*FM 3-50

Field Manual Headquarters No. 3-50 Department of the Army Washington, DC, 4 December 1990

Smoke Operations

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

* This publication supersedes FM 3-50, 25 July 1984. FM 3-50

Change Headquarters No. 1 Department of the Army Washington, DC, 11 September 1996

Smoke Operations

1. Change FM 3-50, 4 December 1990, as follows: Remove old pages: Insert new pages (attached) 3 through 4 3 through 4 97 through 98 97 through 98 54-A through 54-D

2. New or changed material is indicated by a

3. File this transmittal sheet in front of the publication.

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

By Order of the Secretary of the Army:

DENNIS J. REIMER General, United States Army Official: Chief of Staff

JOEL B. HUDSON Administrative Assistant to the Secretary of the Army 02289

DISTRIBUTION: Active Army, Army National Guard, and U.S. Army Reserve: To be distributed in accordance with the initial distribution number 110743, requirements for FM 3-50. Preface

Field Manual 3-50 provides US sustained as necessary to defeat the smoke correctly and is experienced Army units with doctrine, tactics, enemy’s electro-optical systems and in limited visibility operations will techniques, and procedures to use create a "one-way mirror" — one be more agile and respond faster to smoke and obscurants to attack and which our forces can both see and changing situations. defeat specific enemy targets, sen- shoot through to set the terms of Users of this publication are en- sors, target acquisition systems, battle. couraged to recommend additions, weapon guidance systems, and Smoke is a double-edged sword. changes, or comments to this other enemy electro-optical devices. Smoke conceals troop movements, manual. Key your comments to the Also, it describes techniques to slows attacking forces, disrupts com- pages, paragraphs, and line(s) of reduce friendly degradation in mand and control, and reduces the text in which you recommend the smoke. vulnerability of critical assets for changes. Provide reasons for each The scope of this manual is smoke both friendly and Threat forces. comment to ensure understanding operations at the operational and Combat operations in World War II and complete evaluation. Prepare tactical levels of war. The target and the Korean War demonstrated your comments on DA Form 2028 audience is maneuver unit com- that the proper use of smoke enhan- (Recommended Changes to Publica- manders and staff officers, par- ces mission success and force sur- tions and Blank Forms) and for- ticularly the G2/S2, G3/S3, FSO, vivability. In recent times, US forces ward them directly to Commandant, and chemical officer at corps level have reinforced the positive benefits US Army Chemical School, ATTN: and below. Most of the examples of large-area smoke use at the com- ATZN-CM-NF, Fort McClellan, depict smoke support for brigade- bat training centers at Fort Irwin, AL 36205-5020. level operations. California; Fort Chaffee, Arkansas; Unless this publication states The focus is on synchronized and Hohenfels, Federal Republic of otherwise, masculine nouns and smoke planning — smoke integrated Germany. pronouns do not refer exclusively to into the commander’s tactical plan, In battle, the side that employs men.

2 FM 3-50 FM 3-50, Cl 11 September 1996

3 FM 3-50, Cl

4 Chapter 1

Introduction

Common sense tells us what can and target acquisition (RSTA) ef- protect your force and deny the be seen can be hit and killed on the forts. It also uses smoke to protect Threat the ability to acquire and battlefield. The US Army uses the force and to support tactical engage it. smoke and obscurants to attack deception operations. By combining Threat reconnaissance, surveillance, obscuration with maneuver you can

Historical Perspective Armies have used smoke to con- resulted in over 3,000 bombs falling aircraft. Elements of the 133rd Pan- fuse and deceive their enemies harmlessly in and around the area. zer Brigade penetrated CCA's throughout history. We can find in- The use of smoke and other man- defenses. Two tank destroyer dications of smoke operations from made obscurants can give a com- platoons and a medium tank com- as early as 2000 B.C. when the burn- mander an edge if applied properly. pany engaged the 133rd Panzer ing of damp straw was a common Natural obscurants can also be used Brigade. The fog worked to the way to smoke enemy positions. to friendly advantage. The actions defender’s (Allied forces) ad- The War Department proposed of Combat Command A (CCA), 4th vantage, as the limited visibility the use of smoke to President Lin- Armored Division, during the Lor- negated the superior range of the coln during the War Between the raine Campaign, in September 1944, German tank guns. As the fighting States. The idea was not taken demonstrated the use of fog as a surged back and forth through the seriously at the time and smoke was combat multiplier. fog, CCA’s tanks and tank used sparingly. Documentation of On 13 September 1944, CCA destroyers used their mobility to out- the period reflected in the Cavalry forced a crossing of the Moselle maneuver and ambush the larger Journal historical archives suggests River north of the heavily defended Panzers. that " ...a little smoke, judiciously city of Nancy. On 14 September, From 20 to 25 September, the laid down, could have changed the CCA was ordered to bypass Fifth Panzer Army directed the entire course of history. Had the Chateau-Salins and exploit the weak- lllth Panzer Brigade and the llth South used smoke, Federal forces ness to the south. By 1900 hours, Panzer Division into a series of at- may not have been able to stop CCA began to draw into a tacks against the Arracourt posi- Pickett’s charge at Gettysburg even perimeter defense around the town tion. Each assault followed the though the Federal force was great- of Arracourt. This allowed the Ger- pattern set on 19 September. The ly superior...." mans to strengthen their position Panzers attacked under the cover of The use of large-area smoke in- around Chateau-Salins and as- morning fog, only to be thwarted by creased drastically during World semble forces for a major counterat- CCA’s mobile defense and driven War II. The British used smoke to tack against the XII Corps right off by armored counterattacks of effectively screen harbors, factories, flank. The Fifth Panzer Army company or battalion strength. and large cities in the United moved north, striking at CCA’s ex- The defensive actions fought Kingdom from the Luftwaffe’s posed position around Arracourt. around Arracourt stalled the Ger- relentless bombing. In 1943, US for- The ensuing battle was one of the man offensive. The 4th Armored ces used smoke to protect the sup- largest armored engagements fought Division claimed 281 German tanks ply facilities and invasion fleet at on the Western Front. destroyed, 3,000 Germans killed, Bizerte Harbor in North Africa On the morning of 19 September, and another 3,000 taken prisoner in from attacking German aircraft. a heavy fog concealed the German the fighting. For the German offen- The smoke blanket placed over this movement, giving them tactical sive, the ground fog represented a area by smoke generator units surprise and protection from Allied double-edged sword. It provided

FM 3-50 5 them concealment but ultimately it proved to be a significant combat led to their demise. For US forces, multiplier.

