M F 1\1 F 1\1 F :M F (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18)

0-4 5-9

10-14 3 2 ;_,. 15-19 5 3 2 20-24 5 4 1 1 2 25-29 10 3 '! 2

30-34 11 11 2 3 35-39 4 3 40-44 9 5 4 45-49 5 4

50-54 10 7 3 5 55-59 2 60 & above 13 10 3 4

Total 77 SO 21 5 1 5 1 17 ~ 1

-CQntd. P: Penons, M: Males. F: Females [S8] APPENDIX

TAB L E 14-Concld.

Workers by Sex, Age Group and Occupation

Attached agricul. Toddy tural Basket Casual Washer- tapper labourer Carpenter Mason weaver labourer Watchman Barber man .-._,-A..._~ ,--_A_--.., ,.-_...J.-_--... ,-__ ...A-_--... ,---'----.., , __-L_---... ,..--..J-_--.. r-_.J---.. ___ --L._-. M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M f

(19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28) (29) (30) (31) (32) (33) (34) (35) (36)

2 3

6 1 2 3 3 2 I 2

2 2

1 .. 1 1 1 8 21 1 1 2 1

M: Male., F: Female. TABLES [39 ]

TABLE Ii

Workers en~aged in Industry, Business, Cultivation and Other Services belon~jn~ to the Household by A~e Group and Sex

Working in Working in Working in culti- industry belonging business belonging vat ion belonging Total to the household to the household to the household Other services r---__ L ___ ---. ,-___ -L _____. ,..-__J.... __-, Age group ~ ~ ----"-----.... ,------"----, (in years) P M F P M F P M F P M F P M F

(J) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (JO) (11) (12) (13) (14) (IS) (16)

0-4 5-9

10-14 3 2 3 2

15-19 5 3 2 4 3 1 20-24 5 4 2 2 2 25-29 10 3 7 2 2 7 7 30-34 11 11 2 2 3 3 5 5 - 35-39 4 3 4 3 40-44 9 5 4 6 3 3 45-49 5 4 4 3

50-54 10 7 3 6 5 3- 2 55-59 2

60 & above. 13 10 3 4 -+ 7 5 2

Total 77 50 27 6 4 2 5 5 20 17 3 46 24 22

P: Per.ons; 11 : ~aJes; F: Female. [40 ) APPENDIX

TABLE 16

Non-workers by Age Group and Nature of Activity

Persons engaged ruB-time students Total No. of in household or children attend- non-workers duties only iug school Dependants Unemployed Age group ,--___...J-. ____ --..., (in years) ,------!.....----., ,------'----~ ,.-----...)._----, r-----'---- -... P M F P 1\1 F P ~:1 F P l\I F P M F

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16)

0- 4 22 10 12 22 10 12 5-9 33 10 23 18 6 12 15 4 11 10-14 11 3 8 3 2 8 2 6 15-19 5 4 2 2 3 2 20-24 11 10 10 10 25-29 6 5 5 5 30-34 35-39 2 40-44 4 4 4 4 45-49 50-54 2 2 2 2 55-59

60 & above 4 3 4 3

Total 101 31 70 23 23 23 9 14 64 21 as 1 1

P: Persons, M: Males, F: Females TABLES [41]

TAB L E 17

Households engaged in Cultivation, Industry or Business belonging to the Household

Households enga. Households not ged in cultivation Households engag- Households engag- Households engag- engaged in cultiva- Total No. of run by the house- ed in industry run ed in business run ed in cultivation lion. industry or households hold by the household by the household and bllsiness business

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

35 9 2 4 2 18

TAB L E 18

Traditiontll Occupation by Households

Traditional occupation No. of households

(1) (2)

Priest 2 Village servant

3 Trader (kirana) 2

4 Cultivator 13 5 Sheep rearer 6 Pig rearer

7 Toddy tapper 2 8 Agricultural labourer 9 Attached agricultural labourer 10 Carpenter

11 Potter

12 Casual labourer

13 Barber

14 \\'ash.. rman

Total 35 [ 42) APPENDIX

TABLE 19 Place of Occupation

Village Trader Trader Trader Teacher servant ( Kirana) (Cloth) (Cattle) Cultivator .Pig rearer , ___L_-.... r-__ L_~ Place of r---'-_,L-~ ..---... )'----..., ,..-_....L_--..., r---"----., ,,--~-~ occ'lpalion 1\1 F 1\1 F M F M F 1\1 F M F 1\1 F

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (lJ ) (12) (13) (14) (15)

Within the 4 3 ... 17 3 village 2 Outside the village

Total 5 1 3 1 1 17 5 1

-Contd.,

TAB L E 19-Concld.

Place of Occupation Attached agricul- Toddy tural Basket Casual Watch- Washer- tapper labourer Carpenter Mason weaver labourer man Barber man ,--__L __ ,--__L_----" ,..-_...J.__-. .___ _,t__---.. ~-...).._---.. ,--_-l..._----.., ---_ _.I._---." ,.------'---._-.---." r------., M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F 1\i F

(16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28) (29) (30) (31) (32) (33)

4 2 2 B 21 2

4 1 2 2 8 21 1 2 TABLES [43]

TABLE 20

Occupational Mobility, Cause of Change and Contentment during 1959-60 by Caste/Tribe/Community

No. of infor- ::-';0. of households changi T'g mants who traditional occl~pation are not con- r-______J,______~ No. of house- tent with Caste/Tribel From tradi tional holds - To contemporary Volunta- Other present Community occupatioa ing over main occupation rily Forced reasons occupation

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

Brahm·in Priest Teacher

2 Christian Casual labourer Trader (cattle)

Casual labourer Beggar Cultivator Teacher

-do- Casual labourer Agricultural labourer -do- Attached agricul- tural labourer -do-

Cultivator Agricultural labourer 3 Golla Sheep rearer Cultivator

4 Goundla Toddy tapper Casual labourer

5 Muslim Casual labourer Trader (kirana)

6 Yenadi Cultivator 1 Watchman (field)

Tota.1 12 4 7 1 l 441 APPENDIX

TABLE 21 Occupational Mobility-Nature of Aspiration

No. of Number of persons who want their sons to be ~ ______L ______persons in theoccupa- Same as Government Poultry Having no Main Occupation tion III col. (I) service Cultivation business sons Unspecified

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

Teacher 3 2 Village sernut

3 Trader (kirana) 2

4 Trader (cloth)

5 Trader (cattle)

6 Cultivator ) 1 5 3

7 Pig fearer

8 Toddy tapper 9 Carpenter

10 Mason 11 Casual labourer 8 2 1 2 3 12 Watchman (field) 13 Hair dresser - 1 14 Washerman 1

Total 34 3 10 9 10 TABLES [45 1

TABLE 22

Distribution of Households by Main Occupation and Caste/Tribe/Community

Number of households among __ ._,-______.I,.,______~ :Main occupation Balija Brahmin Chakali Christian Golla Goundla Kamma Kapu

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

Teacher flO

2 Village servant

3 Trader (kirana)

4 Trader (cloth) 5 Trader (cattle) l'

6 CultIvator 3 3 4

7 PIg rearer

8 Toddy tapper

9 Carpenter 10 Mason 11 Casual labourer 6

12 Watchman «field)

13 Hair dresser ~ 14 Washerman

Total 2 1 1 10 4 2 4 -Contd. [46 ] APPENDIX

TAB L E 22-Colicld.

Distribution of Households by Main Occupation and Caste/Tribe/Community

Number of households among .,..------_)_------, Kum- Viswa- Main occupation mari l\Iadiga Mangali Muslim Vaisya brahmin Uppari Yenadi Yerukula

(I) (10) (II) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18)

Teacher •

2 Village servant

3 Trader (kirana) 4 Trader (cloth)

5 Trader (cattle) 6 Cultivator

7 Pig rearer 8 Toddy tapper 9 Carpenter 10 Mason 11 Casual labourer 12 Watchman (field) 13 Hair dressor 14 Washerman

Total 1 1 1 1 1 TABLES [47 ]

TABLE 23

Combination of occupations

Number of households in subsidiary occupation of Total No. ~------~------~ of house- Trader Trader Casaal Main Occupation holds Cultivator (cloth) ·(cattle) . labourer Blacksmithy

(I} (2} (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Teacher 2 •

2 Village sarvan t

3 Trader (kirana) 2

4 Trader (cloth) 5 Trader (cattle) 1 6 Cultivator 12 2

7 Pig rearer

8 Toddy tapper

9 Carpenter 1 10 Mason

II Casual labourer 8 12 Watchman (field) 13 Hair dresser 14 Washerman

Total 34 3 1 1 3 [ ·w ] APPENDIX

TAB L E 24 Main Occupation, per capita Annual Household Income and Family Type

Per capita annual hO'lsehold income ranges (in rupees) ~------~------~------~ 101-200 r------'------1-50 -. ~ ______51-100~ ______~ ~ ______A ______~ Main occupation S .J o S I .J 0 S I J 0 (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) ( 11) (12) (13)

NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLDS

Teacher 2 Village servant 3 Trader (kirana)

4 Trader (cloth) '" S Trader cattle 6 Cultivator 7 Pig rearer 8 Toddv tapper 9 Carpenter

10 Mason II Casual labourer 2 12 Watchman (field) 13 Hair dresser 14 Washerman

Total 1 6 2 4 -Contd,) TABLES [49 ]

TAB L E 24-Concld. Main Occupation, per capita Annual Household Income and FamUy Type

Per capita annual household income rangel (in rupees) ,.------...)...------.----~ ,...... _____-.J... ______~ ,.-______201-300..J- _____ ~ 301-500 ,--___501 -.J-& above______-, Main occupation S I J 0 S I J 0 S I J 0 (1) (14) (IS) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25)

NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLDS

Teacher 2. Village Bervant 3 Trader (kirana) 4 Trader (cloth) S Trader (cattle) 6 Cultivator 3 1 7 Pig rearer 8 Toddy tapper 1 9 Carpenter 1 10 Mason 11 Casual labourer 4 12 Watchman (field) 13 Hair dresser 14 Washerman

