Journal of chinese humanities � (���6) �47-�7� brill.com/joch A New Examination of Confucius’ Rectification of Names Cao Feng (曹峰) Professor of Philosophy, Renmin University, China [email protected] Translated by Brook Hefright Abstract Confucius’ explanation of the “rectification of names” is not necessarily related to the theories of “social status” and “names and actuality.” The reason scholars have inter- preted the rectification of names in the Analects in so many different ways is, to a large degree, due to assumptions about Confucius’ thinking by his successors, and based on the views on rectification of names among later generations. In the course of the devel- opment of thinking about names, scholars have augmented Confucius’ own explana- tion, gradually fleshing it out from an empty shell into a substantial edifice. The original meaning may have been very simple: Confucius did not wish to establish a standard system of names. Rather, he was simply the first person in history to realize the impor- tance of language in politics. As a politician, Confucius noticed and foresaw the influ- ence that the indeterminacy, ambiguity, and arbitrariness of names could have on politics. He discerned the political consequences when language could not accurately express meaning or when there was no way for people to accurately perceive it. He also recognized how names, as a way of clarifying right and wrong and establishing norms, could have a great effect on a society’s politics. Although Confucius noted that disunity in speech could lead to disunity in politics, he did not propose a solution. Keywords Confucius – rectification of names – theory of names and actuality – theory of social status © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���6 | doi �0.��63/�35��34�-��34003Downloaded� from Brill.com02/27/2021 02:02:09AM via Shandong University 148 Cao Introduction The following passage occurs in the chapter “Zi Lu” 子路 in the Analects:1 Zi Lu said: “The monarch of the state of Wei wants you to govern the country, what is the first thing you plan on doing?” Confucius said: “First it is necessary to rectify the names.” Zi Lu said: “Is that really what has to be done? You are being too pedantic, aren’t you now? How will you rectify these names?” Confucius said: “Zhong You, you are too unrefined. A gentleman, faced with a matter that he does not understand, takes a skeptical attitude. If names are not correct, one cannot speak smoothly and reasonably, and if one cannot speak smoothly and reasonably, affairs cannot be managed successfully. If affairs cannot be managed success- fully, rites and music will not be conducted. If rites and music are not conducted, punishments will not be suitable. And if punishments are not suitable, the common people will not know what to do. So, when the gentleman uses names, it is necessary to be able to speak so that people understand. If one can say it, one can definitely do it. A gentleman should not be careless with words.”2 Since this is the earliest known discussion of the rectification of names [zheng- ming 正名], nearly all subsequent discussions, regardless from what per- spective, cite it. Yet exactly what kind of names did Confucius 孔子 [551-479 BCE] wish to rectify? Since ancient times, this simple question has inspired many answers, but no consensus view or uniform conclusion has emerged to this day. 1 Passages from the Analects come from Cheng Shude 程樹德, Lunyu jishi 論語集釋 [Collected Interpretations of the Analects] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1990). 2 子路曰：衛君待子而為政，子將奚先？子曰：必也正名乎。子路曰：有是哉，子 之迂也。奚其正？子曰：野哉，由也。君子於其所不知，蓋闕如也。名不正則 言不順，言不順則事不成，事不成則禮樂不興，禮樂不興則刑罰不中，刑罰不 中則民無所措手足。故君子可言也，言之必可行也，君子於其言，無所苟而已 矣 (Analects 13:3). Journal of chinese humanitiesDownloaded from 2Brill.com02/27/2021 (2�16) 147-171 02:02:09AM via Shandong University A New Examination of Confucius’ Rectification of Names 149 Previous Interpretations of Confucius’ Rectification of Names I first summarize the main threads of interpretation. 1. Rectification of names is simply rectification of characters [zi 字]—that is, “name” means “character,” and the rectification of names simply means stan- dardizing the writing system. This interpretation can be traced back to Zheng Xuan’s 鄭玄 [127-200] commentary on “Zi Lu”: “Rectifying names means recti- fying characters. What people in ancient times called names are today called characters.”3 Historically, however, very few scholars took this position until the Qing dynasty [1644-1911], when textual critics once again raised the issue that in the past the ancients called writing and characters “names.” “Confucius’ explanation that ‘it is necessary to rectify names’ generally means that the form, sound, and meaning of characters must be fixed before people can use them to speak and act.”4 This interpretation focused on the fact that, at that time, in various coun- tries, “languages have different sounds, and writing has different forms”5—that is, on the kinds of problems caused by differences in languages and writing systems. Although this explanation is understandable, it did not explain why this problem occurred to Confucius only after he arrived in the state of Wei. At present, very few scholars continue to hold this view in its entirety. 