Description of Smoke and Obscurants Obscurants are man-made or burning or vaporizing some defeat the visible through far IR; naturally occurring particles product. An example is the vaporiza- multispectral obscurants defeat the suspended in the air that block or tion of fog oil to produce smoke visible through millimeter wave; and weaken (attenuate) the transmission from a mechanical smoke gener- special purpose obscurants defeat of a particular part or parts of the ator. We classify US and Threat specifically targeted portions of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as smoke and obscurants, both current- electromagnetic spectrum. visible light, infrared (IR), or ly fielded and developmental, as Appendix G describes the charac- microwaves. Fog, mist, dust, smoke, visual, bispectral, multispectral, or teristics of smokes and obscurants, and chaff are examples of special-purpose obscurants. Visual how they work, and what obscurants. obscurants defeat the visible obscurants are in the US inventory. Smoke is an artificially created through near IR portion of the obscurant normally produced by spectrum; bispectral obscurants

Uses of Smoke and Obscurants We can render some electro-opti- What can be seen can be hit and defeat the enemy’s battlefield cal (EO) target acquisition and killed. viewers; weapon guidance systems; sighting devices ineffective; others We use visual obscurants to defeat radar systems; and high-energy, we can degrade significantly; some the enemy’s battlefield viewers, such microwave-directed energy weapons. we cannot affect at all. As a result as binoculars, weapon sights, night Table 1, on the next page, is a tac- of the development of IR and radar observation sights, and laser range tical decision aid for selecting the devices during World War II and finders. We use bispectral type of smoke to defeat a particular subsequent technological advances, obscurants to defeat the enemy’s EO system. Detailed information EO devices have supplemented con- battlefield viewers and weapon concerning the types of smokes and ventional visual methods of target guidance systems such as command obscurants and their effects on EO acquisition and aiming weapons. line-of-sight or terminal homing sys- systems are in Appendixes G and Precision-guided munitions and tems on antitank and air defense B, respectively. sophisticated sensors provide the ul- missiles. When developed, we will timate in lethality on the battlefield: use multispectral obscurants to

How and Where To Use Smoke Smoke aids in deceiving the What do I want smoke and deny mine, but my thermal sights enemy, conceals maneuver, and in- obscurants to accomplish? are unaffected). creases your potential force-on- (Degrade target acquisition? Con- When might on-call hasty or force ratio when your target ceal the movement of my main at- deliberate smoke benefit me? acquisition systems can see through tack? Aid in deception?) (Where does my decision support the smoke and the Threat’s cannot Where and for how long am I tree indicate I may be exposed and (see Chapter 2). For smoke to do willing to sustain this smoke cloud? need immediate smoke to obscure this, you must develop a plan to use (Over my own position? Between the enemy?) smoke synchronized with your tacti- my unit and the enemy? On the How will countersmoke help me? cal plan. enemy?) (If the enemy uses smoke, where Use the military decision model How much restriction in my own and how should I retaliate with from FM 101-5 as general guidance mobility can I accept? (Visibility 50 smoke to interfere with their for planning and executing smoke meters or less? More?) synchronization?) operations. Commanders must How much restriction in my own routinely give planning guidance to target acquisition and engagement the staff that answers the following capabilities can I accept? (If I deny questions: another’s laser designators, I also

6 FM 3-50 Categories of Smoke Operations There are two general categories of smoke operations: hasty and deliberate.

Hasty Smoke Operations Hasty smoke operations are smoke operations conducted with minimal prior planning. They are normally executed by the projected, on- board, and smoke generator units (company- and smaller-size ele- ments) on hand at the time of the engagement. This does not mean that hasty smoke operations are not planned; rather, plan hasty opera- tions as on-call smoke in your deliberate smoke plan. Use hasty smoke operations to support a com- bined arms force to counter an enemy action or anticipated enemy action of immediate concern to the commander. Hasty smoke opera- tions generally cover a small area for a short duration.

Deliberate Smoke Operations Deliberate smoke operations are conducted with detailed planning and are executed by either on-hand smoke assets or with those on hand augmented by corps and theater as- sets. Deliberate smoke operations normally are synchronized with specific times, events, or locations on the battlefield (for example, when we are within 1,500 meters of the objective, fire six battery volleys tion). Deliberate smoke operations to support the operations of of 50-percent high-explosive and 50- normally include multiple pre- brigades, divisions, and corps. percent smoke munitions onto the planned smoke operations. They objective to obscure enemy observa- cover large areas over long periods

Smoke Planning Each echelon of command plans as the tactical plan: mission, enemy ligence, and whether the unit has for smoke employment to support situation, terrain, weather, troops successfully operated in smoke pre- both current and future operations. available, time, and distance. Mis- viously. Integrate smoke into the overall tac- sion considerations include unit The G3/S3 has primary staff tical plan, synchronized with key capabilities, detailed planning and responsibility for planning smoke events or decision points. Base preparation, employment tech- operations in coordination with the smoke planning on the same factors niques, communications, intel- fire support officer (FSO), G2/S2,