Total 8 8 1 1 2

S (Simple family): Consists of husband, wife and unmarried children I (Intermediate family): Married couple and unmarried brother/sister and one of the parents J (JOint family): Married couple with married sons/daughters or with married brother. {sisters o (Other family types): Other than the above type. [50 ] APPENDIX

TAB L E 25 Land Ref-orms and Its Effects by Households and Caste/Tribe/Community

Numbers of households Brief indication of ~------~------*------~ the manner of be­ Chris­ nefit or effect Balija Brahmin Chakali tian Golla Goundla Kamrna Kapu

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

Assignment or acquisition of house sites

Owned 2 11 4 2 4 1 Given by the Government

Total 2 11 4 2 4 -Contd.,

TAB L E 25-Concld. Land Reforms and its Effects by Households and Caste/Tribe/Community

Number of bouseholds Brief indication of ~------~------~ the manner of be­ Kum- , Viswa- nefit or effect mari Madiga Mangali Muslim Vaisya brahmin Uppari Yanadi YerukuJa

(1) (10) (} 1) (12) (13) (14) (IS) (16) i (17) (18)

Assignment or acquisition of house sites

Owned . 1 Given by the Government 1

Total 1 1 TABLES [Sl]

TABLE 26

Material Culture-Polle8l10n of Furniture by Calte/Trlbe/Community llnd Houlehold. r------...... ------.,..l...------_Number or households posselling .. "" Caste I Tri be / Mosquito Community Cot Carpet Mattre.. Bed. Bed sheet Pillow Blanket net

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

Balija 2 2 2 Brahmin 1 1 3 Chakali 4 Christian 10 3 2 2 S Golla 4 4 2 6 Goundla 7 Kamma 4 1 3 4 3 1 B Kapu 9 Kummari 1 1 10 Madiga .',. 11 Mangali 12 Muslim 1 13 Vaisya 14 Viswabrabmin 1 15 Yanadi 1 16 Yerukula 1

Total 11 2 I 7 17 12 US I -Contd., [ 52] APPENDIX

TABLE 26-Concld.

Material Culture-Possession of Furniture by Caste/Tribe/Community and Households

Number of households possessing r------'----._------~ Caste/Tribe/ Bhosha~ Gada~ Wall- Community Chair Table Mirror nam rnanchi Stool Bench shelf

(I) (IO) (11) (12) (13) (I4) (15) (16) (17)

Balija 2 2 2

2 Brahmin 3 Chakali 4 Christian 4 3 5 Golla 3 4 3 3 6 Goundla 7 Kamma 3 3 4 2 3 3 4 4 8 Kapil 9 Kummari 10 Madiga

11 Mangali 12 Muslim 13 Vaisya 1 1 14 Viswabrahmin 1

15 Yanadi 16 Yerukula

Total 14 6 20 5 8 8 11 8 TABLES [53 j

TAB L E 27

Material Culture-Furniture acquired durin~ last Five Years. by Caste/Tribe;Community and Households

Number of households which have acquired during last five years ,------'------, Caste! Tribe (Community Cane chair Dining table

(1) (2) (3)

Kamma 2

TAB L E 28 Material Culture-Possession and Use of Furniture and Consumer Goods and Services by Caste/Tribe/Community and Households

Number of households consuming among ,------______L ______--... Particulars Balija Brahmin Cbakali Christian Golla Goundla Kamma Kapu

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

I Fuel and Lighting

E lee tr ici ty 2 3 Kerosene buddi 1 . 9 4 2 Lantern 2 2 2 4 1 Cow dung 2 2 1 Coal 2

Firewood 11 2 2 3 1 II Furniture and Utensils

German silver 4 2 Brass 2 8 4 .. Tin 1 2 1 Earthen pots 1 1 1 10 3 2 3 1 Aluminium 6 2 2 1 Stainless steel 4 III Other consumer gDl/ds and Services

Torchlight 1 2 2 4 Radio

Toilet 1 3 4 1 Washerman 2 3 4 4 1 Bicycle 1

Washing soap 8 1 Petromax

-CIJntd., [ 54] APPENDIX

T B Lit 28-Concld. Material Culture-PollelSlon and Use of Furniture and CODlumer Goods and Service. by Caste/Tribe/Community and Households'

Number of households consuming among ~-~------~------~~Kum- Viswa. Particular5 marl Madiga Mangali Muslim Vaiaya brahmin Uppari Yanadi Yerukula

(I) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (lS) (16) (17) (18)

1 FUll and Lighting Electrici ty ...... Ker08ene buddi I I t 1 Lamern 1 "j 1 1 Cow dung 1 Coal . 'j ... j Firewood 1 1

II Furniture and Ut,nsils German sih'l:'r ... Bra8s 1 Tin ... Earthen pots 1 Aluminium Stainle4s 81('1:'1 \

III Other Consumu goods and ServiclS Torchlight 1 Radio 1 Toilet 1 ' .. Washerman 1 1 "i Bicycle 1 1 Washing aoap Petfottl30X 1

T A. B L E 29

Material Culture-Consumer Goods and Services used dUring last Five Years by Caste/Tribe/Community and Households

Number of households whith have acquired duriRg last five yearl Caste/Tribe! Community ~------~------~------~Cycle . Radio Petromax Torchlight

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Brahmin 1 2 Kummari 3 Vaisya 4 Yal1adi 1

1 1 1 , TABLES [55)

TAB L E 30 Material Culture-Consumption Habits by Annual Household Income and Households by Caste/Tribe. Community

Nnmber of households that use No. of households that do not use No. of households that use toilet mosquito curtain having annual mosquito curtain having annual soap/washing soap having annual income (in Rs.) of income (in Rs.) of income (in Rs) of ~------~------~ r------_,,_------~ ,------~------, Caste/Tribe} 120] & 901- 601- 301- 300 & 1201 & 901- 601- 301- 300 & 1201 & 901- 601- 301- 300 & Community above 1200 900 600 below above 1200 900 600 below above 1200 900 600 below

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) (12) (13) (14) (IS) (16,

Balija 2 2 Brahmin 3 Chakali 4 Christian 5 3 1 5 Golla 4 3 6 Goundla 7 Kamma 3 4 8 Kapu 1 9 Kummari ... ]0 Madiga ] 1 Mangali ]2 Muslim 13 Vaisya 1 ]4 Viswabrah­ min 1 1 15 Up pari 16 Yanadi 17 Yerukula 1

Total 1 us 10 6 11 2 2

-Contd., [ 56] APPENDIX

TABLE 30-CQ1tcld, Material Culture-Cona"mptlon Habita by Ann"al Household Income and Households by Calte/Tribe/Community

No. of households that do not use No. of hou!eholds that lend clothes No. of households that do not send toilot/washing soap havi? anuual to washerman having annual income clothes to wa.herman baving income (in RI.) 0 tin Re.) of annual income (in R,.) of ~------~------~1,201 ~------~-----~-~1,201 ~---~-~-----~1,201 Calte!Tribe! & 901- 601- 30t- 300& Be 901- 601- 301- 300 Be Be 901- 601- 301- 300 & Community above 1,200 900 600 below above 1,200 900 600 below above 1,200 900 600 below (1) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21 ) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28) (29) (30) (31)

Balija ... 2 Brahmin 1 3 ChakaH 1 4 Cbristian 4 3 4 2 S Golla 4 6 Goundla ... 1 \ 7 Kamma 4 8 Kapu 9 Kummari

10 Madiga '" ... 1 11 MangaH 1 1 12 Muslim 13 Vailya 14 Viswa- brahmin 1 15 Uppari 1 16 Yanadi 1 ." 17 Yerukula 1

Total :$ 8 a I us a I I 7 II TABLES [57 ]

TABLE 31 Budg,etary Position of Households by Main Occupation No. of households No. of No. of with surplus Amount .Main occupation . households persons Income Expenditure budget of surplus

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Rs. Rs. Rs.

Teacher 3 15 4,960.00 4,421.00 2 1,330 2 Village servant 2 772.00 782.00

3 Trader (kiralla) 2 11 2,480.00 2,734.00 214 4 Trader (cloth) 7 1,21400 1,457.50 5 Trader (cattle) 2 54000 628.00

6 Culti\'ator II 74 58,365 00 63.829.00 3 1,361 7 Pig rearer 5 1.000.00 1,260.00 8 Toddy tapper 5 1,400.00 1,553.00

9 C,ll'penler 4 850.00 1,182.00

10 Mason 2 360.00 1,089.12 11 Casual labourer 8 32 7,170.00 8,424.10 3 90 12 Watchman 6 1,00000 1,333.00 13 Hair dresser 4 570.00 1,822.00

14 Washerman 9 1,100 00 ],106.00

Total 34 178 81,781.00 91,620.72 9 2,995

-Contd., (58 J APPENDIX

TABLE 31-ConCld. Budgetary Position of Households by Main Occupation

No. of No. of households households Sale value of Occupational Occupational with balan- with deficit assets during household average household average Main occupation ced budget budget Amount of deficit current year income expenditure (1) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13)

Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Teacher 1 791.00 2,500 1,653.33 1,473.67 2 Village servant 1000 772 00 782.00 3 Trader (kirana) 468.00 ] .240.00 1,367.00 4 Trader (cloth) 243.50 1,214.00 1,457.50 5 Trader (cattle) 88.00 540.00 628.00 6 Cultivator 8 6,82500 5,305.91 5,802.64 7 Pig rearer 260.00 1,000.00 1,260.00 8 Toddy tapper 153.00 ],400.00 1,553.00 9 Carpenter 332.00 850.00 1,182.00 10 Mason 729.12 360.00 1,089.t2 11 Casual labourer 5 ] ,344.10 896.25 1,053.01 12 Watchman 333.00 1.000.00 ] ,333.00 13 Hair dresser 1,252.00 570.00 1,82200 14 Washerman 1 6.00 1,100.00 1.106.00

Total 25 12,834.72 2,500 17.901.49 21,908.94 TABLES [59]

TAB L E 32 Annual Expenditure on Education by Caste/Tribe/Community

Number of households spending annually (in rupees) r------~----~------~ Caste Below 25 25-50 51-100 101-200 201-1,900 2,000

