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Tao Te Ching English Translations: a Next Step Into the Translation from Individuation Perspective in Systemic Functional Linguistics

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Tao Te Ching English Translations: a Next Step Into the Translation from Individuation Perspective in Systemic Functional Linguistics International Journal of English Linguistics; Vol. 5, No. 3; 2015 ISSN 1923-869X E-ISSN 1923-8703 Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education Translator’s Gender and Language Features of the Tao Te Ching English Translations: A Next Step into the Translation from Individuation Perspective in Systemic Functional Linguistics Xi Wang1&2 1 College of International Studies, Southwest University, Chongqing, China 2 Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia Correspondence: Xi Wang, College of International Studies, Southwest University, Chongqing, China. E-mail: [email protected] Received: April 5, 2015 Accepted: May 5, 2015 Online Published: May 30, 2015 doi:10.5539/ijel.v5n3p96 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v5n3p96 This study was supported by State Scholarship Fund under the Grant No. 201406990036. Abstract Systemic functional approaches to translation studies have focused on the parameters of translation equivalence and shift within the hierarchy of realisation. However, translations from the perspective of individuation focus on language users, i.e., the author, translator and reader, involving ideological issues, showing tendentiously the genre, register and free options in a language in accordance with individual factors such as class, gender, age, race etc. to the language user. The present paper looks into one of the most significant individual factors—gender of the translator—in the English translations and re-translations of the Tao Te Ching as a next step into the model of individuation translation by using both qualitative and quantitative methods. The result shows that women translators’ re-individuations are more spoken, while men’s are more written in style, reflecting in three aspect: the choice of words, the choice of syntactic patterns and the choice of mood. Keywords: Individuation, translation, the Tao Te Ching, gender, SFL 1. Introduction Tao Te Ching, as the most frequently translated Chinese classic only next to the Bible, has obtained a widespread and diversified Western audience, appealing to readers on a variety of levels. There are over 130 English translations and re-translations of the Tao Te Ching (Xin, 2008, p. 17), which are classified according to time into three intensified translation periods: The first period (1868-1905), the second period (1934-1963), and the third period (1972-2004). In the late1960s, Women’s Liberation Movement resulted in a more gender-emphasized society, where “social gender” was unprecedentedly focused on. The first woman involved English translation of the Tao Te Ching was published in 1972 by Gia-fu Feng & Jane English, after which there were several versions translated by women translators on their own, for example, Ellen Marie Chen (1989), Ursula K. Le Guin (1997), Lee Sun Chen Org (2000) and Chao-Hsiu Chen (2004). The present paper will explore whether translators’ gender will affect their choices of language in translations by using the hierarchy of individuation in systemic functional linguistics. 2. Translation from the Perspective of Individuation in SFL Individuation is a relatively new concept in SFL, proposed first by Matthiessen (2003), borrowing the term from Bernstein (2000, p. 158) in his studies of language education, and then extended by Martin (2006, 2008a, 2008b, 2009). This theoretical parameter has taken on an identity perspective revealed by ideology, especially involving the issue how individuals employ language resources in culture. Halliday, in 1964, has elaborated language user and language use by locating them in two different levels, and distinguished dialectal, registerial and codal. Matthiessen (2007, p. 539) followed Halliday’s (1964) view, considering coding orientation, or codal variation as affiliating to the cline of instantiation, located between dialectic variation and registerial variation, and merged individual with instance, regarding repertoire as the set of “register” extracted by individual “meaner” from the meaning potential of speech fellowship (i.e., reservoir). In comparison, Martin (2006, p. 276) views 96 www.ccsenet.org/ijel International Journal of English Linguistics Vol. 5, No. 3; 2015 individuation as the relationship between system and individual, which is an independent complimentary hierarchy alongside realisation and instantiation, treating the three (i.e., realisation, instantiation and individuation) hierarchical relations as the theoretical resources of language research (Martin & Wang, 2008). Martin (1992, p. 495) associated coding orientation with ideology, and located it between reservoir