FM 3-50 7 G4/S4, smoke unit commander, need to plan and fight the close Threat integration. This is the chemical staff officer, and staff and deep operation. Both proces- development of situation, event, and weather personnel. When planning ses, conducted simultaneously, incor- decision support templates. For smoke operations, the primary focus porate intelligence preparation of smoke planning we input the must be to attack enemy EO sys- the battlefield (IPB) and the intel- priority intelligence requirement tems and degrade enemy combat ef- ligence cycle functions. Situation (PIR) and extract actual findings fectiveness without significantly development enables commanders from the decision support template. degrading friendly command, con- to see and understand the bat- trol, or target acquisition tlefield in sufficient time and detail Smoke Estimate capabilities. to employ their forces and weapons Staff officers must constantly plan effectively. In situation develop- Preparation to integrate smoke into the tactical ment, the G2/S2 uses IPB to When the G2/S2 performs the plans for both current and future produce a description of enemy IPB, the chemical officer, in coor- operations. Planning ranges from force disposition on the battlefield dination with the G3/S3, FSO, and deliberate plans to provide smoke in terms of location, size, type, smoke unit commander, will support for future operations in a direction, rate of movement, and ac- prepare the smoke estimate. This es- 48- to 72-hour window to hasty plan- tivity. For smoke planners, situation timate will go to the G2/S2 and tar- ning for current operations. development provides information geting officer for inclusion into the Staffs must develop estimates that about weather, terrain, enemy dis- target value analysis (TVA) for fire define enemy capabilities and our position, and composition in the support planning and to the G3/S3 own courses of action, analyze area of interest. FM 34-1 provides a and chemical staff for smoke target smoke targets, and prioritize smoke more detailed description of situa- planning. resources. They must finally recom- tion development procedures. The chemical staff officer pre- mend courses of action for the IPB provides a basis for ac- pares a smoke estimate to recom- commander’s approval. When the complishing situation and target mend courses of action for commander approves the staff es- development. IPB orients the mis- attacking enemy targets with smoke timates, the staff prepares orders sion planning, collecting, processing, and obscurants. Besides supporting that combine smoke with combat and disseminating efforts of situa- the commander’s estimate, the power. Appendix A shows a smoke tion and target development. The smoke estimate assists the chemical estimate format and a smoke annex IPB process includes— staff, FSO, and G3/S3 in determin- to plans and orders. Threat evaluation. This is a ing the detailed plan for smoke detailed study of enemy forces and employment. FM 101-5 contains Situation and their composition, organization, tac- detailed guidance on the military tical doctrine, weapons, equipment, Target Development decision-making process and es- and supporting battlefield functional timates. Targeting begins with the systems. For smoke planning, we focus on enemy EO and smoke commander’s guidance and con- Smoke Support Plan tinues through the development of a capabilities as listed in Chapter 2 prioritized list specifying what tar- and Appendix B. Development Evaluation of areas of interest gets to attack and when to attack Simultaneous with preparing the these targets (DECIDE) and acquir- and operation. This is a study of enemy order of battle (OB) for a smoke estimate, the staff chemical ing high-payoff targets (DETECT) officer develops a draft smoke sup- and what will defeat these targets specific area of the battlefield. For smoke planning, we focus on num- port plan. The procedures for (DELIVER). This process con- preparing a smoke support plan cludes with the commander’s bers and probable locations of EO systems. are — decision on which course of action Coordinate with the commander he will select to engage the various Terrain analysis. This is an analysis of the military aspects of and staff prior to smoke support targets: maneuver, fire support, and planning. Obtain the restated mis- smoke unit support, or a combina- the terrain in a specific area. For smoke planning, we focus on the ter- sion. tion thereof. There are two basic – Obtain required fire and smoke processes in the targeting process: rain effects on smoke. Weather analysis. This is an planning information such as task situation development and target organization, smoke delivery sys- development. analysis of the impact of weather on both terrain and friendly and enemy tems, objectives, axis of advance or Situation development and target sector, and commander’s intent. development are the processes that capabilities. For smoke planning, we provide commanders the intel- focus on the weather effects on – Recommend smoke support coor- smoke. dinating measures such as key time, ligence and targeting data they place, and event and no smoke

8 FM 3-50 areas and target allocations (smoke – Modify the plan as agreed. enhances rather than degrades mis- unit targets, artillery targets, and – Ensure the plan is logistically sup- sion success. mortar targets) based on available portable and sustainable. Commanders must control smoke information such as restrictive fire Brief smoke support plan to ob- in their area of operations. Use line (RFL), coordinated fire line tain concurrence from the com- decision points based on IPB and (CFL), no fire line (NFL), munition mander (or G3/S3 as required by human feedback to control when availability, and priority of fire. local policy). you start and stop smoke. Smoke Update status displays. –Brief requirements for fire sup- unit leaders monitor the communica- – Plot locations of maneuver ele- port engagement with smoke. tions nets for the supported unit as ments and objectives. –Modify the plan as agreed. well as internal nets. This ensures – Plot locations of agreed targets. –Decide the support. the commander has an immediate Develop a smoke support plan. –Decide the time. response to start or stop smoke at a – Get target lists from the FSO. –Decide which smoke delivery particular point or time. – Modify target lists as necessary. unit (s) will engage. Plan to minimize friendly force Use the smoke target analysis proce- –Finalize the target list. degradation from our own use of dures in Appendix A as guidance. Coordinate the fire support plan smoke. Rehearse those contingen- – Develop a list of smoke delivery changes with the commander or cies. An antitank position with clear assets. G3/S3 and the FSO. fields of fire may be valueless in – Decide the type of support re- – Inform or brief them concerning dense smoke unless the gunner or quired (for example, smoke versus changes made in coordination. section leader has rehearsed move- EO system effectiveness). – Modify the plan as agreed. ment to previously prepared alter- – Decide the time support is re- Coordinate the smoke support nate positions (limited visibility quired. plan with adjacent units. positions). – Decide the best delivery system – Inform or brief them concerning The preceding paragraphs estab- to engage. the plan. lished the "Why" and "How" of – Decide the best delivery unit to – Modify the plan if required. smoke support. The remainder of engage (for example, smoke gener- Confirm coordination with the Chapter 1 answers the "When and ator unit, direct support (DS), 155- commander or G3/S3 and with the Where" and "What" and explains battery). FSO. with what delivery systems and – Prepare and consolidate target Brief the smoke unit leader(s) on delivery units we make smoke. The lists. the smoke annex to the OPORD. remaining chapters outline Threat – Assign smoke target numbers. Ap- (Chapter 2) and provide doctrine, pendix A outlines the procedure for Smoke Support Plan tactics, and techniques for smoke numbering smoke targets. employment in the offense (Chapter Coordinate the smoke support Execution 3), defense (Chapter 4), and other plan with the FSO. The extreme impact of smoke on operations (Chapter 5). The – Inform or brief requirements for tactical operations mandates close manual concludes with smoke sup- fire support engagement with smoke. coordination, control, and planning port sustainment planning considera- – Obtain target numbers for targets for contingencies. Command super- tions (Chapter 6). requiring fire support asset engage- vision and staff supervision are es- ment. sential to ensure the use of smoke