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Brahmin

2 Golla 3 Kamma 1

Total 2 1 [601 APPENDIX

TABLE AYerage Annual Expenditure per Household by Households with an annual ------______A All households 300 & less 301-600 No. of ,--___.J.... ____-... ,------_\_----~ ~----_L----~ b()\lse~ E:xpendi- Percen~ holds ture per tage to No. of Average No. of Average- main occu- in occu- Items of House- house- total ex- house~ expendi- house- expendi- pation pation expenditure holds hold penditure holds ture holds ture (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)

Teacher 3 Food 3 76667 52.03 Clothing 3 233.33 15.83 Fuel and lighting 3 92.00 6.24 Travelling 3 83.33 566 Education 33.33 2.26 Tobacco 30.00 204 Hired labour 1 100.00 Ii 79 " Land cess 23.33 1.58 Purchase of manure 6667 4.52 Other mhcella- neous ~ervices 3 4500 305 2 Village 1 Food 54000 69.05 servant Drinks 90.00 11.51 Fllel and lighting 12.00 1.54 Clothing 55.00 703 Tobacco smoking 4800 6.14 Other miscellane- ous se rv ices 37.00 473

3 Trade 2 Food 2 730.00 53.40 33000 (kirana) Clothing 2 243.00 17.78 8600 Fuel and lighting 2 83.00 6.07 106.00 Utensils 5.00 0.37 10.00 Tobacco smoking 2 66.03 483 42.00 Travelling 60.00 439

Medical 150.00 10.97 300.00 Other miscellane- ous se rvices 2 3000 2.19 2400 4 Trader FOod 1,08000 74.10 (cloth) Clothing 300.00 20.58 Fuel and lighting 24.00 1.65 Other mislella- neous service~ 52.50 3.67 -Contd., TABLES [ 61]

33-Contd.

Income Group and' Occupation income (in rupees) of ------~ 601-900 901-1,200 1 ,201 & above ,-_____t.. ____...... ,..-____J- ____ --.. r------L----~ No. of house- No. of Average No. of Average No. of Average holds house- expend i- house- expend i- house- expendi- Items of expend i- in occu- Main occu- holds ture holds ture holds hlfe ture pation, pat ion

(11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (3) (2) (1)

2 85000 60000 Food :1 Teacher 2 250.00 200.00 Clothing 2 108.00 60.00 Fuel and lighting 2 7500 100 00 Travelling 100 00 Education 9000 TDbacco

1 300.00 Hired labour

70.00 Land cess

Purchase of 20000 manure

Other mi,cella- 2 42.50 50.00 neous services 540.00 Food 2 Village servant 90.00 Drinks

1 12.00 FLld and lighting

55.00 Clothing

'1 48.00 Tobacco smoking

Other miscel- 3700 hmeous services

1,08000 Food 2 3 Trader (kirllna) 40000 Clothing

60.00 Fuel and lighting

Utensils

90.00 Tobacco smoking 120.00 Travelling

Medical

Other miscella- 36.00 neous services

1,080.00 Food 1 Trader (cloth) 300.00 Clothing

24.00 Fuel and lighting

Other miscella- 1 5350 neou.> services -C,mtd<) (62 ] APPENDIX

TABLE

Average Annual Expenditure per Household by

Households with an annual r------)._ All households 300 & less 301-600 __-- __...J,..... ____ -.... No. of r -----\_----~ r------"------... house- Expendi- percen- holds in ture per- tage to No. of Average No. of Average Main OCClI- OCCllpa- Items of expend i- House- house- total ex- hou.e- expendi- house- expendi- pation tion ture holds hold penditure balds ture holds ture

(1) (2) (3) (4) (S) (6) (1) (8) ~9) (10)

5 Trader Food 52000 82.80 52000 (cattle) Clothing 7000 11.15 7000

Fuel'and lighting 24.00 382 24.00 Other mi5cella- neons services 14.00 2.23 14.00

6 Cult iva. 11 Food 11 1,773.18 30.19 tor Clothing 11 715.09 12.41 \ Fuel and lighting Jl 4109 0.71 Drinks 19.64 0.34

Tobacco smoking 8 12982 2.25

Marriage 2 272.73 474

Medical 1 14.55 0.25 Education 1 181.82 3.16 Recreation 2 188.35 3.27

Travelling 6 320.00 555 Hired labour 4 381.82 6.63 Death 9.09 o 16 Land ce~s 3 290.00 5.04 Interest 2 17091 2.97 Purchase of manures 3 363.64 6.31 Agricultural operations 4 580.91 10.09 Other miscella- neous services 10 306.81 5.33

7 Pig fearer Food 1,00000 79.37 Clothing 125.00 9.92

Fuel and lighting 5000 3.97 Tobacco smoking 60.00 4.76 ... Drinks 25.00 1.98

-Contd., 'TABLES [63 ]

33-Contd.,

Income ~roup and Occupation income (in Rupees) of ------~ 601-900 901-1,200 1,201 & above No. of ,..-____.L ____ ~ ,-----...)._-----, r-----_J,,_----~ house- No. of Average 1\0 of Average No. of Average holds house- expend i- house- expend i- house- expendi- Items of in OCClI- Main Occu- holds ture holds ture holds ture expenditure pation pation

(11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (3) (2) (l)

Food 5 Trade (cattle) Clothing Fuel and lighting Other miscella- neous service

2 907.50 9 1,965.56 Food 11 6 Culti- vator 2 ]30.00 9 845.]] ClothIng 2 180O 9 46.22 Fuel and lighting 21600 Drinks 2 60.00 6 218.00 Tobacco smolcing 1 1,300.0() 1 1,70000 Marriage 160.00 Medical 2,000 00 Education 2 1,03600 Recreation 6 586.67 Travelling 4 ],050.00 Hired labour 100.00 Death 1 140.00 2 1,525.00 Land cess 2 940.00 Interest Purchase of 3 1,333.33 manures Agricultural 4 1,567.50 operations Other miscella- 2 40.50 8 411.75 neous se rvices

1,000.00 Food 1 7 Pig reare 125.00 Clothing 50.00 Fuel and lighting 60.00 Tobacco smoking 25.00 Drinks

-Contd., [64 ] APPENDIX

TABLE

Averuge Annual Expenditure per Household by

Households with an annual ·------"- All households 300 & less 301-600 No. of ------"------r-----J._----~ ,,-----"------, bouse- Expendi- Percen- holds in ture per- tage to No. of Average No. of Average :Main OCCll- occupa- Items of expend i- House- bouse- total ex- house- expendi- house- expend i- pation tion ture holds bold penditure holds ture holds ture

(J) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)

8 Toddy 1 Food 1,000.00 64.39 tapper Clothing 13800 8.89 Fuel and lighting 25.00 1.61 Drinks 180.00 11.59 Tobacco smoking 135.00 8.69 TravelJlIlg 20.00 1.29 \ House repairs 20.00 1.29 Other miscella- neous serv ices 35.00 2.25 68.70 9 Carpenter Food 812.00 Clothing 173.00 14.64 Fuel and lighting 24.00 2.03 Travelling 24.00 2.03 Tobacco smoking 44.00 3.72 House rent 50.00 4.23 Olher miscella- neous serv ices 55.00 465 6611 720.00 10 Mason Food '720.00 Clothing 117.00 10.74 117.00 Fuel and lighting 24.00 2.20 2400 Drinks 96.00 8.81 96.(l{) Tobacco smoking 108.00 9.92 108.00 House repairs 10.00 0.92 10.00 Other miscella- neous services 14.12 1.3{) 14.12

11 Casual 8 Food S 785.00 7499 700.00 labour Clothing 8 . 100.88 9.63 80.00 Fuel and lighting 8 24.38 2.33 12.00 Tobacco smoking 7 66.13 6.32 36.00

Contd., TABLES [65 ]

33-Contd.,

Income Group and Occupation income (in rupees) of ------~------~ 601-900 901-1.200 1,201 & above ,-----__t.. _____, r------'------, ,------"------., No. of- house- No. of Average i'io. of Average No. of Average holds house- expendi- house- expendi- house- expendi- Items of expendi- in occu- Main oecu- holds ture holds ture holds ture ture pation pat ion

(II) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (3) (2) (ll

1,000.00 Food 8 Toddy tapper 138.00 Clothing

25 00 Fuel and ligbting 18000 Drink 135.00 Tobacco smoking

2000 Travelling 2000 House repairs Other mi,cella- 35.00 neolls services 812.00 Food 9 Carpen- ter 17300 Clothing

24.00 Fuel and ligbting 24.00 Travelling

44.00 Tobacco smoking

50.00 House rent

Other m;scel- 55.00 laneous services

Food 10 Mason

Clothing

Fuel and lighting

Drinks

Tobacco smoking

House repail s

Other miscella- neous services

2 720.00 5 82800 Food 8 11 Casual labourer 2 75.00 5 115.40 Clothing 2 3000 5 2460 Fuel and I igbt ing 2 45.00 4 100.75 Tobacco smoking

-Contd., [66 ] APPENDIX

TABLE

Average Annual Expenditure per Household by

Households with an annual ------~ All households 300 & less 301-600 .----___--L- ___ ,.-____.J,._ ____~ ,-____.....L ____---., No. of house- Expendi- Percen- holds in ture per- tage to No. of Average No. of Average- Main occu- occllpa- Items of expendi- House- house- total ex- home- expendi- house- expend i- pation tion ture holds hold penditure holds ture holds ture (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)

11 Causal Drinks 22.50 2.15 labourer Contd., Travelling 3 75 0.36 Festivals 1 6.25 0.60

Medical 25.00 239 Other miscella- neons services 5 12.S9 1.23 8.00

12 Watch- Food 930.00 69.77 man (field) Clothing 100 00 7.50 Fuel and lighting 43.00 3.23 Tobacco §moking 18000 13.50

Other miscella- neous services 80.00 600

10 Hair 1 Food 96000 5266 960.00 dresser Clothing 87.00 4.77 8700 Fuel and lighting 24.00 1.32 24.00

Travelling 48.00 2.63 48.00 Medical 4000 2.19 40.00 House repairs 21.00 LIS 2100 Remittances 500.00 27.43 500.00

Agr icultura I operations 9800 5.38 98.00 Other miscella- neous services 45.00 2.47 45.00