and repertoire. Inherited from Bernstein’s (2000) point of view, Martin illustrated that individuation has to do with the relationship between the reservoir of meanings in a culture and the repertoire a given individual can mobilize. It is a cline from the collective to the individual, examining the social attributes of an individual from the systemic and functional perspective, such as ideology, intersubjectivity, identity and power, revealing the meaning potential of a given individual or community (Wang, 2011). Reservoir and repertoire interact with each other, locating at the two poles of the cline, where in between lies system, coding orientation, personality type and individual from top to bottom in turn. Individuation deals with classification and negotiation via two opposing paths—affiliation and allocation (Martin, 2009, p. 565). Systemic functional approaches to translation studies have focused on the parameters of translation equivalence and translation shift. According to the hierarchy of individuation, Wang & Yang (2015) proposed a translation model from the perspective of individuation, focusing on language users (i.e., the author, translator and reader), viewing translation activities as processes of shunting back to the source language (SL) reservoir through the de-individuation of the source text (ST) via alignment with the source language author, re-individuating it into the target text (TT) through allocation and at the same time aligning with the target language reader through affiliation (see Figure 1). They also took the English translations of the Tao Te Ching, an ancient Chinese philosophical classic by Lao Tzu 2500 years ago, as a case study. Translation from the perspective of individuation involves ideological issues, the system which can tendentiously show language users the genre, register and free options in a language in accordance with individual factors such as class, gender, age, race etc. The ideology has changed when the repertoire is opened anew by translators, where they will consider more or less the value of the SL or TL community, and then re-individuate according to the interests of translators themselves. The present paper will focus on one of the most important individual factors—the translator’s gender—again in the English translations of the Tao Te Ching. Figure 1. Process of individuation translation (Wang & Yang, 2015) 3. Translator’s Gender and Language Features We selected eight different English translations, including one man and woman’s cooperated translation (Feng & English, 1972), three women’s translations (Chen, 1989; Guin, 1997; Chen, 2004), and four men’s translations (He et al., 1985; Wing, 1986; Mair, 1990; Gu, 1995), to compare and analyze whether there are differences between translations by men and women translators. Three aspects are examined: the choice of words, choice of syntactic patterns and choice of mood. 3.1 Choice of Words Men and women translators may diverge in the choice of words when translating. For example: ɡù chánɡ wú yù yǐ ɡuān qí miào Example 1: 故常无欲，以观其妙。(Chapter 1) Chen (1989): In order to observe (kuan) the hidden mystery (miao); Always (ch'ang) with desire (yu-yü) Guin (1997): So the unwanting soul sees what’s hidden Chen (2004): Observe the mysteries of the Tao without longing 97 www.ccsenet.org/ijel International Journal of English Linguistics Vol. 5, No. 3; 2015 Feng & English (1972): Ever desireless, one can see the mystery. He et al. (1985): Therefore, the subtleties of Tao are always apprehended through their formlessness Wing (1986): Thus, without expectation/One will always perceive the subtlety; Mair (1990): Always be without desire in order to observe its wondrous subtleties Gu (1995): Hence one should gain an insight into the beginning of the Tao by constantly observing the Nothingness In re-individuating “ 妙 (miao)”, women translators choose “hidden” and “mystery”, which are vivid descriptions, getting an impression of something covered and mysterious (Zheng, 2011). While men translators choose to use “subtlety(ties)” and “insight”, both abstract nouns which are vague and general. ɡù nénɡchánɡshēnɡ Example 2: 故能长 生。 (Chapter 7) Chen (1989): Therefore they last long. Guin (1997): So they can go on and on. Chen (2004): therefore they can live for ever. Feng & English (1972): So ever living. He et al. (1985): And for this reason they obtain longevity. Mair (1990): Therefore, They can be long-lived. Wing (1986): For that reason they can exist eternally. Gu (1995): Thus they enjoy an eternal life. In re-individuating “长生 (chang sheng: long live)”, women translators choose verbal groups like “ever living” “last long”, “go on and on” “live for ever”, whereas men, except Wing (1986), adopted a nominal approach such as “longevity” “long-lived” “eternal life”. jū shàn dì Example 3: 居善地 (Chapter 8) Chen (1989): (Such a person's) dwelling is the good earth Guin (1997): For a house,
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