Where the Wild Things Are, De Maurice Sendak: La Revolución En La Moraleja Del Cuento De Hadas

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Where the Wild Things Are, De Maurice Sendak: La Revolución En La Moraleja Del Cuento De Hadas WHERE THE WILD THINGS ARE, DE MAURICE SENDAK: LA REVOLUCIÓN EN LA MORALEJA DEL CUENTO DE HADAS Ana Cristina Restrepo Jiménez Universidad EAFIT Escuela de Ciencias y Humanidades 2011 WHERE THE WILD THINGS ARE, DE MAURICE SENDAK: LA REVOLUCIÓN EN LA MORALEJA DEL CUENTO DE HADAS Ana Cristina Restrepo Jiménez Trabajo de grado presentado como requisito parcial para optar al título de Maestra en Estudios Humanísticos Asesor: GERMÁN DARÍO VÉLEZ LÓPEZ MEDELLÍN UNIVERSIDAD EAFIT DEPARTAMENTO DE HUMANIDADES 2011 Nota de aceptación ---------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------- Presidente del jurado ---------------------------------------------- Jurado ---------------------------------------------- Jurado ---------------------------------------------- Medellín, 11 de marzo de 2011 A Marcus, Cyprian y Gabriela McDermott, mis hijos: mejores maestros que Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget y Bruno Bettelheim AGRADECIMIENTOS A mis padres A mi esposo A mis profesores (desde el kínder hasta ayer) A Irene Vasco A Andrés Posada 3 INTRODUCCIÓN Antes de saber leer, los libros eran para mí como bosques misteriosos. Me acuciaba una pregunta: ¿cómo era posible que de aquellas páginas de papel, de aquellas hormiguitas negras que la surcaban se levantara un mundo ante mis ojos, mis oídos y mi corazón de niña? ¿Qué clase de magia, de sortilegio era aquel que sobrepasaba cuanto yo vivía o cuanto vivía a mi alrededor? Criaturas, deseos, sueños, personas y personajes, y tiempos desconocidos bullían allí1. En el bosque, discurso de la escritora Ana María Matute (Real Academia Española, 18 de enero de 1998) En Occidente, durante los siglos XVI y XVII, la lectura era una actividad oral y colectiva, reservada para religiosos, caballeros y literatos. Con la llegada de la alfabetización, en los albores del siglo XVII, los escolares aprendieron a decodificar caracteres. Comprender el texto aún no era una preocupación. No obstante, la expansión de la lectura intensiva y extensiva, evidenció la necesidad de interpretar lo leído. Tras la consideración de la infancia como concepto clasificatorio de carácter social y cultural, surgió el género de la literatura infantil – escritos en prosa y la poesía dirigidos especialmente a los niños– como una forma de diversión que, paulatinamente, se transformó en herramienta pedagógica y de transmisión de costumbres e ideologías. El cuento infantil se convirtió en un instrumento más de las maquinarias dominantes para estructurar el pensamiento y difundir ideas. Dentro de la historia de la literatura, tiene singular importancia el surgimiento del género infantil, pues supuso el considerar que a un menor le podía gustar leer o que le leyeran historias. Era una invitación abierta a interactuar con sus semejantes, a ser sujeto activo del medio doméstico e, inclusive, público. El cuento de hadas, el mito y la fábula, como partes integrales del folclor, la tradición oral y, por tanto, de la historia de diversas culturas, ha sido constante objeto de estudio 1 MATUTE, Ana María. “En el bosque”: discurso pronunciado en la Real Academia Española (18 de enero de 1998). Recuperado el 3 de diciembre de 2010. En: http://www.clubcultura.com/clubliteratura/clubescritores/matute/academika03.htm 4 de disciplinas como la antropología, la sociología, la literatura y la filología; en este último campo, se considera a los hermanos Wilhelm y Jakob Grimm como los grandes rastreadores y rescatistas de los relatos populares de la lengua teutona. Este trabajo académico tiene como objeto de estudio la transformación de la moraleja en el cuento de hadas en Occidente, cuyas bases se asientan en Europa; teniendo en cuenta que la oralidad que precede este tipo de relatos amplía sus fronteras en cuanto a difusión e influencia. Al respecto, el artículo Fairy Tales (Cuentos de hadas), escrito por Roger Sale, profesor de la Universidad de Washington y crítico literario, afirma: La existencia de los cuentos de hadas es la evidencia de la unidad cultural de Eurasia como continente. Profesionales del folclor comparado se han ocupado por años de descubrir los personajes, eventos, y motivos que aparecen, a menudo con ligeros cambios, en cuentos de India, Japón, Francia, Alemania e Irlanda [...] Los cuentos de hadas con sus muchas variaciones en repetidos motivos, escenarios y personajes, parecen ideales para producir significados incrustados en lo que se repite con insistencia2. A partir de la Modernidad, la lectura es concebida como una vía de entrada de conocimientos, un cauce de opiniones. En el caso de la literatura infantil, escritores y narradores orales encontraron que la “conquista” de la mente de los niños exigía apelar a la manera en la cual están estructurados su pensamiento y su lógica en desarrollo. Mentalidades, valores y normas de diversas épocas, se han manifestado a través de elementos como la acción y los personajes, y el desarrollo de eventos que trae consigo una lección, una visión ética de las circunstancias: la moraleja. En ese respecto, el cuento de hadas tradicional evidencia una división rotunda entre el bien y el mal, sin matices. En la obra Antropología cultural, Marvin Harris subraya la conexión que a través del tiempo ha existido entre tradición oral y literatura, cuya constante es el “contraste binario”: 2 SALE, Roger. “Fairy tale”, en la revista: The Hudson Review, Vol. 30, No. 3 (Otoño, 1977), p. 372. Recuperado el 3 de diciembre de 2010. En: Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3850269 5 Los antropólogos han recogido numerosos datos que sugieren que ciertas clases de estructuras formales se repiten en las más dispares tradiciones de literatura oral y escrita, incluyendo los mitos y cuentos. Estas estructuras se caracterizan por los contrastes binarios, es decir, por la presencia de dos temas o elementos que ocupan una posición diametralmente opuesta. Cabe encontrar numerosos ejemplos de contrastes binarios en la religión, mitología y literatura occidentales [...]3. El contraste binario, como manera directa para transmitir un mensaje a los niños, es evidente en los grandes monumentos literarios infantiles. Buena: Caperucita roja / Malo: el lobo. Buena: Blancanieves / Mala: la madrastra. Buenos: Hansel y Gretel / Malas: la madrastra y la bruja de la casita de chocolate. En estos cuentos de hadas clásicos, la moraleja tiene una orientación concreta, a veces explícita (como es el caso de Caperucita roja, de Charles Perrault), que responde a los principios éticos y actitudes políticamente correctas, de la época en la cual se inscribe la obra. En la obra Antropología estructural, el antropólogo belga Claude Lévi-Strauss, fundador del Estructuralismo, sostiene que estos contrastes binarios aparecen con tanta frecuencia porque el cerebro humano, debido a su estructura neurológica, los encuentra especialmente atractivos o buenos para pensar4. De hecho, para el Estructuralismo, la tarea fundamental del estudio antropológico de la mitología, la literatura y el folclor está en identificar los contrastes binarios inconscientes y comunes que permanecen remanentes en el pensamiento humano, y en poner de manifiesto cómo presentan transformaciones. Para los estructuralistas, de lo familiar y sorpresivo del contraste binario depende la permanencia en el tiempo y espacio de un cuento. En el contraste binario, como recurso para la transmisión del mensaje a los chicos, es donde radica la trasgresión a la moraleja en el cuento infantil contemporáneo, en el cual el desenlace pasa de ser aleccionador a ser liberador de las angustias del niño. 3 HARRIS, Marvin. Antropología cultural. Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1996. p. 404 4 LÉVI-STRAUSS, Claude. Buenos Aires: Editorial Universitaria de Buenos Aires, 1973. p. 212 6 Como obra infantil representativa de este cambio, se ha elegido el cuento de hadas Where the wild things are (Donde viven los monstruos)*, escrito e ilustrado por Maurice Sendak. Los elementos de este relato de Sendak permiten clasificarlo como cuento de hadas, de acuerdo con las funciones de Vladimir Propp (ver capítulo 4). El cuento Where the wild things are se ha convertido en un producto “de culto” en el mercado de la literatura infantil, así como en objeto de estudio y de teorización por parte de diversas disciplinas, como la psicología, la literatura infantil y la artes visuales. Esta obra contemporánea presenta una trasgresión a la moraleja del cuento infantil clásico, a través de un héroe políticamente incorrecto cuyas acciones exploran en profundidad la dimensión psíquica y emocional del niño. El relato de Sendak prescinde del contraste binario para ubicar a sus personajes en un territorio que no podríamos denominar “neutral”; es más bien un lugar donde el bien y el mal no existen, pues no se advierte la presencia de juicios absolutos por parte del autor, de modo directo o a través de sus personajes y las situaciones vividas por ellos. ¿Es Max (que amenaza a su mamá y luego vuelve a ella) bueno o malo?, ¿los monstruos (pavorosos en imagen, amorosos en su relación con Max) son buenos o malos?, ¿la mamá de Max (figura de castigo, también de espera paciente, y de compañía protectora: la imagen de la luna, permanente en las ilustraciones, encarna la figura mítica de la madre) es buena o mala? Sólo un acto es sometido a juicio: la amenaza de Max a su madre: “¡Te voy a comer!”. Acto que finaliza en un castigo que, al final de la obra, no previene al niño ni lo alecciona frente a sus actos; por el contrario, le demuestra que su madre, la figura del adulto y de autoridad, siempre estará allí para él. Sendak cambia la soledad de la culpabilidad, por la seguridad y afecto de la compañía de un adulto significativo para el niño. _______________ *La versión en español de los extractos del cuento Where the wild things are y de todos los textos en inglés (sin versión editorial oficial en castellano) que se citan en este trabajo académico, son traducciones directas de la autora. 7 Jack Zipes, profesor de la Universidad de Minessota, estudioso de los cuentos infantiles y traductor de los hermanos Grimm, ha publicado diversos textos en los que evalúa la función socializadora del cuento de hadas.
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