14 Washer- 1 Food 750.00 67.81 man Clothing 200.00 1808

Fuel and lighting 3600 3.26 Tobacco smoking 96.00 8.68

Drinks 2400 2.17 TABLES [&7 J

33-Concld. ,

Income Group and Occupation income (in rupees) of

601-900 901-1,200 1,201 & above r- --__-L ____ -..... ,------),.-----~ No. of­ house­ No. of Average No. of Average No. of Average holds house­ expendi­ house­ expend i- house- expendi- Items of expend i­ in occu­ Main occu­ holds ture holds ture holds ture ture pation pation

(J I) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (3 ) (2) (1)

180.00 Drinks 11 Casu~1 labourer 30.00 Travelling Contti.,

5000 Festivals

20000 Medical

Other miscella­ 2.10 3 31.00 neous services

93000 Food 12 Watch­ man (fielel) 100.00 Clothing 43.00 Fuel and lighting

180.00 Tobacco smoking

Other miscellane­ 8000 ous services

Food 13 Hair dresser Clothing

Fuel and lighting Travelhng

Medical

House repairs

Remittances

Agricultural operations Other miscellane­ ous services

750.00 Food 14 Washer­ man 20000 Clothing 36.00 Fuel and lighting 96.00 Tobacco smoking 24.00 Drinks [68 ] APPENDIX

TAB L E 34

Households with Surplus and Deficit Budget by Income Range

Number of households with surplus and deficit amount of ~------~------~ ".-____BelowJ..... ____Rs. 5 _ Rs 5-10 Rs. 11-25 Rs 26-50 _ ____ ,...L ____ ~ ,-- ____--L. ____ _ Income group ,,--- _____L ___ ....-~ (in Rs.) Surplus Deficit Surplus Deficit Surplus Deficit Surplus Deficit

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (8) (9)

300 & less

301 - 600 601 - 900 901 - 1,200

1,201 & above

Total 1 2 2

-Contd.,

TAB L E 34-Concld. ,

Households with Surplus and Deficit Budget by Income Range

Number of households with surplus and deficit amount of .--______. ______L ______~

Rs 51-100 Rs. 101-200 Rs. 201-500 Rs. 501 & above ,.-- ______L ____ ----.., _____ - __-L _____, Income group r------L----~ ,-----"------., (in Rs.) Surplus Deficit Surplus Deficit Surplus Deficit Surplus Deficit Total

(I) (10) (11 ) (12) (13) (14) (IS) (16) (17) (18)

300 Be le~s

301 - 600 2 2 5 601 - 900 2 6

901 - 1,200 L 4 10 1.201 & above 2 2 3 2 2 13

Total 3 ::5 ::5 11 2 6 34

Note: The income of one Christian household was not furnished. TABLES [69]

TAB L E 35

Overall Household Income and Expenditure Position by Caste/Tribe/Community and Households

Number of households with income group ~------~------~------~ Below Rs. 30t) Rs. 301-600 Rs. 601-900 r------_.L______~ ~------~------~ ~------_.I._------~ Caste/Tribe/ Balanced Surplus Deficit Balanced Surplus Deficit Balanced Surplus Deficit Community account account account account account account account account account

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)

Balija

2 Brahmin 3 Chakali

4 Christian 2 5 Golla

6 Goundla 7 Kamma 8 Kapu 9 Kummari 10 Madiga

II Mangali

12 Muslim 13 Vaisya 14 Viswabrahmin 15 Uppari

16 Yanadi 17 Yerukula

Total 5 1 5

-Contd., [ 701 APPENDIX

TAB L E 35-Concld.,

Overall Household Income and Expenditure Position by Caste/Tribe/Community and Households

Number of households with income group

,.------______1 ______------.., Rs. 901-1,200 Rs. 1,201 & above r-----______-L ______, ,.-______-L ______--. Caste/Tribe) Balanced Surplus Deficit Balanced Surplus Deficit Community account account account account account account

(1) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16)

Balija 2 2 Brahmin 3 Chakali

4 Christian 3 2

5 Golla 2 6 Goundla

7 Kamma 2 2 8 Kapu 9 Kummari 10 Madiga

11 Mangali 12 Muslim

13 Vaisya 14 Viswabrahmin 15 Uppari 16 Yanadi 17 Yerukula

Total 3 7 5 8 TABLES [ 71 ]

TAB L E 36

Indebtedness by Annual Household Income and number of Households

Number of households in debt and total debt (in Rs.) Average indebted- Annual income group Total No. of ,.--______t.... ______-.., Percentage of Col. ness per household (in Rs.) households No. of households Total debt (3) to Col. (2) in debt.

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

300 & less 301 - 600 5 4 2,830 80 707.50 601 - 900 6 4 4,350 67 1,087.50 90 - 1,200 10 6 1,650 60 275.00 1,201 & above 13 9 23,060 69 2,562.22

Total 34 23 31,890 68 1,386.52

TAB L E 37

Indebtedness by Cause, Amount and Households

Indebtedness by cause of debt ______1 ______---... Percentage to the ~nmber of house- total amount of Cause Amount of debt holds in debt debt

(I) (2) (3) (4)

PClrchase of land 17,00000 2 53.31

2 Marriages 7,81000 8 24.49 3 Sickness 1,68000 5 5.27 4 Ordinary wants 2,000.00 6 6.27 5 Household cultivation 2,00000 6.27 6 Business run by the household 1,40000 2 4.39

Total 31,890,00 24 100,00 [72 ] APPENDIX

TABLE 38

Number of Debtors by Caste/Tribe/Community

Debtors ,-______• ______..A-. ______~

Prior to 1951 1951-1961 1962-I963 1963-1964 ______1964-1965-1... ____ ---, 1965-1966 _~ ".-___-L __ ---, ~ ___L ___ __., ,--__ .A....- __ --., ___l,______... ~ ---'-----.. Num- Num- Num- Num- Num- Num- ber Amount ber Amount ber Amount ber Amount ber Amount ber Amount Caste/Tribe / Community Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) f (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) ( I) (12) (13)

Balija :00 1,000

2 Chakali 300

3 Chri~tian 3 600 3 1,600 4 Golla 1."00 1,500 5 Goundla 2 140 6 Kamma 5,000 5,000 3 8,360 7 Kapu 2,000 ],500. 8 Madiga 200 9 Mangali 1,000 1,000 10 Muslim 600

11 Uppari 30 12 Viswabrahmin 200 13 Yerukula 160

Total 1 5,000 1 5,000 2 ',500 6 4,100 9 :6,9(,0 8 9.~30 TABLES [ 73 ]

TABLE 39

Credit A~ency and Rate of Interest by Number of Households and Amount

,--______RateL of______interest ~

Interest frec 61/2% 8% r-- ______L _____ -, r- ______L _____~ r------_.L------~ No. of No. of No. of Period Agency households Amouut households Amount households Amount

(I) (2) (3 ) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8 )

Rs. Rs. Rs.

Prior to 195 J Private money lender

1951-61 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 Private money lender 600 2 240 1 100 1965-66 Rural Bank 1,000 2,000 Land Mortgage Bank 4,000

Total 2 600 4 5,240 2 2,100 -Contd. TABLE 39-Concld.

Credit A~ency and Rate of Interest by Number of Households and Amount

Rate of interest ~ ______-_------.L_------~ 9°'/0 12% 16% ~ ,--______L ______~ ,_-----..J.....------, ,--_____...J.-. ______No. of No. of No. of Period Agency households Amount households Amount households Amouut

(1) (2) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14)

Rs. Rs. Rs. Prior to 1951 Private money lender 5,000

1951-61 5,000 2 1,500 1962-63 " 1963-64 6 4,lOO 1964-65 8 6,800 160 Privatr money lender 3 1.390 1965-66 Rural Bank Land Mortgage Bank

Total 2 10,000 19 13,790 1 160 J 74] APPENDIX

TAB L E 40

Sale and Purchase Value of Assets during 1936-66

Sale value of assets Purchase value of assets ~------~------~ ~------~------~ During 29 years During current During 29 years During current <1936-65) year (1965-66) (1936-65) year (1965-66) ,-______L _____ ~ __ ------L-----""l r------.J.,__-----~ ,------'------~ No. of ~o. of No. of No. of house- house- ho use- house- Part iculars holds Amount holds Amount holds Amount holds Amount

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) . (7) (8) (9)

Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.

Land 5 17,800 2,500 10 156,050

2 Livestock 500 2,000 3 Machinery 11,000 4 Tools and equ:p- ment 150 2 15,200 5 Buildings 1,500 3 11,800 6 Jewellery and valuahles 2,000

Total 8 19,950 2,500 18 198,050

TABLE 41

Capital Formation by Caste/Tribe/Community and Households

BaHja Golla Kamma Mangali Muslim ~ ~ ,-___ _J______~ ,-____.L ____ ,-____.t_ ____ ,--___A ____ ~ r--__-L ____ Value of Value of Value of Value of Value of capital No. of capital No. of capital No. of capital No. of capital J.'lTo. of Particulars of cap i- forma- house. forma- house- forma- house- forma- house- forma- house- tal formation tion holds tion bolds tion holds tion holds tion holds

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)

s. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.