Operational Concept for Smoke and Obscurants Smoke and obscurants themselves another means to meet the impera- Enhancing friendly weapon sys- are not lethal. However, when tives of the AirLand battle by– tern effectiveness. synchronized throughout the depth Degrading the enemy’s ability to The Comprehensive Smoke Study of the battlefield they enhance the see. analyzed what happened when US maneuver commander’s ability to Disrupting the enemy’s ability to forces used smoke and the adver- maneuver. They concentrate combat communicate. sary used smoke, and the net effect power against enemy vulnerabilities Concealing friendly forces. on combat effectiveness when both at the critical time and place. They Deceiving the enemy. sides used smoke and obscurants, also reduce his own vulnerability to Providing a means to identify and The lessons learned indicate – enemy intelligence and target ac- signal. Smoke favors the attacker. Our quisition. Smoke and obscurants Degrading or defeating directed- force exchange ratio improves 25 to provide the commander with energy weapons. 80 percent.

FM 3-50 9 Projected smoke is important to tive of smoke employment is to in- In the defense, obscurants support success, but resource intensive. crease the effectiveness of US disruption of enemy activities and Firing units require 400 percent operations while reducing the vul- enhancement of friendly operations above normal basic loads. nerability of US forces. throughout the battlefield. Smoke Large-area smoke is beneficial. Obscurant use supports battlefield will isolate attacking echelons and There is up to a 30-percent in- deception and enhances friendly conceal friendly unit locations. It crease in our force exchange ratio. combat operations by— will screen friendly maneuvers, sup- Combined with artillery-delivered Increasing friendly force sur- port deception, and interfere with WP smoke gives a 75-percent in- vivability by— enemy movement and communica- crease in our force exchange ratio. – Concealing friendly mass and tions. Obscurants help to preserve You should avoid smoke on maneuver. forces essential to the mission. friendly antitank guided missile – Degrading Threat weapon system Smoke supports tactical objectives lines of sight. effectiveness. by selectively denying air and – Attenuating energy weapons. ground routes and by forcing the Operational Level – Increasing friendly-to-enemy enemy into tightened tactical forma- force ratio. tions, which are easier targets. of War – Increasing Threat force vul- In a nuclear environment, tem- Operational objectives within a nerability by — porary massing of friendly forces theater of war include the marshall- – Decreasing Threat rate of may create a particularly lucrative ing and sustaining of forces and advance. target. Dense smoke provides both materiel to conduct successful cam- – Disrupting Threat command and concealment and some measure of paigns. Commanders and staffs at control. protection against thermal radiation. this level of war will plan and con- – Deceiving Threat intelligence col- duct smoke operations to— lection. Commander and Staff Deceive the enemy as to friendly In the offense, the commanders force location, status, and movement. can achieve surprise and protect Considerations Defeat enemy air and satellite their force by combining obscurants Commanders must be prepared to reconnaissance efforts. with maneuver and firepower. use smoke to their advantage Reduce the effectiveness of Obscurants allow us to reduce our regardless of whether it is employed enemy fire and air attacks. vulnerability through concealment by friendly or Threat forces. Com- Defeat enemy precision-guided as we mass forces to attack. manders and staffs at all levels— weapons. Obscurants will conceal friendly Consider the use of smoke to en- Increase force survivability. movements and screen breaching of hance friendly scheme of maneuver. obstacles and river crossings. They Avoid developing a predictable Tactical Level of War will also negate the stand-off pattern of smoke use. capabilities of enemy long-range an- Anticipate and plan to counter Obscurants can support the move- tiarmor weapons and interfere with enemy smoke and countersmoke ment and positioning of forces on enemy guidance and acquisition sys- measures (see Chapter 2). the battlefield and the provision of tems. Smoke supports tactical objec- Train for limited visibility opera- fire support. They can also conceal tives by deceiving the enemy as to tions to minimize friendly force the logistical support of forces the exact location, timing, and size degradation. before, during, and after engage- of the main attack. It also isolates ments with the enemy. The objec- units for piecemeal destruction.

Operational Continuum Smoke and obscurants disrupt the peacekeeping operations. Smoke sys- Conflict enemy’s ability to locate, acquire, terns may be particularly useful in and defeat our forces across the segregating or isolating violent ele- Use smoke in conflict to support operational continuum. Use smoke ments. This creates a sense of isola- all types of military operations. in peacetime, conflict, and war. tion among the people. In Smoke is useful in insurgen- counternarcotics operations, use cy/counterinsurgency and peacetime Peacetime smoke to restrict use of airfields contingency operations in support and to conceal the movement of of tactical objectives. Smoke sys- Use smoke in peacetime in sup- law enforcement personnel. terns may be particularly useful in port of security assistance opera- concealing initial insertion of forces. tions, show of force, and

10 FM 3-50 This would provide surprise and War hostilities to protect the force, alter security for our forces. force ratios, conceal maneuvering Use smoke in war to support all forces, and give leaders an added operational and tactical operations. dimension of flexibility. Smoke is useful from the onset of

