Hoods and Yakuza: the Shared Myth of the American and Japanese Gangster Film 1
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Hoods and Yakuza: the Shared Myth of the American and Japanese Gangster Film 1 Hoods and Yakuza The Shared Myth of the American and Japanese Gangster Film by Simon Pate Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Languages, Linguistics and Film Queen Mary University of London March 2016 Hoods and Yakuza: the Shared Myth of the American and Japanese Gangster Film 2 Statement of Originality I, Simon Pate, confirm that the research included within this thesis is my own work or that where it has been carried out in collaboration with, or supported by others, that this is duly acknowledged below and my contribution indicated. Previously published material is also acknowledged below. I attest that I have exercised reasonable care to ensure that the work is original, and does not to the best of my knowledge break any UK law, infringe any third party’s copyright or other Intellectual Property Right, or contain any confidential material. I accept that the College has the right to use plagiarism detection software to check the electronic version of the thesis. I confirm that this thesis has not been previously submitted for the award of a degree by this or any other university. The copyright of this thesis rests with the author and no quotation from it or information derived from it may be published without the prior written consent of the author. Signature: Simon Pate Date: 14 October 2015 Abstract While there have been many studies of the Hollywood gangster film and others of the Japanese yakuza-eiga (gangster films), there have been very few which look in any detail at the relationship between the two traditions: indeed, most commentators maintain that the American and Japanese gangster films have little or no similarity. It is the purpose of this study to challenge the validity of this view by demonstrating that Hollywood and Japanese gangster films do indeed share common forms and functions. By adopting a theoretical framework which advocates a multifaceted approach to genre and narrative studies and also by exploring the question of hybridity in film, the study shows that there is, in fact, a commonality which underlies and unites the American and Japanese gangster film. The study centres on the analysis of a range of films from the ‘classic’ phases of both traditions—the pre-Code Hollywood cycle of the early-1930s and the ‘golden age’ yakuza films of the 1960s and 70s. It uses this analysis to propose a deep structure which incorporates elements of narrative, theme and an ideologically ambiguous function of social commentary. The study then goes on to test this deep structure against hybrid films made by American and Japanese filmmakers which draw on both traditions, and it concludes with the contention that Hollywood gangster films and yakuza-eiga share a mythology which revolves around the notion of code; that is, the personal code by which the gangster-hero lives and dies as well as the overarching code—an abiding set of principles or agreed rules of behaviour—that is accepted by the closed micro- society of the gang. Hoods and Yakuza: the Shared Myth of the American and Japanese Gangster Film 3 Acknowledgements Huge thanks are due to Pauline Small and Guy Westwell, my project supervisors, for keeping me firmly on track with their invaluable help, advice and good sense. Thanks are also due to Libby Saxton for her continued support and to Kathryn Richardson for allowing me the flexibility to combine my day job with work on the project. I must express my great appreciation to Philippa Kennedy and Peter Latham, who throughout the PhD have offered unstinting encouragement and support, and also to Colin Dyer who, together with Philippa, offered his proof-reading services. Finally, and as ever, enormous thanks are due to my wife, Yoko, not only for allowing me to test my imperfect understanding of Japanese society and history on her and for correcting my even more limited grasp of the Japanese language, but most importantly for her infinite patience. Hoods and Yakuza: the Shared Myth of the American and Japanese Gangster Film 4 Contents Statement of Originality 2 Abstract 2 Acknowledgements 3 Notes on Translation 6 Japanese Eras 6 Glossary 7 1. Introduction 10 Critical analysis of yakuza-eiga: a brief overview 14 Genre 18 Defining ‘genre’ 19 Development of genres 22 Genre as myth, genre as history 24 Approaches to genre criticism 31 A multifaceted approach to genre criticism 37 Narrative 38 The role of the spectator in film narrative 40 Narrative functions 43 Single-focus and dual-focus narrative 47 Deep and surface structure 52 2. The Narrative Structure of the ‘Classic’ Hollywood Gangster Film 55 Hollywood and US politics