1 Land 8,600 2 4,900 2 141,000 4 1,000 550 i 2 Livestock 2,000

3 Machinery 11,000 1 .,. ~ .,. 4 Tools and equipment 15,200 2

5 Buildings 11,000 2 800 I 6 Jewellery and valuables 2,000

Total 8,600 2 4,900 2 182,200 n 1,000 1,950 2 TABLES [75]

TAB L E 42

Prosperity Index during the last Ten Years (1956-66)

Number of households which have cleared debts which existed prior to 10 years from the income of the household

2 Total extent of debts cleared under item 1 by all the households together

3 No. of households which have, during the last 10 years, 9

(a) Acquired any property and/or Rs. 172,700

(b) Made any savings in cash and/or

(c) Invested capital ill any new undertaking or building, except where it is wholly from any debt incurred for the purpose and/or from the proceeds of any sale of property. Rs. 22,000

4 The approximate total money value of items 3 (a) to 3 (c) of all the households together deducting the portion covered by debts and/or the proceeds of the sale of any property, Rs. 163,740 APPENDIX

TAB L E 43 Caste!Tribe!Con.munity and Nature of Family

Types of families living in the households Total nun,ber of r------\...------~-__.._ Caste/Tribe/Community households Simple Intermediate Joint Others

(1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

1 Balija 2 2 2 Brahmin

3 Chakali 1 4 Christian ]I 10 1 5 Golla 4 2 6 Goundla 2 2

7 Kamma 4 2 1 8 Kapu 9 Kummari 10 Madiga H Mangali 12 Muslim 13 Vaisya 1 14 Viswabrahmin 1 15 Uppari 16 Yanadi 17 Yerukula

Total 35 23 4 8

Simple family = Consists of husband, wife and unmarried children Intermediate Married couple and unmarried brother, sister and one of the parents Joint Married couple with married sons,'daughters or with married brothers/sisters Others =-, Other than the above types TABLES [ 77]

TABLE 44 Mother Tongue and other Languages Spoken Number of persons ,-______.L ______~ Language Total Males Females

(1 ) (2) (3) (4)

1 Mother Tongue

Telugu 176 80 96 2 Urdu 2 1 Total 178 81 97

II Other Languages

Telugu 2

2 English 10 10 Total 12 11

TAB L E 45 Association of Deity/Special Object of Worship by Caste/Tribe/Community

Deity,'SpeCial object of worship , r------L ------______'"""""\ No. of Lord Venka· Anja- Vighnes- Narasim- Caste/Tribe/Community households Siva teswara Rama neya Christ wara haswamy

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

Balija 2 2 Brahmin 3 Chakali 4 Christian 11 II 5 Golla 4 4 6 Goundla 2 2 7 Kamma 4 4 3 8 Karu 9 Kummari 10 Madiga

11 Mangali

12 Muslim 13 Vaisya 14 Viswabrahmin 15 Uppari 1 1 1 16 Yanadi 17· Yerukula 1

Total 35 3 19 6 1 11 1 I [ 78 ] APPENDIX

TABLE 46 Cultural Life of the Village

No. of households participating in/associating with ~------~------~ Purnna, Harikatha and Eurra- CastelTribe! Number of katha kala- Reading Listening Community households Library kshlpam newspaper to radio

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Balija 2 2 2

2 Brahmin

3 Chakali 4 Chri6tian 11 8 7 5 Golla 4 3 3

6 Goundla 2

7 Kamma 4 4 4 4 8 Kapu 9 Kummari 10 Madiga 11 l\[angali 12 Muslim 1 13 Vaisya 14 Viswabrahmin .1

15 Uppari 16 Yanadi 1 17 Yerukula

Total 35 29 2 10 25 TABLES [79 ]

TABLE 47

Dietary Habits by Households and Caste/Tribe/Community

Households taking ~------~------~Breakfast, midday meal and snpper Two times meals with coffee or tea with coffe or tea Caste}Tribel Total No. of Two times alone at any time Breakfast, mid-day at any time or Community households meals or times meal and supper times

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Balija 2 2 Brahmin 1 3 Chakali

4 Christian II 2 3 6 5 Golla 4 3 6 Goundla 2 2 7 Kamma 4 3 8 Kapu Kummari 10 Madiga 11 Mangali 12 Muslim 13 Vaisya 1 1 14 Wiswabrahmin 1 15 Uppari 16 Yanadi 1 17 Yerukula

Total 35 7 9 11 8 [ 80 1 APPENDIX

TAB L E 48

Staple Food and Dietary Habits by Caste/Tribe/Community and Households

Number of households taking ~------~------~ Caste/Tribe/ Coarser grain like bajra. Total no. of Community Rice Wheat millet. jowar or maize Roots householdli

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Balija 2 2 2 Brahmin 3 Chakali 4 Christian 11 11 5 Golla 4 4 6 Goundla 2 2 7 Kamma 4 4 8 Kapu 1 1 9 Kummari 1 10 Madiga 1

11 Mangali 12 Muslim 1 13 Vaisya 1

~4 Viswabrahmin 15 Uppari 1 1 16 Yanadi 1 1 17 Yerukula 1

Total 35 35 TABLES [ 81 )

TABLE 49

Habit of taking ea and Coffee by Caste/Tribe/Community and Annual Household Income·

No. of households taking tea/coffee with annual No. of households not taking tea/coffee with annual income (in Rs.) of lOcome (in Rs ) of ~------~------~ ~------~------~ Caste/Tribe/ 1,201 300& 1201 & 300 & Community above 901-:200 601-900 301-600 less above 901-1,200 601-900 301-600 less

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11 )

Balija

2 Brahmin 1 3 Chakali

4 Christian 3 3 5 Golla 3 6 Goundla 7 Kamma 4

8 Kapu

9 Kumrnari 10 Madiga II Mangali 12 Muslim 13 Vaisya ]4 Viswabrahmin

15 Uppari ]6 Yanadi

17 Yerukula

Total 12 4 1 3 6 4 2

Note :- Income could not be estimated fot one household living on begging. [ 82 ] APPENDIX

TABLE 50

Sm okio ~ and other Habits by Caste/Tribe/Com,munity

Number of Members .--______~'I.._------~ hvery day Festive occations ,--______~L ______.. ~-----.. ---"------CastejTribejCommunity Particulars of habits Penon! Males Females Persons Males Females

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

Tobacco Smoking

Balija Beedi 2 Chakali Beedi Cigarette

3 Christian Beedi 3 3 Cheroot 9 8 2 2

4 Golla Beedi 2 2 Cheroot 3 3

5 Goundla Beedi Cigarette

6 Kamma Beedi Cigarette Cheroot

7 iCaptl Cheroot 8 Madiga Cheroot 9 Uuslim Cheroot

10 Vaisya Beedi 11 Viswabrahmin Cheroot 12 Uppari Cheroot 2 13 Yanadi Beedi 1 1 Cigarette 1 1 Cheroot 1 1

14 Yerukula Cheroot 2 2

Total 37 35 2 7 7

TABLE 51

Contravention of Marriage Rules by Caste/Tribe/Community

Frequency of each type of contravention ,------'------, No. of hOU5eholds reporting social attitude Number of marriages in contra. .------..;_------_!_------, Caste/Tribe/Community vention of caste. tribal law Approved Disapproved

(1) (2) (3) (4)

1· Christian 2 2

2 Yanadi

Total 3 1 2 TABLES [ 83)

TABLE 52

Objection to Inter-caste Marriages

Number of persons who con.ider it not objectlOn- able to form marital tie Caste Tribe/ Number of households with Caste/Tribe/Com- Caste I Tribe/Community Community interviewed munity shown in col (4) in order of preference

(\ ) (2) (3) (4)

Balija 2 Un spec ified 2 Chdkali 1 1 3 Cbristian 11 2 4 Golla 4 3 5 Goundla Z 2

6 Kamma 4 3 Reddy, Brahmin

7 Kapu 1 U nspt'cified 8 Kummari 1 9 Madiga 1

JO Uppari 1 Superior Casle

11 Yanadi 1 1 Un spec ified

Total 29 17

TAB L E 53

Attitude towards Marriage with persons of different Caste/Tribe/Community but of the same Socio-economic Status

Number having no objection to marriage with the Castel Number of households Tribe'Community shown in Caste/Tribe/Community Caste/Tribe 'Community interviewed column (4) in order of preference

(1) (2) (3) (4)

Balija 2 U nspec ified 2 Chakali 3 Christian 11 2 4 Golla 4 3 5 Goundla 2 2 6 Karnma 4 3 7 Kapu Reddy, Brahmin

8 Kurnmari Unspecified 9 Madiga

10 Yanadi I

Total 28 16 [84 ] APPENDIX

TABLE 54 Marrial?,es by spatial distribution and Caste/Tribe/Community

r-______Number of marriages_.L ______contracted .. ~ Outside the village and within the taluk Outside the taluk and within the district ,--______L ______~ ~------~------~ Within the 10 miles & 11-25 26-100 10 miles & Caste/Tribe/Community village below miles n.iles below 11-25 miles 26-100 miles

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6), (7) (8)

Balija 2 Brahmin 3 Chakali 1

4 Christian 4 2 2 2 5 Golla 4 6 Goundla 1 7 Kamma 3 4 8 Kapu 9 Kummari 10 Madiga

11 Mangali 12 Muslim 13 Vaisya 14 Viswabrahmin 15 Uppari 16 Yanadi 17 Yerukula

Total 9 10 25 I 3 3 5

-Contd., TABLES [85 ]

TAB L E 54-Concld. Marriages by spatial distribution and Caste/Tribe/Community

Number of marriages contracted ~------~------Outside the district and within the State ~------~------~ 10 miles 101 miles Caste/Tribe/Community & below 11-25 miles 29-100 miles and above Outside the State . (I) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13)

Balija

2 Brahmin 3 Chakali 4 Christian 5 Golla 6 Goundla 7 Kamma 8 Kapu 9 Kummari 10 Madiga

11 Mangali 12 Muslim 13 Vaisya 14 Viswabrabmin 15 Uppari 16 Yanadi 17 Yerukula 2

Total 5 [86 ] APPENDIX

TABLE 55 Persons by Age at First Marriage and Caste/Tribe/Community

Balija Brahmin Chakali Christian Golla Goundla Kamma Kapu ,..- __.. L __ ~ , ___L __ ~ ,--. __-L __ --.., .--__ -L __ ----.. Age group r---,...J,._-_--" ,----"---._, ~ __ -A. _ ~ ,--_-'-__ --.., (in years) 1'1 F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) ( 12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17)

0-4 5-9

10-\4 2 6 4 6

]5-19 5 2 2

20-24 2 7 2 4 5 25-29 1 30-34 1 2 35 & above

Total 2 2 I 2 2 I 11 13 6 6 2 2 8 9 1

-Omtd.