Spectrum of Conflict The Army recognizes that under by law enforcement or counterter- tion points. This is particularly im- low-intensity conflict (LIC) condi- rorist forces. portant when special operating for- tions indirect, rather than direct, ap- Support peacekeeping operations. ces are being inserted. plications of military power are the Smoke use can protect our forces – Use emplaced smoke such as most appropriate and cost-effective by screening our forces from Threat smoke hand grenades to conceal ways to achieve national goals. If observation. It can also restrict the entry into the facility once their US involvement requires military ac- effectiveness of combatant target ac- presence is known. tion, force protection and identifica- quisition or weapon guidance sys- – Use projected or emplaced tion of Threat RSTA means are tems. Marking smokes are effective smoke to conceal their exfiltration critical. In LIC, use projected, for signaling and early warning. In route and allow them to break con- generated, and self-defense smoke addition, we can use smoke and tact. to – obscurants to segregate or isolate In high-intensity and mid-intensity Support counterinsurgency opera- forces in conflict. conflicts, US forces face large, tions. Smoke use can protect the Support peacetime contingency rapidly maneuvering formations on force in all phases of counterinsur- operations. Smoke use can protect battlefields characterized by sophisti- gency operations. In addition, when our forces, particularly in a show of cated weapons, high-consumption identified we use smoke to attack force or demonstration. In strikes, rates, and extended time and dis- Threat RSTA means. Smoke raids, and unconventional warfare, tance. Smoke supports all types of creates a psychological feeling of use smoke to attack known Threat military operations in mid- and high- isolation. This may reduce the RSTA means. For example, in a intensity conflict. insurgent’s will to resist. raid on a suspected Threat com- Using smoke and obscurants Support terrorism counteraction. munications center, friendly forces across the spectrum of conflict will Smoke use can restrict use of air- would— positively influence the outcome of fields or facilities and conceal the –Use projected smoke (for ex- any operation. Chapters 3 through 5 movements of counterterrorist for- ample, mortars, rifle grenades, or outline tactics for smoke employ- ces. Use smoke to conceal objec- aviation-delivered smoke rockets) to ment to meet the challenges of the tives prior to assault or occupation obscure guard posts and observa- spectrum of conflict.

The Battlefield Smoke and obscurants disrupt command and control at key addition, we can air transport the enemy combat operations decision points. Deep attacks are chemical company of an airborne throughout the depth of the bat- conducted to create "windows of op- division to support airborne opera- tlefield. One of the key concepts in portunity" by disrupting or destroy- tions in the deep battle. AirLand battle is the entire bat- ing follow-on echelons. Smoke Current artillery-delivered tlefield consists of one single battle systems that support the deep battle obscurants will seldom have a direct fought by one commander with one include aviation, artillery, smoke impact on deep strike capability. In plan. Obscurant operations must generator, and armored vehicle the far term, millimeter wave support all levels of command in smoke systems. obscurants delivered by rockets fighting a unified battle of deep, Army aviation assets deliver onto radar sites will be effective to close, and rear operations. smoke rockets from attack helicop- suppress enemy air defense and ters to obscure enemy observation, counterbattery abilities. Similarly, Deep Operations degrade target acquisition, and special purpose obscurants that mark targets for close air support block certain regions of the electro- Deep operations disrupt the aircraft. Medium-lift helicopters sup- magnetic radiation will be more ef- enemy’s movement in-depth, destroy porting airmobile operations can fective in disrupting hardened high-value targets behind the move chemical units with smoke command and control centers than enemy’s lines, and interrupt enemy generators behind enemy lines. In high-explosive munitions.

FM 3-50 11 Deep attacks with armored battle preparations, denying enemy tank parks, assembly and staging columns may require the use of intelligence information, and con- areas, and critical portions of main smoke self-protection systems. Com- cealing maneuver and counterat- supply routes. bat vehicle defensive obscurant sys- tack. Units conceal areas for real At the operational level, the tems include vehicular launched and decoy battle positions during in- protection of key transportation and grenades and vehicle engine exhaust itial preparation and camouflage. logistics activities is critical to sus- systems. The prime constraints will Before the battle, mobile units pro- taining the force. Echelons above be logistical support (fuel and arma- vide smoke in multiple areas until corps must plan for obscurants in ment). the battlefield is fully prepared. the defense to conceal static opera- Use smoke and obscurants aggres- tions. Ports and terminals; fixed rail Close Operations sively to assist the unit in regaining facilities such as bridges, tunnels, the initiative. Obscurants isolate and rail yards; logistics-over-the- In the defense a covering or enemy echelons, conceal movement shore sites; dams; locks; trailer screening force occupies a sector of counterattacking forces, and transfer points; and critical points far enough forward of the forward deceive the enemy about friendly in- along main supply routes must be edge of the battle area (FEBA) to tentions. Smoke from smoke units, covered. Obscurants may also pro- prevent surprise, to force the enemy smoke pots, and enemy smoke lines vide limited protection for nonstatic to deploy their forces, and to gain conceal movement of friendly for- operations such as water transport, sufficient time to respond to the ces. Artillery- and mortar-delivered railroad operations, inland water- Threat. Extensive use of concealing smoke blinds enemy armored and ways movement, and convoys. Com- and deception smoke helps to antitank elements while friendly for- manders and staffs must carefully develop the situation by forcing the ces attack targets from the flanks plan operations to ensure that the enemy to deploy. It also denies in- using thermal viewers. Obscurants use of friendly obscurants at one formation about disposition and separate enemy echelons to logistics facility does not impede ac- composition of friendly forces, preclude supporting and overmatch- tivities at another. degrading enemy target acquisition. ing fire and to facilitate their Smoke can assist in defeating or Defending forces fill valleys and piecemeal defeat. delaying enemy airborne and air- terrain defiles with visual Obscurants in the defense of the mobile operations. Place smoke obscurants to force enemy helicop- MBA require careful preparation to over potential drop zones and land- ters above the obscurant cloud, preclude an ill-conceived deception; ing zones in rear areas to conceal while ground fire is adjusted, using disruption of friendly activities; or them and force the enemy aircraft thermal viewers. Use visual and in- poorly-timed, low-visibility to remain exposed to our air frared defeating smokes to support retrograde operations. Obscuration defense assets longer. This is par- countersurveillance and counter- will slow friendly activities. Com- ticularly useful when you have sig- reconnaissance. manders and planners should plan nificant intelligence indicators that Smoke provides concealment for additional time for movement under airborne or airmobile operations maneuver and counterattack and smoke and obscurants. are imminent, as smoke may deny reduces the effectiveness of enemy the enemy the ability to insert those target acquisition. It also deceives Rear Operations forces at all. the enemy about the true intentions In the event of enemy break- of our forces and creates conditions Because support units normally through, freed sites and some rear necessary to surprise them. Smoke remain fixed over a period of hours area forces will not be able to enables the covering force to delay or more, smoke units will normally maneuver away from an attacking the Threat advance more effectively. maintain a large-area haze over Threat force. They will have to When advanced positions can no brigade and division support ac- defend in place. Placing smoke on longer be retained, the security tivities throughout the early part of rear operations will conceal them force must quickly and efficiently the battle. Based on command from observation. However, this will conduct a passage of lines. It must priorities and resources, brigade degrade their operations. Smoke hand the battle off to the main bat- and division support areas may be may be placed on the Threat for- tle area (MBA) units. Smoke pots, concealed by obscurants from the ces, in coordination with electronic smoke generator units, and beginning to the end of the battle. warfare and deception assets, to iso- projected smoke conceal friendly Obscurants used in rear operations late the Threat units and prevent forces and routes during battle include deception and screening of resupply, relief, or reinforcement handoff. vital targets. Such targets include prior to their destruction. Obscurants support the decisive communications centers, ammuni- battle in the MBA by concealing ion supply points, motor pools,