in the 1930s 56 Functions of the ‘classic’ Hollywood gangster cycle 62 Initial Situation: The gangster-hero is outside mainstream society 64 The gangster-hero craves power 65 The gangster-hero has low status within the gang 66 The gangster-hero displays special talents 66 The gangster-hero embraces modernity 67 The gangster-hero forms relationships 71 The gangster-hero is sexually ambiguous 73 The gangster-hero gains power 76 The gangster-hero craves legitimacy 76 The gangster-hero is strong, society is weak 77 The gangster-hero’s relationships break down 79 The gangster-hero breaks his own code 81 The gangster-hero dies 83 Conclusion 86 3. The Narrative Structure of ‘Golden Age’ Yakuza-eiga 92 Post-war Japanese cinema 94 The ‘golden age’ of yakuza-eiga 97 The films 100 Hana to doto / The Flowers and the Angry Waves 101 Tokyo nagaremono / Tokyo Drifter 105 Koroshi no rakuin / Branded to Kill 107 Hoods and Yakuza: the Shared Myth of the American and Japanese Gangster Film 5 Nihon boryokudan: Kumicho / Japan Organised Crime Boss 110 Parallel narrative themes 113 The gangster-hero is outside mainstream society 116 Vertical relationships: oyabun and kubon 119 Lateral relationships: blood brothers 124 Lateral relationships: lovers 128 Conclusion 134 The deep narrative structure of Hollywood and Japanese gangster films 136 4. Questions of History and Ideology in the ‘Golden Age’ 141 Jingi naki tatakai / Battles without Honour and Humanity 144 Jingi no hakaba / Graveyard of Honour 147 The outside influence: yakuza-eiga and America 150 The ‘Economic Miracle’: corporatisation, materialism and corruption in yakuza-eiga 156 Migration, modernisation and isolation 163 The ‘new’ politics as a subtext 169 Conclusion 175 The ideology of ‘golden age’ yakuza-eiga 180 Thematic and ideological dimensions of the deep structure 183 5. Three Hybrids: subverting the myth 187 The Yakuza: a film of pairs 191 Symbolic frames 194 Tanaka and Kilmer: a lateral relationship 197 Kilmer and Dusty: a vertical relationship 200 Ghost Dog: The Way of the Samurai: a film of parallels 202 Parallel codes 207 Tradition and modernity 209 Hybridity 213 Brother: a film of death 219 The outsider 221 Brothers 223 Nation and nationalism 228 Conclusion 235 6. Conclusion. A Shared Mythology: the Code 241 The shared myth 247 The shared myth in The Godfather, Goodfellas and The Sopranos 250 The shared myth in Drunken Angel, Ichi the Killer and Yakuza Weapon 256 Critique and final thoughts 262 Bibliography 273 Filmography 285 Hoods and Yakuza: the Shared Myth of the American and Japanese Gangster Film 6 Note on Translation Japanese names are given in the Japanese order of family name followed by given name. In the first instance, film titles are given in Japanese first followed by the English translation; thereafter the English title is used. There are occasions when there is more than one English version of the title in use, in which case all common titles are used in the first instance (e.g. Jingi naki tatakai / Battles without Honour and Humanity aka Tarnished Code of the Yakuza/War without Code/Wars without Morality/The Yakuza Papers), with the most common used thereafter. In quoting from Japanese texts, including screenplays, I have used the English translation available, for example the subtitle track on the DVD. In instances where there are no English translations or subtitles, the translations are mine, and I am indebted to Ueda Yoko for her invaluable help in this matter. There are several different systems in use for the romanisation of Japanese. For the ease of the reader I am using the simplest form, omitting the macron for long vowel sounds (for example, Yoko, rather than Yōko). Japanese Eras Since the restoration of the imperial system in 1868, eras in the Japanese calendar have been defined by the reign of the Emperor. The official name given to each era is different to that of the given name of the emperor during his lifetime; for example, the present era is Heisei, while the emperor’s name is Akihito (although it is highly unusual to use the reigning emperor’s name in Japan: he is usually referred to as Tenno Heika, ‘His Majesty the Emperor’). Upon death, the emperor is thereafter referred to by the era of his reign; for example, Hirohito is posthumously known as the Emperor Showa. The post-restoration eras are: Meiji (1868-1912) Taisho (1912-1926) Showa (1926-1989) Heisei (1989-present) Hoods and Yakuza: the Shared Myth of the American and Japanese Gangster Film 7 Glossary ani – brother aniki – older brother Anpo – the 1951 US-Japan Security Treaty, renewed amid widespread opposition in 1960 and 1970 apaato – apartment bozozoku – literally ‘speed tribe’; motorcycle gangs bukato – gambler burakumin – literally ‘people of the hamlet’; members of Japan’s ancestral class of outcasts, similar