TABLE 55-Conc!d

Persons by Age at First Marriage and Caste/Tribe/Community

Viswa- Kummari Madiga Mangali Muslim Vaisya brahmin Uppari Yanadi Yerukula Age group r-_ _.L __ ~ r----L--~ r----L--~ ,--___A_ __ --" ___ ..)_ __ -...... , ,.,.-__ --t... __ --.., ,--___L __ ~ "....-~ __ _;._ __ --..,- __ __L __ ~ (in years) M F M F M F M F M F M F M F ~1 F M F

(I) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28) (29) (30) (31) (32) (33) (34) (35)

0-4

5-9

10-14 1 2 1 15-19

20-24 2 2 25-29 30-34

35 & above

Total I I 2 :z I 1 2 3 3 2

M: Males, F: Females TABLES [87]

TAB L E 56

Marria~e Payments

Balija Christian Golla Kamma Kummari ,--____ --L_ .. __ -..,_ ,--____L ____ ~ ,------"------..., r---.---"------.., ,------"------~ Receiv­ Rec~iv Receiv­ Receiv­ Receiv­ Making ing pay­ Making ing pay- Making ing pay- Making ing pay- Making ing pay­ Item of payment payment ment payment ment payment ment payment ment payment ment

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)

NUMBER OF HOlTSEHOLDS

Cash (in Rs.) Making payment 2 8 Rs. 11,216 Receiving 2 4 paym .. nt Rs.37,044 Property

5 acres Land Ornaments

Unspecified 1 2 -Contd.

TAB L E 56--Coneld.

Marria~e Payments

Madiga l"'!angali J\luslim Uppari Yanadi Yerukula ,-___-L ___ ~ ,--___...).______,.-___J,_ ___--.... ,-----...}.._---_ r----...;__---~ r-----"---~ Receiv- Receiv- Receiv- Receiv- Receiv- Receiv- Making ing pay- Making ing pay- Making ing pay- Making ing pay- Making ing pay-Making ing pay Items of payment payment ment payment ment payment ment payment ment payment ment payment ment

(1) (12) (13) (14) (IS) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21 ) (22) (23)

N U 11 B E R 0 F H 0 USE H 0 L D S

Cash (in Rs.)

Making payment Rs. 11, 216

Receiving payment Rs. 37,044 Property

5 acres Land Ornaments

Unspecified [ 881 APPENDIX

TAB L E 57

Dowry Payments and Knowledge of Hindu Marriage Act by Caste/Tribe/Community

No. of informants who know that Number of With reference to col. (4) there have been Number of households households aware number of households changes in the ,------_;._------~ of legislation with an attitude of recent years in Giving Amount of prohibiting r------..)._-----~ Hindu Marriage Caste/Tribe/Community dowry dowry dowry Approval Disapproval Act (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Balija 2

2 Brahmin

3 Christian 2 2 4 Golla 900 1

5 Kamma 2 20000 3 3 3 6 Mangali 1 7 Vaisya

Total 20,900 9 5 4 10

TABLE 58 Information and Attitude towards Family Planning by Caste/Tribe/Community

Number No. liking to adopt Family Planning aware of Number Number ap- methods after Family aware of proving r--._----.. ---..J._----_____ ~ l'lanning Family Family Two Three Four Caste/Tribe/Community Centre Planning Planning Total children children children

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

Balija 1 2 1

2 Brahmin 1 1

3 Chakali

4 Christian 3 9 8 8 2 3 3 5 Golla 2 4 3 3 2

6 Goundla 1

7 Kamma 4 4 4 4

8 Kapu

9 Kummari 1 10 Madiga

11 Mangali 12 Vaisya 13 Uppari 14 Yanadi

Total 8 28 23 23 3 12 8 TABLES [89 J

TAB L E 59 Attitude towards Famny Planning with reference to Age of Head of Household by Caste/Tribe/Community

Number that like to adopt family planning after having ~------~------~ Three childrell, the age Four children, the age of Two children, the age of head of household of head of household head of household being being (in years) being (in year6) (in years) ~------~------~ r------., ,-____ _J....., _____ --. n& W& 51 & 51 & Caste/Tribe/Community above 41-50 31-40 21-30 below above 41-50 31-40 above 41-50 31-4().

(1) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11 ) (12) I Balija

2 Brahmin 1 3 Chakali 1

4 Christian 1 1 1 2 1 5 Golla 1

6 Goundla 1 7 Kamma 1 3 8 Kapu 1 9 Kummari

10 Mangali 1

11 Yanadi 1

Total 2 1 5 I I I 3 [90 ] APPENDIX

TABLE 60 Attitude towards Family Planning with reference to Age of Child bearing Woman by Caste/Tribe/Community r------'------Number that like to adopt Family Planning______after having --._

,.--. ______Two children_.L _____ ~ Three children Four childreu ,..---_____....J.... ______~ ,-----....._------~ The age of the child bearing wom&1l The age of the child bearing The age of tbo cbild bearing being (in years) ~ ~ woman being (in years)' woman being (in years). ______-L- ______,.--_____.,.l.______~ ,..-______-L _____ --..

Caste/Tribe! 51 lie 20 Ilt 51 & 51 & Community above 41-50 31-40 21-30 below above 41-50 31-40 21-30 above 41-50 31-40 21-30

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14\

1 Balija 1 2 Brahmin 3 Chakali 4 Christian 2 3 2 1 5 Golla \',.- 1 1 1 -6 Goundla 1 '7 Kamma 3 1 8 Kapu 1 9 Kummari 1 10 Mangali 11 Yanadi

Total I I 1 5 5 1 I 2 TABLES [ 9l}

TABLE 61 Attitude towards Family Planning with reference to Duration of Marriage by Caste/Tribe/Community

Number wanting more children, duration of marriage Number wanting 110 more children, duration of ~ ______-L ______~ marriage being (in years) being (in years) ,..-______.l... ______, Caste/Tribe/ 21 and S& 21 and 5& Community above 16-20 11-15 6-10 below above 16-20 11-15 6-10 below

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)

1 Balija 1 2 Brahmin 1 3 Chakali <4 Christian 2 3 3 5 Golla 1 2 1 6 Goundla 1 1 7 Kamma 4 ., . 8 Kapu 1 9 Kummari 1 10 Madiga 1 11 Mangali 1 12 Muslim 1 13 Vaisya 1 14 Viswabrahmin 1 15 Uppari 1 16 Yanadi 1 17 Yerukula 1

Tota.l 6 & 1 2 14 5 5 2 [92 ] APPENDIX

TAB L E 62 Attitude towards Family Planning with J'eference to Annual Income by Caste/Tribe/Community

Number 'Wanting more children. having annual Number wanting no more children, having annual income (in Rs.) of income (iD Rs.) of r"------...J....---_...,--_____ ~ ~------~------~ Caste/Tribe/ 1~ ~& 1.201 & 300 &: Community & above 901-1.200 601-900 301-600 less above 901-1.200 601-900 301-600 less

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) Balija 1 2 Brahmin 1 3 Chakali 1 4 Christian 1 2 4 2 5 Golla t 2 1 .() Goundla 1 1 7 Kamro.a .( 8 Kapu 1 9 Kummari 1 10 Madiga 11 MangaJi 1 12 Muslim 1 13 Vaisya 14 Viswabrahmin 15 Uppari. 1 16 Yanadi 1 17 Yerukula 1

Total 2 1 4 '1

Note: Income of a household living on begging could not be estimated. TABLES [93]

TAB L E 63 Inheritance of Property in Practice by Caste/Tribe/Community

Number indicating that relations of the following categories are entitled to inherit property in their respective Caste/Tribe No. of ,.-______-L ______...... ~Caste/ Tri be /Community households Son Daughter Wife Mother Others

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

1 Balija 2 1 1 2 Christian 11 1 1 3 Golla 4 1 1 4 Kamma 4 3 1 5 Kapu 1 1 6 Kummari 1 1 1 7 Mangali 1 1 8 Muslim 1 9 Viswabrahmin 1 1 to Yanadi • 1 Total 27 II II 1

TABLE 64 Share of Property for different Categories of Relatives-Sons by Caste/Tribe/Community'

Number indicating that sons inherit in the following manner r------f....------______~ No. of All sons get Only eldest Only youngest Any other 'Caste/Tribe/Community households equal share son inherits son inherits manner

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Balija 2 1 2 Christian 11 1 3 Golla 4 1 1 4 Kamma 4 3 5 Kapu 1 1 6 Kummari 1 1 ? Mangali 1 8 Viswabrahmin 1 1 '9 Yanadi 1

Tota.l 26 11 1 (94 ) APPEKDIX

TAB L E 65 Share of Property for different Categories of Relathes- Daughters by Caste/Tribe/Community ,------__.--'------Number indicating that daughters inherit pror-ert), in the following manm:r . Daughters Daughters only inherit to the inherit Youngest No. of exdus.ion of the equally with Eldest daughter daughter Caste/Tribe/Community households sons sons only inherits only inherits Othen

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

1 Balija 2 2 Christian 11 1 3 Golla 4 4 Kamma 4 1 5 Kapu 6 Kummari 1 7 J\·Iuslim 1 ...

Total 24 3 3 1

TAB L E 66 Awareness of Changes in Hindu Laws of Succession and Adoption by Caste/Tribe/Community

Number aware Number that Number aware Number that couldl that there have could describe the that there have describe the been changes in changes in Hindu been changes in changes in Hindu. Number of Hindu Adoption Adoption Act Hindu Succession Succession Act Caste/Tribe/Community households Act correctly Act . correctly (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

1 Balija 2 1 2 2 Brahmin 1 1 1 3 Christian 11 1 4 Golla 4 2 5 Kamma 4 4 1 4 1 6 Kummari 1 1 1 7 Mangali 1 1 1 8 Vaisya 1 1 1

Total 25 12 2 11 2 TABLES [95J

TAB L E 67

Attitude about Inheritance of Property by Daughters equally with Sons by Ca~te/Tribe/Community

Number of persons who agree that daughters should inherit equally with sons, age of interviewee (in years) Number of ~------~------~ .. Caste/Tribe/Community households 51 & above 41-50 31-40 21-30 20 & less

(1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Kamma 4 4 .2 Kapu 1 3 Kummari