12 FM 3-50 Battlefield Applications of Smoke Smoke has four battlefield applica- key assembly areas, and supply visual through mid-infrared portions tions that support combat opera- routes. There are three visibility of the spectrum depending on the tions: obscuring, screening, categories for screening smoke that concentration of the smoke. protecting, and marking. the supported unit commander uses to establish the visibility require- Protecting Smoke Obscuring Smoke ment for a smoke mission. These are — Protecting smoke is smoke used to Obscuring smoke is smoke Smoke haze. A smoke haze is a defeat enemy guidance systems or delivered directly on or immediately light concentration of smoke placed to attenuate energy weapons on the in front of enemy positions to blind over friendly areas to restrict ac- battlefield. Smoke and obscurants or degrade their vision both within curate enemy observation and fire. have the ability to reflect, refract, and beyond their location. Use It is not dense enough to disrupt or absorb energy. When enemy gun- obscuring smoke to attack and friendly operations within the ners have already fired ATGMs or defeat enemy target acquisition and screen. A smoke haze is defined as have used laser designators, use guidance systems at their source. a concentration of smoke that protecting smoke to immediately Projected means, such as artillery, would allow an individual to iden- screen vehicle movements and mortars, rockets, and rifle grenades, tify a small tactical vehicle between defeat enemy guidance links. In an generally deliver obscuring smoke. 50 and 150 meters away, but no far- active nuclear environment or when For example, smoke delivered on ther than 150 meters. threat of nuclear weapon use is an enemy antitank guided missile Smoke blanket. A smoke blanket high, use protecting smoke to at- (ATGM) position may prevent the is a dense, horizontal development tenuate the thermal energy from system from acquiring or sub- of smoke used over friendly areas nuclear detonations. sequently tracking targets, thereby to conceal them from enemy When the enemy possesses reducing its effectiveness. Employ- ground and aerial observation. A directed-energy weapons, use smoke ment of obscuration smoke on an at- smoke blanket may hamper opera- or obscurants to degrade the effects tacking armored force may cause it tions of friendly troops by restrict- of those weapons. Directed-energy to vary its speed, inadvertently ing movement and activity within weapons include lasers; high-power change its axis of advance, deploy the screen. It provides maximum microwaves; particle beams; and prematurely, and rely on nonvisual concealment. It is a concentration non-nuclear, directed electromag- means of command and control. of smoke that would allow the iden- netic pulse. A detailed description tification of a small tactical vehicle of the effects of smoke and Screening Smoke from 0 to 50 meters but no farther. obscurants on directed-energy Smoke curtain. A smoke curtain weapons is in Appendix B. Screening smoke is smoke is a dense, vertical development of delivered in areas between friendly smoke. It is placed between friendly Marking Smoke and enemy forces or in friendly and enemy positions to prevent or operational areas to degrade enemy degrade enemy ground observation Marking smoke includes smoke ground or aerial observation or of friendly positions. Since the used to mark targets, identify friend- both. It also defeats or degrades smoke curtain is not placed directly ly positions, and provide for prear- enemy EO systems. In general, use on friendly troops, it will not ranged battlefield communications. screening smoke to attack enemy hamper friendly operations. Com- The smoke means used for iden- target acquisition and guidance sys- manders should use smoke curtains tification or signaling smoke are nor- tems by placing smoke between the when friendly forces have air supe- mally projected means and smoke friendly unit and the sensors. riority or air parity. It does not hand grenades. For example, use Generated means, such as smoke prevent aerial observation; however, helicopter-delivered smoke rockets generators, smoke pots, and smoke it may force aircraft to fly higher in to mark a target for destruction by hand grenades, deliver screening order to see behind the curtain, close air support aircraft, artillery, smoke. thus increasing vulnerability to air or mortars. Use smoke hand For example, employ screening defense weapons. In general, smoke grenades to signal aircraft. smoke to conceal ground maneuver, curtains will defeat sensors in the breaching and recovery operations,

