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The Elephant's Hoof: Macroscopic and Microscopic Morphology of Defined

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The Elephant's Hoof: Macroscopic and Microscopic Morphology of Defined Veterinär-Anatomisches Institut der Vetsuisse-Fakultät Universität Zürich Direktor: Prof. Dr. H. Geyer The elephant’s hoof: Macroscopic and microscopic morphology of defined locations under consideration of pathological changes Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde der Vetsuisse-Fakultät Universität Zürich vorgelegt von Andreas Benz Tierarzt von Schübelbach, SZ genehmigt auf Antrag von Prof. Dr. Hans Geyer, Referent Prof. Dr. Klaus Eulenberger, Korreferent Zürich 2005 Druck: RoNexus Services AG, Basel “The feet of elephants, both in captivity and in work camps, are probably the single greatest source of medical problems, which confront veterinarians working with elephants” (M.J. Schmidt, 1986) Meiner Familie und insbesondere meiner Mutter für Ihre immerwährende Unterstützung jeglicher Art in grosser Dankbarkeit gewidmet Content 1 Summary............................................................................................... 1 2 Zusammenfassung .............................................................................. 2 3 Introduction and aim of the study ...................................................... 3 4 Review of the literature........................................................................ 5 4.1 Definition of elephants’ hooves...................................................... 5 4.2 General facts about Asian and African elephants.......................... 5 4.2.1 Classification ................................................................................................... 5 4.2.2 Natural habitat................................................................................................. 6 4.2.3 Natural diet...................................................................................................... 6 4.2.4 Elephants in captivity ...................................................................................... 7 4.3 Different features between the species concerning anatomical appearance.................................................................................... 9 4.4 Anatomy of the elephants’ foot ...................................................... 9 4.5 Summary of opinions about the occurrence and causes of elephants’ foot problems in zoos ................................................. 13 4.5.1 General statements....................................................................................... 13 4.5.2 Short abstract on the most frequent foot diseases........................................ 15 5 Material and methods ........................................................................ 18 5.1 Macroscopic investigations.......................................................... 18 5.1.1 General macroscopic examinations and measurements .............................. 18 5.1.2 Determination of the horn growth rate in the horn wall.................................. 20 5.1.3 Exungulation of the horn capsule.................................................................. 20 5.1.4 Comparison of wild and semi-wild elephants of both species....................... 22 5.1.5 Husbandry conditions of the participating institutions ................................... 22 5.1.6 Statistical analysis......................................................................................... 26 5.2 Microscopic investigations ........................................................... 27 5.2.1 Histological material ...................................................................................... 27 5.2.2 Processing of the histological material.......................................................... 29 5.2.3 Statistical analysis......................................................................................... 32 I 5.3 Examinations of biotin concentration in the blood plasma of elephants both with and without biotin supplementation.............. 32 6 Results ................................................................................................ 34 6.1 Macroscopic examinations of the feet of captive Asian and African elephants ......................................................................... 34 6.1.1 The foot ......................................................................................................... 34 6.1.2 The hoof ........................................................................................................ 39 6.1.3 The hoof segments ....................................................................................... 45 6.1.4 Macroscopic differences between the captive and wild elephants................ 53 6.1.5 Growth rate of the horn in the nail of different elephants .............................. 53 6.2 Pathological findings in different husbandry systems .................. 57 6.3 Microscopic anatomy of the normal structure of an elephant’s hoof.............................................................................................. 60 6.3.1 The perioplic segment................................................................................... 60 6.3.2 The coronary segment .................................................................................. 63 6.3.3 The wall segment .......................................................................................... 67 6.3.4 The sole segment.......................................................................................... 72 6.3.5 The pad segment .......................................................................................... 74 6.3.6 The digital cushion ........................................................................................ 77 6.4 Histopathological alterations in the different hoof segments........ 79 6.4.1 Summary of the histopathological alterations found in all segments............. 79 6.4.2 Specific alterations to the different segments................................................ 80 6.4.3 Histological description of some macroscopic alterations............................. 87 6.5 Microscopically measured thickness of the horn layer at defined locations....................................................................................... 93 6.5.1 Asian elephant .............................................................................................. 94 6.5.2 African elephant ............................................................................................ 96 6.6 Biotin concentration in the blood plasma of elephants both with and without biotin supplementation.............................................. 96 7 Discussion .......................................................................................... 98 7.1 Material and Methods .................................................................. 98 7.2 Macroscopic examination of the elephants’ feet........................ 100 7.2.1 The foot ....................................................................................................... 101 7.2.2 The hoof ...................................................................................................... 102 7.2.3 The hoof segments ..................................................................................... 105 7.2.4 Comparison of wild and captive elephants.................................................. 107 7.2.5 Growth rate of the horn wall ........................................................................ 108 7.3 Pathological alterations in different husbandry systems ............ 110 II 7.4 Microscopic anatomy of the normal horn structures and some appropriate data......................................................................... 112 7.4.1 The perioplic segment................................................................................. 112 7.4.2 The coronary segment ................................................................................ 113 7.4.3 The wall segment ........................................................................................ 114 7.4.4 The sole segment........................................................................................ 115 7.4.5 The pad segment ........................................................................................ 116 7.4.6 The digital cushion ...................................................................................... 117 7.5 Signs of bad horn quality ........................................................... 118 7.5.1 Histopathological alterations in the different hoof segments....................... 118 7.5.2 Histological assessment of certain macroscopic alterations ....................... 121 7.6 Thickness of the horn at defined locations................................. 124 7.7 Biotin blood concentration and its relevance ............................. 125 7.8 Conclusions ............................................................................... 127 8 Appendix........................................................................................... 130 9 References........................................................................................ 135 10 Acknowledgement ........................................................................... 144 III 1 Summary This study analyzes the normal macroscopic and microscopic morphology of elephant hooves under consideration of pathological changes. Biotin plasma concentrations are examined to establish values as a basis for possible treatment. 86 feet of 24 Asian (Elephas maximus) and 9 African (Loxodonta africana) elephants were macroscopically examined and 727 histological samples from
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