Total 6 5 1

TA B LE 68 General Knowledge of Household Heads by Caste/Tribe/Community • Number of household heads that know the name of ,.------....)._-----.. ------~ Name of project/dam Zilla Pancha- etc •• constructed/ Total No. Parishad yatSami- Pancha- Talnk District Name of principal under construction! Caste:Tribe} of house- Head- thi Head- yatHead- Head- Head- lakes and rivers of under contemplation Community holds quarters quarters quarters quarters quarters the district within the district

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

1 n.ll:j~ 2 1 2 2 2 2 Krishna and Nagarjunasagar Dam Godavari

2 Brahmin 1 Kris",na -do-

3 Chakali 1 1 1 1 -do-

,4 Christian 11 4 4 10 10 9 -do-

-5 Golla 4 3 3 4 4 3 -do-

6 Goundla 2 1 2 2 Krishna and Krishna Barrage and Godavari NagarjunaSi,gar Dam

7 Kamma 4 4 4 4 4 4 -do-

8 Kapu 1 1 1 Krishna

9 Kummari 1 1 1 -do- lO Madiga 1 1 1

11 Mangali 1 1 1 1 1 Krishna -do- 12 Muslim 1 1

13 Vaisya 1 1 1 1 1 Krishna -do- 14 Viswabrahmin 1 1 Krishna and Godavari 15 Uppari 1 1 1

16 Yanadi 1 Krishna Nagarjunasagar Dam J7 Yerukula 1 1 1

Tetal 35 21 22 33 34 32 [96 ) APPENDIX

TAB L E 69 Awareness of Untouchability Offences Act

Number of persons aware of prohibition of untouchability Caste/Tribe/Community Number of households under law

(1) (2) (3)

1 Balija 2 1 2 Brahmin • 1 3 Christian 11 2 4 Golla 4 2 6 Kamma 4 3 6 Kummari • 1 1 7 Mangali • 1 8 Yanadi 1 Total • 25 2

TAB L E 70 Medical Care

By taking women By calling a By calling an Total No. of to hospital for qualified unqualified households Allopathic system f;ocation of confinement midwife mIdwife of treatment Hospital Distance" (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

35 :2 1 7 17 Tarigoppula 1\ mile!! Manikonda 2 .. Vijayawada 16 " TABLES (97 )

TAB LE 71

Period of Existence of Households Immigrated during Present Generation by Caste/Tribe/Community

Number of households immigrated Caste/Tribe! r- -~------~ Community 3 years & below 4 to 10 years 11 to 20 years 21 to 50 years 51 years & above

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Balija 1 2 Brahmin 1 3 Christian 1 4 Goundla 1 1 5 Kamma 1 1 6 Mangali 1 1 Muslim 1 8 Viswabrahmin 1 9 Uppari 1 10 Yanadi 1 11 Yerukula 1

Tota.l 5 4 S 1 {98 ] APPEND'IX TABLE 72

Settlement History of Households by Caste/Tribe! Community

r-______Number of households _..L ______settled ~

Caste/Tribe! Total No. of 5 generations Between 4 and Between 2 and Present Community households ago 5 generations 3 generations One generation generation

(;) (Z) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Balija 2 1 2 Brahmin 3 Chakali 1 1 4 Christian 11 3 6 1 5 Golla 4 1 2 6 Goundla 2 2

7 Kamma 4 1 1 2 8 Kapu 1 1 9 Kummari 1 10 :Madiga 1 1 11 Mangali 1 12 Muslim 1 13 Vaisya 1 14 Viswabrahmin 1 1 15 Uppari 1 16 Yauadi 1 17 Yerukula 1 1

Total 35 a 8 11 13 TABLES (99 J

TAB L E 73 .Place of Birth

Number ~f persons Number of births during ,------_,,_------~- Place of birth First------birth Subsequent 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 birth

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

Inside the village (Maredu­ maka) In the same household 21 2 5 2 4 8 Mother's parent's house Hospital Nursing home

Outside the village Mother'sparent's house Hospital/Nursing home 1 1

Total 1 22 5 2 5 9

TAB L E 74

Immigrant Households by Caste/Tribe/Community, Place and Reasons

Number of households immigrating from ~------~------~ Outside the district Outside the taluk but No. of Outside the State but within the State within the district Within the taluk house- r----.J.....----~ ,------~----.. r-----"':""""'_.I._----~ ~----_;.._----~ Caste/Tribe/Community holds Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (IO}

1 Balija 1 2 Brahmin 3 Christian 3 4 Goundla 1 5 Kamma 1 2 6 Kummari 1 1 Mangali 1 8 Muslim 1 9 Vaisya 1 10 Viswabrahmin 1 11 Uppari 1 12 Y,nadi 1 13 Yerukula 1

Total Z :z S 9

-Contd., {IOO] APPENDIX

TABLE '14-Contd.

rmmigrant Households by Ca8te/Tribe/Community~ Place and Reasons

Occupation before the immigration r------______A Attached agricul- Caste/Tribe/ Business- Casual tural Culti- Carpen- Watch- Basket Unspe- Community man Teacher labourer labourer vator Potter Barber ter man maker cilled

(1) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21)

1 Balija 1 2 Brahmin 1 3 Christian 1 1 1 4 Goundla 1 1 .5 Kamma 3 6 Kummari 1 7 Mangali 1 8 Muslim 1 9 Vaisya 1 10 Viswabrahmin 1 11 Uppari 1 12 Yanadi 1 13 Yerukula 1 Tota.l • 2 4 I S 1 I I I .1 I

-Contd., TABLES [101]

TABLE 74-Concld.

Immi~rant Households by Caste/Tribe/Community, Place and Reasons

Reasons for the immigration ~------~------~ Marital To eke out To stay with

(I) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27)

1 Balij3. 1 2 Brahmin 1 3 Christian 1 1 4 Goundla 1 1 5 Kamma 2 6 Kummari 7 Mangali 1 8 Muslim '9 Vaisya 1 10 Viswabrahmin 1 11 Uppari 1 12 Yanadi 13 Yerukula 1

Total 2 12 I I I I [102] APPENDIX

TABLE 75

Houses by Number of Rooms, Number of Persons occupying and Caste/Tribe/Community

Houses with one room ._' ______...... L ______~ Total No. of Total No. of Caste/Tribe{' Total No. of Total No. of household household Community houses rooms members ' No, of houses members (l) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

1 Balija 2 2 13 2 13 2 Brahmin 3 8 3 Chakali 2 9 4 CMi!tian II 13 41 10 38 5 GOlla 4 , 7 25 2 8 6 Goundla 2 2 8 2 8 7 Kamma 4 19 29

8 Kapu 6 5 9 Kummari 3 3 10 Madiga 1 5 5 11 Mangali 1 1 4 4 12 Muslim 1 2 1 2 13 Vaisya 1 3 9 14 Viswabrahmin 1 1 4 1 4

15 UPtJari 1 2 2 16 Yanadi 1 1 6 1 6 17 Yerukula 1 1 5 1 5

Total 35 67 178 23 95

-Contd'.. TABLES 1103]

TAB LE 75-ConclrJ.

Houses by Number of Rooms, Number of Persons occupying and Caste/Tribe/Community

Houses with two rooms Houses with three rooms qr ~ Houses with four more rooms ,--______L ______r----_____L ______----. r--______-L ______...... Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of Caste, Tribe ! household household household Community o. of houses members No. of houses members No. of houses members

(I) (7) (8) (9) (10) (ll) (12)

Balija

2 Brahmin 8

3 Chakali, . 9 4 Christi'lu 1 3 5 Golla 13 1 4 6 Goundla

7 Kamma 4 29 8 Kapu 1 5 9 Kumm"ri 1 3

10 Madig~ L 11 Mangali 12 Muslim ! 13 Vaisya, 9 14 Viswabrahmin 15 Uppari 16 Yanadi. 17 Yerukula ...

Total(F' 2 22 5 17 5. 34 [104:] APPENDIX

TABLE 76 House Type by roof Material and Caste/Tribe/Community

Number of houses with Num ber of houses Number of houses roof made of grass or Name of bouse type with pucca roof with tiled roof palmyra leaves ,.- ___....J... ____ ~ r------L-----~ r------..L------., ,------"------""'-'1"' CasteJTribe/Community Name Number without slope 4 sloped 4 sloped

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Balija Purillu 2 2 2 Brahmin Purilln 1 1 3 Chakali Purillu 1 1 4 Christian Puri//u 11 11 5 Golla Purillu 3 3 Penkutillu 1 6 Goundla Puri!lu 2 2 7 Kamma Daha illu 2 2 Penkutillu 2 2 8 Kapu Penkutillu 1 1 9 Kummari Penkutillu 1 1 10 Madiga Purillu 1 t 11 Mangali Purillu 1 1 12 Muslim Purillu 1 1 13 V.isya Purillu 1 1 14 Viswabrahmin Purillu 1 .. 15 Uppari Purillu 1 1 16 Yanadi PUTillu 1 1 17 Yerukula Purillu 1 1

Total .5 2 ·4 2. TABLES [105]

TAB L E 77 Houses by Wall Material and Caste/Tribe/Community

Number of houses with ~------~------~ M ud pla~tered Bamboo bamboo wattled Castel Tribe {Community Mud wall wattled wall wall Bl'ick wall Leaf wall

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

1 Balija 1 2 Brahmin 1 3 Chakali 1 .- Christian 5 s 1 S Golla 3 1 6 Goundla 2 7 Kamma 4 8 Kapu 9 Kummari 10 Madiga 1 11 Mangali 12 Muslim 13 Vaisya. 1 14 Viswabrahmin IS Uppari 16 Yanadi 1 J7 YerukuJa 1 Total 7 9 4 •

TAB L E 78

Houses and UI.