FM 3-50 13 Smoke Delivery Means The primary factors that affect ward observers. Also, use them for smoke to provide depth of coverage delivery of smoke onto a target are initiating screening smoke forward throughout the battlefield. the smoke weapon system (delivery of an attacking force that smoke Generated smoke can cover small means and smoke agents) and ter- generators will sustain. and large areas for up to an in- rain and weather conditions (steer- definite period of time based on the ing winds and temperature Self-Defense Smoke availability of logistical support, par- gradients). Appendixes C and G Self-defense smoke is smoke ticularly fuel. detail smoke delivery means and produced by smoke grenade launch- Smoke pots and smoke grenades. smoke agents, respectively. ers and the vehicle engine exhaust You can pre-position these. They smoke system (VEESS), which we do not require an operator. You Smoke Delivery mount on most armored vehicles. can ignite them manually or electri- cally. Use these smoke devices in Systems An advantage of this system is rapid smoke production and respon- hasty smoke operations because of In general, there are three means siveness to the small unit leader. their relatively short burn time and for producing smoke: projected, Disadvantages include danger to dis- ease of access. The ideal battlefield self-defense, and generated smoke mounted troops with the grenade applications for smoke pots are in- devices and systems. launchers, interrupting your own tar- itiating screening smoke, marking get acquisition while taking evasive smoke, and providing smoke unit Projected Smoke maneuvers, and additional fuel con- self-protection. Smoke hand Projected smoke is smoke sumption for VEESS. grenades are best for small-area produced by artillery or mortar The ideal battlefield application screening smoke (squad-size munitions, naval gunfire, helicopter- for self-defense smoke devices is to maneuver) and marking smoke. delivered rockets, and bombs and conceal armored vehicle movements Smoke generators. Smoke gener- generator smoke from fixed-wing and to reduce vulnerability to attack ator units produce large volumes of aircraft. The advantage of using by enemy antiarmor weapons. The smoke to support hasty or projected smoke munitions is you devices function as follows: deliberate smoke operations. Smoke can place smoke directly on a deep, Armored vehicle smoke grenade generator units require a stand-off close, or rear target. launchers. Mounted on M88, M113, distance from the target based on The disadvantage of projected M60, Ml, M2, and M3 families of wind speed and direction. Smoke smoke is that most projected smoke armored vehicles, smoke grenade generators are ideal for large-area devices and munitions are lethal; launchers provide rapid obscurant smoke missions of long duration. they cannot be used on or near production to assist the vehicle in They require detailed planning for friendly forces. Most unit basic self-defense. The launchers deliver logistical support. The ideal bat- loads for munitions are insufficient the obscurant in front and/or to the tlefield applications for smoke gen- for sustaining smoke on a target. flanks of a vehicle by smoke erators include screening, The exception to this is generator grenades electrically fired from the protecting, and sustaining obscuring smoke from fixed- and rotary-wing vehicle. smoke. aircraft, which is considered a Vehicle engine exhaust smoke sys- There are two concepts for projected smoke system because of tem. The VEESS injects diesel fuel employing smoke generators: its ability to obscure deep targets. into the engine exhaust system. The mobile and stationary. Projected smoke can support both fuel then vaporizes and is released Mobile smoke is smoke produced short- and long-duration missions into the air, where it condenses and while the system is on the move. based on the availability of ammuni- produces smoke Vehicles that cur- Mobile smoke units normally are tion. Combine use of projected rently have the VEESS include the positioned well forward on the bat- smoke munitions with other smoke AVLB. LEV, M88A11, M60, Ml, tlefield. They have the advantage of employment means throughout the M2, and M3 families of combat maneuver, but are exposed to more battlefield. vehicles. enemy weapon systems. They have The ideal battlefield applications a self-concealment ability that en- for projected smoke systems are Generated Smoke hances their survival, and they can make smoke from a freed position producing obscuring smoke, initiat- Generated smoke is smoke ing screening smoke, and marking or while moving. Mobile smoke sys- produced by smoke pots, smoke tems rely heavily on passive opera- targets. For example, use projected grenades, and smoke generators. smoke systems to place smoke on tions security (OPSEC) measures to Steering winds deliver generated enhance their survivability. enemy intelligence gathering assets, smoke to a target. Combine ATGM positions, and artillery for- generated smoke with projected

14 FM 3-50 Mobile smoke is supplied by units Stationary smoke is smoke height, density, duration, and travel equipped with M1059 mechanized produced from a fixed location, nor- distance of smoke. There are three smoke carriers or motorized M157 mally by units equipped with M3A4 types of temperature gradients: smoke generators. mechanical pulse jet smoke gener- lapse, neutral, and inversion. The M1059 is an M113 armored ators mounted on M998 HMMWVs Since steering winds carry smoke, personnel carrier (APC) equipped or M151 1/4-ton vehicles with smoke usually follows the contours with the M157 smoke generator set. trailers. Units move their vehicles of the earth’s surface. On flat, un- This system can support armored and smoke generators into positions broken terrain and over water and mechanized forces well for- on a smoke line and then produce (open terrain), smoke streamers ward. It is less vulnerable to small smoke. These units are limited by take longer to spread out and mix arms and indirect fire than wheeled their mobility and require more with other streamers. Obstructions, systems due to its armored plating. time to set up and depart an area. such as trees and buildings, tend to Its tracked chassis provides it with They are well-suited for large-area break up smoke streamers. The the ability to move with its sup- smoke missions conducted in rear streamers may then re-form, cover ported unit both on and off the areas. a larger area, and create a more road. uniform cloud than over open ter- The motorized M157 smoke gener- Weather and Terrain rain. Large hill masses and very ator is an M1037 HMMWV rugged terrain cause strong cross equipped with an M157 smoke gen- Effects currents of wind and tend to create erator set. This system can provide Steering winds actually carry the holes and uneven dispersal of the mobile smoke to light infantry and smoke and determine its direction, smoke cloud. specialized units. This system is vul- speed, and downwind travel dis- Appendix F details the effects of nerable to small arms and indirect tance. Temperature gradients are weather and terrain on obscurants. fire. normally based on the time of day. It also gives a summary of the best Temperature gradients affect the and worst employment conditions.