2. Rectification of names is simply the rectification of politics [zheng 政]. Zhu Xi 朱熹 [1130-1200] takes this position in his Collected Annotations of the Analects [Lunyu jizhu 論語集註]: At that time in the ancestral temple Duke Chu of Wei did not acknowl- edge his father as his father, but rather acknowledged his grandfather as his father, throwing the correspondence between names and actuality into disorder. That is why Confucius wanted to first rectify the names.6 Duke Chu of Wei 魏楚公 was opposed politically to his father Kuai Kui 蒯聵, and in their ancestral shrine he “did not acknowledge his father as his father” 3 正名，謂正書字也。古者曰名，今謂之字 (Cheng, Lunyu jishi, 890). 4 孔子曰：必也正名，蓋必形、聲、義三者正，而後可言可行也 (Jiang Yuan 江沅, “Shuowen jiezi zhu houxu 說文解字注後敘,” in Shuowen jiezi zhu 說文解字注, ed. Duan Yucai 段玉裁 [Shanghai: Shanghai Chinese Classics Publishing House, 1981], 788-789). 5 言語異聲，文字異形. 6 是時楚公不父其父而禰其祖，名實紊矣，故孔子以正名為先 (Zhu Xi 朱熹, Sishu zhangju jizhu 四書章句集注 [Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1983], 142). Journal of chinese humanities 2 (2�16) 147-171 Downloaded from Brill.com02/27/2021 02:02:09AM via Shandong University 150 Cao and passed him over to recognize only his grandfather, Duke Ling of Wei 衛靈公. Zhu Xi’s important contribution was to provide a historical background for Confucius’ rectification of names, explaining why it occurred to him only after he arrived in Wei. Zhu Xi related the rectification of names to the “social status” [mingfen 名分] and “names and actuality” [mingshi 名實] perspective that had arisen in Wei regarding the correct relationship between monarch and minister, and father and son. As the discussion below makes clear, this was not actually Zhu Xi’s discovery. From early on, other scholars had made the same point. Zhu Xi clarified it, however, and from that time on, rectification of names was no longer mainly a question of language and politics but, rather, became a purely political question. After scholars influenced by Zhu Xi came to view Confucius’ rectification of names from the perspectives of social status and names and actuality, with respect to the correct relationship between monarch and minister, father and son, passages from the Analects, Zuo zhuan [左傳], and other works were col- lected and cited somewhat overzealously as evidence for this view. The most famous and most commonly cited example is the following from the Analects: Duke Jing of Qi asked Confucius how to govern a state. Confucius said: A monarch must be a monarch, a minister must be a minister, a father must be a father, and a son must be a son.” Duke Jing said: “Oh, well said! If a monarch is not a monarch, a minister is not a minister, a father is not a father, a son is not a son, even if there is grain, will I still be able to get some to eat?7 This passage has long been considered the best source for Confucius’ view of the rectification of names. According to this interpretation, names are an ethical and moral standard and a behavioral norm that everyone—whether monarchs or ministers, fathers or sons—must respect based on his status. If names and actuality diverge and no longer correspond, the political order will descend into chaos. In the Analects, the phrase “rectification of names” occurs only once. Although the passage indicates that rectification of names focuses on society and politics, some questions remain. First, why was it necessary to rectify names in the first place? The original text offers no explanation, but based on interpretations by Zhu Xi and oth- ers we know it is because social status had become confused—that is, it had 7 齊景公問政於孔子，孔子對曰：君君，臣臣，父父，子子。公曰：善哉。信如 君不君，臣不臣，父不父，子不子，雖有粟，吾得而食諸？ (Analects 12:11). Journal of chinese humanitiesDownloaded from 2Brill.com02/27/2021 (2�16) 147-171 02:02:09AM via Shandong University A New Examination of Confucius’ Rectification of Names 151 become common at that time that “a monarch is not a monarch, a minister is not a minister, a father is not a father, and a son is not a son.” This interpreta- tion established a definite referent for Confucius’ “names”: what needed recti- fying was the system of identity and authority that had fallen into chaos. Second, how should names be rectified and how should words be brought into line? In other words, what was the standard for rectification of names? The original text is vague, but based on interpretations by Zhu Xi and others, we understand that the guide for rectification was the system of rites and pro- priety with its concept of patriarchal hierarchy.