Number of houses...L _____ used _lor ~------Relidence llelidcnce-cu.-Ihop Cattle Shed Total"""" (1) (2) (3) (4)

33 35 (106J APPENDIX

TAB L E 79

Scheduled Castes and Schedul~d Tribes by Households and Population

Name of Scheduled Total number of Caste/Scheduled Tribe households Persons Males Females

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Scheduled Caste

Madiga 1 5 2 3

Scheduled Tribes

Yanadi 6 3 3 Yeruktrla 5 3 2

Total 2 11 8 5 Grand Total 3 16 8 8

TAB L E 80

Information about Existence and Functions of Panchayat by Households and Caste/Tribe/Community

Number that could tell the Remarks including note on Number of period of existence of the amenities provided by the Caste/Tribe/Community households Panchayat correctly Pancha)lat from its inception

(I) (2) (3) (4)

roads and wells 1 Balija 2 2 Electricity, -do- 2 Brahmin 1 -do- 3 Christian 11 9 -do- 4 Golla 4 2 -do- S Goundla 2 2 -do- 6 Kamma 4 4 -do- 7 Kapu 1 1 -do- 8 Kummari 1 1 -do- 9 Madiga 1 1 -do- lO Mangali 1 1 -do- II Muslim 1 1 -do- 12 Vaisya 1 I -do- 13 Viswabrahmin 1 1 -do- 14 Upp"ri 1 -do- 15 Yanadi 1 1 -do- 16 Yerukula. Total a4 27 TABLES [107]

TAB L E 81 Awareness about Functions of Gram Sevak by Households and Caste/Tribe/Community

Number that could describe the functions of Number aware of Gram Sevak No. of the functions of ~------~------~ Caste /Tribe/ Community households Gram Sevak Satisfactorily Unsatisfactorily Incorrectly (6) (1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5)

1 Balija 2 2 Brahmin 2 3 Christian 11 2 3 4 Golla 4 3 5 Goundla 2 6 Kamma 4 4 3 7 Kummari

Total 25 13 10

TAB L E 82 Information about dominant Parties and Castes in the Panchayat by Caste/Tribe/Community and Number of Informants

Number of informants according to Number of informants according to whom main parties are whom dominant castes are ,--______.L ______~ ~------~------~ Caste/Tribe/Community Congress Unspecified

(1) . (2) (3)

Balija 2 Nil 2 Brahmin 1 3 Christian 9 4 Golla 3 5 Goundla 1 6 Kamma 4 7 Kapu 1 .. 8 Kummari 1 .. 9 Madiga 1 .. 10 Mangali 1 .. 11 VaisY:1 1 .. 12 Viswabrahmin . t .. 13 Yllnadi 1 14 Yerukula 1 .. Total 18 {lOB] APPENDIX

TA-BLE 83 Opinion on Functioning of Panchayat, Panchayat Samithi and Zilla Parishad

No. of persons who could not No. of persons satisfied with No. of persons not satisfied with express any opinion on functioning of functioning of functioning of r-______-L ______~ ______...J.______...... No. of ,.------"------_Pancha- Pancha- Paneha- Caste/Tribe/ house- Paneha- yat Zilla lPaneha- yat Zilla' Paneha- yat Zilla Community holds vat Samithi Parishad yat Samithi Parishad vat Samithi Parishad

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) , (9) (10) (tl)

1 Balija 2 2 2 2 2 Brahmin 1 1 1 1 3 Chakali 1 1 I 2 4 Christian 11 9 8 8 1 1 2 2 5 Golla 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 6 Goundla 2 2 2 7 Kamma 4 4 4 4 8 Kapu 1 1 1 1 9 Kummari 1 1 1 10 Madiga 1 1 1 1 11 Mangali 1 1 1 12 Muslim 1 1 1 13 Vaisya 1 1 1 14 Viswabrahmin 1 1 1 1 15 Uppari 1 1 1 1 16 Yanadi 1 1 1 1 17 Yerukula 1 1 1 1

Total 35 27 26 IS a 4 4 5 5 5 TABLES (109]

TABLE 84 Caste/Tribe /Community Panchayat-Existence and Attitude by Number of Informants Remarks includmg Number according a note on the rea- Number according to whom Caste/Tribe/Commu- to whom Castel sons for the conti- nity Panc-hayat exists for Tribe/Community nuance of Caste/ Pancbayats should Tribe, Community Caste/Tribe/ Number of ------~------~ Community households Christian Golla Madiga Vaisya Yanadi continue Panchayat

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

1 Christian 11 6 6 To settle magan!lli disputes

:2 Golla 4 2 2 :3 Madiga 1 1 4 Vaisya 1 1 :s Yanadi 1 1 To settle maganali disputes - Total 18 II • 1 1 1 11

TAB L E 85 Caste/Tribe/ Communi ty Panchayat-Functions Number according to whom functions of Caste/Tribe! Community Panchayat are Number of r-______-.J.... -----~ 'Gaste/Tribe/Community households To settle maganali disputes

(1) (2) (3)

1 Christian 11 6 2 Golla 4 2 3 Madiga 1 1 4 Vaisya :.s Yanadi 1

Total 18 II [1101 APPENDIX

TAB L E 86 Co' operative Society Membership and Benefit by Caste/Tribe/Community

Total of all communities who N urn ber of mem bers belonging to Note on the- Name of Co-operative are aware of the r------!,_------.., Number of nature of Society Society Balija Christian Kamma Kapu Kummari members benefit

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7j (8) (9)

Manikonda Rural Bank 8 4 1 8 Loan taken from the Bank. Land Morlgage Bank

Krishna Co-operative Bank

Total 10 1 6 1 9

TAB L E 87 Literacy of Co-operative Society Members by Caste/Tribe/Community

Number of members of Co-operative Society ~------~------~ Caste/Tribe/Community Total Literates Illiter;ltes

(1 ) (2) (3) (4)

1 Balija 1 1 2 Christian 1 1 3 Kamma 4 4 4 Kapu 1 5 Kummari

Total 8 , 1

TA B LE 88 Co-operative Society Membership by Land Ownership

Number of members

S. of land holdings ~------~------~Balija Christian Kamma Kapu Kummari (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6),

Below 10 acres 1 1 1

1~15 acres 1 16-25 acres 25 acres and above 2

Total 1 I 4 1 I GLOSSARY

Akshintalu Sacred rice coloured ye­ Harati Flame of prosperity llow with turmeric powder Intiperu Surname Annaprasana First feeding of the child with solid food Jada Plait

Ariselu A sweet dish Kadaua A tin pot to draw water from the well Baana A big earthen pot used to store grain, pulses etc. Kadiyalu Anklets made of silver

Beerakaya Sweet gourd Kante A stiff gold neck ornament

Binde Brass vessel to fetch and Kalasam Sacred vessel store water Kancham A plate in which meal is Chembu A brass tumbler used to t'lken drink water Karnam Village Accountant 1 Chrmcha Spoon Kirana Grocery Chikkullu Beans Kongu Hem of the saree

Daba Illu Pucc.:! building Kutikunda Pot for cooking rice

Dakshina Presentation of money Mantram Sacred Sanskrit hymn

Deeporadhana Lighting an oil lamp III Jlfa:telu Toe rings made of silver the name of God worn by women in married status Diddulu Ear ornaments made of gold studded with stones Moota A lid to cover a vessel

Doolam Wooden beam Mukkupulla Kose rod made of gold

Easanyamula North-East corner Mulakkayalu Drum sticks

Gajulu Bangles Muttaiduvalu 'Vomen in married status

Garita LaddIe made of metal Nagaram A circular shaped gold ornament with an emblem Garise A grain storer made of of goddess Lakshmi worn bamboo on the plait of a woman.

Golusu A chain made of gold Nallaregadi Black regar (a type of soil) worn by women Nittaai Central pole of a hut Gotram Clan Ontinittadipaka Thatched hut with one Grihapravesam House-warming ceremony central pole 11121 GLOSSARY

Patara. • A store house of paddy Sankusthapar.a Ceremony connected witlll dug in the earth the laying of foundation stone for house or building: Pattalu Ankle chains made of construction silver Simhadwaram Main entrance of a house Penam • Frying pan Tedtiu • Wooden laddIe Penkutillu • Tiled house Thotti A stone tub

Potlakaya Snake gourd Tiruna[u Fair

Punadi • Foundat~on Tolipurudu or Tolichulu First confinement

Puri • A store house of paddy Vaddanam A waist ornament made or­ made with hay rope gold in the shape of a. belt worn by woman Purillu Thatched hut Vankayalu Brinjals \ . Pu ttulHnt,ulc4lllltee.1'l ta • Tonsurmg Vanneru Brook Ramaitlyam • Temple of Rama Varna Caste Ravil;a • Blouse Veduru baddalu • Bamboo spliaters Rmd" Nittillill Pal;a • Thatched hut with two central poles Terra Red ERRATA

For !lead Page No. Column No. Para Particulars (5) (6) ( 1) (2) (3) (4) another other '1 2 39 Line 3 s given is given 11 1 7 Line 2 a- as 12 2 25 Line 7 Kohta Kotha 13 2 32 Line 2 from bottom castes caste 18 1 57 Line 5 iaai dadi 22 1 7() Line 8 The send The Panchayat sends 25 1 84 Lines 2-3 from bottom bride 27 2 97 Line 2 b .ide Those These 28 2 104 Line 20 As this a As this is a 29 2 110 Line 1 water called water are called 30 2 112 Lines 5-6 from bottom 900 32 2 123 Penultimate line 930 it in placed it is placed 39 1 12 Lines 3-4 from bottom 39 2 13 Lines 19-20 i soiupposed is supposed she the 39 2 13 Line 21 '3 1 4 Sub-Heading Agriculture· Workers occupation occupation '5 2 24 Line 6 62 1 52 Last line meless of useless 63 2 61 Line 4 from bottom fcommercial commercial 6S 2 69 Line 16 from bottom an function any function 73 2 102 Statement XIX Total 00,00 100.00 75 1 106 Last line ona on 2 101 Line 7 from bottom therefore therefor "81 2 51 Line 8 struck struck to 81 2 S1 Line 12 from bottom Add: (Please see Figs. 27 and 28)

95 1 71 Line 13 'folly of taking 'taking 100 2 98 Line 1 Tho The 106 1 20 Line 2 he the 106 1 20 Last line above of above {601 3 Last two lines mislellaneous miscellaneous [64] 1 Item 11 Casual labour Casual labourer [79] 1 S. No.9 Kummari 9. Kummari [79] 6 Heading cofFe coffee [79] 1 S. No. 14 Wiswabrahmin VisWabtahmin [SI} Heading ea Tea L82] 6 to 8 Heading occations occa!ions [103] 1 ... Headina o.of houbel No. of houses