Smoke Units Smoke generator units are as- lines the smoke coverage limiting exposure of smoke assets to signed to chemical battalions under capabilities of smoke platoons. that fire. chemical brigades at corps, to chemical battalions at TAACOMs, Tactics, Techniques, Tactics, Techniques, and to divisions. Detailed informa- and Procedures tion concerning the modified or Procedures, and The commander that "owns" the living tables of organization and Unit Guidelines equipment (MTOEs/LTOEs) and terrain is responsible for controlling capabilities of these units is in Ap- Smoke tends to draw enemy atten- the smoke. Place smoke before the pendix D. tion and fire especially when used enemy can pinpoint targets. Employ The platoon is the lowest echelon over friendly areas. The effect of smoke during hours of darkness of command for smoke units that is enemy fire can be minimized by and limited visibility periods (rain, self-sufficient. Table 2, below, out- detailed planning, synchronizing all fog, ice fog, snow, sleet) to enhance smoke assets with firepower, and its effectiveness. Synchronize all smoke assets for maximum impact

FM 3-50 15 against the enemy. Coordinate smoke. Rehearsal of displacement cal unit. This organization permits smoke employment with adjacent under smoke will help you avoid close control and the most produc- units and all units in the operation- confusion and disorientation and tive use of all assets. The com- al area to minimize friendly unit rapidly restore engagement mander continuously monitors the degradation. capability. progress of assigned tasks. He shifts Understand that smoke compres- elements where the need is greatest ses the battlefield by limiting Unit Guidelines throughout his area of operations. visibility. Training soldiers to Smoke units are vulnerable to On the other hand the supported operate in smoke reduces the enemy direct fire weapons. Use the unit commander at the lowest level degradation caused by smoke. It following guidelines when employ- gets greater responsiveness when also reduces psychological impact ing smoke generator units. Smoke the chemical unit is under his direct such as confusion, fear, and isola- units should, whenever possible, control. He determines the task or- tion on troops. avoid prominent terrain features ganization and gives missions direct- Smoke cloud size should be large and locations that would permit ac- ly to the units under him. enough to prevent the enemy from curate map firings or fire through Providing smoke units in a com- saturating the entire smoked area adjustment from a known point. mand or a support relationship is a with fire. The target should be off- Do not use mobile smoke vehicles balance between the needs of the set from center within the smoke. A to lead the attack. Use them to higher commander for flexibility rule of thumb is for the screen to screen the flanks or main body and the needs of the subordinate be five times the size of the target. maneuvering forces. Do not employ commander for responsiveness. The Avoid patterns for smoke employ- smoke units less than a platoon-size corps may provide each committed ment. Avoid placing smoke over the element. Use stationary smoke units heavy division with one motorized center of your target every time. to conceal rear area facilities and and one mechanized smoke com- Maneuver using the flanks and light infantry forces. pany. Light infantry divisions are edges of the smoke alternatively normally provided a dual-purpose with the center. smoke/decontamination company. To support tactical deception, Command and Support Units are provided in either a com- employ smoke over other likely Smoke units operate under two mand or support relationship. areas to dilute the volume of fire types of relationships: command For brigades already in contact or and draw attention to the areas of and support. A command relation- when contact is imminent, it is also little or no importance. The smoke ship reflects the chain of command appropriate for the division to allo- should approximate the principal and degree of authority. A support cate chemical units in an OPCON smoke cloud in size. Establish and relationship represents the manner or attached status. Brigades, in enforce mobile smoke control in which the maneuver unit is to be turn, can provide chemical assets measures. The smoke control of- supported. directly to their battalion task for- ficer controls the smoke operation In the tactical planning process ces only when they receive the from a vantage point allowing target the staff recommends the ap- chemical assets from the division in observation, ensuring it is complete- propriate command or support a command relationship. Otherwise, ly concealed by smoke. When using relationship between the chemical the chemical unit commander self-defense smoke, ensure the en- unit and the supported unit. This deploys his subordinate elements tire squad, section, or platoon uses relationship defines the specific based on his estimate. the smoke simultaneously to pre- responsibilities between supporting At each echelon, commanders use clude drawing attention to a lone and supported units. Generally, organizational principles, derived vehicle. smoke units at corps and division from the AirLand battle impera- Start the smoke mission prior to levels establish support rather than tives, to guide the employment of operation start time and continue command relationships. Direct sup- chemical units. These principles in- well beyond the end of the opera- port (DS) is the preferred support clude the following: tion. For example, a river crossing relationship for company-size and Task organize to meet require- is scheduled for the time from 0500 larger chemical units. Attachment is ments. Mission requirements drive to 0700. Start smoke at 0400 and the preferred command relationship size and composition of task forces. stop smoke at 0800 to confuse the for chemical platoons. A mix of chemical units is often enemy as to the exact crossing time necessary to achieve the proper and size of the force. balance of capabilities. Limited visibility positions, Organization Task organize by platoons. preplanned and previously pre- and Principles Give priority to the main effort. pared, will minimize degradation There are not enough chemical as- caused by friendly or Threat use Smoke units work most efficiently of under the control of a parent chemi- sets on the battlefield to handle all

16 FM 3-50 tasks. Chemical units are not spread operation. This commander must ex- smoke plan, in coordination with evenly across the battlefield but are ecute coordination with all units par- the FSO and smoke unit com- concentrated with the main effort to ticipating in or influenced by the mander. The procedures for smoke ensure its success. smoke operation. He defines smoke planning have been discussed. The Integrate chemical support with support requirements to include— procedures for monitoring execu- maneuver and fire. The scheme of His intent. tion are— maneuver governs the use of smoke Visibility criteria within the smoke. Direct the chemical staff in and reconnaissance assets. Location and size of the smoke monitoring the smoke support plan. Do not hold smoke units in target. Monitor planned smoke engage- reserve. Smoke assets are too Time for effective smoke to be ment by fire support assets: scarce and valuable to be held out on the target. – Coordinate with FScell. of the fight. They must refit quickly Duration of effective smoke on – Determine whether planned fire and return to their primary mission. the target. was executed. Make logistically sustainable Security of smoke assets. – Make changes as necessary. plans. Resources are always limited. Immediate support available for – Report changes as required. The availability of fuel and fog oil the mission. – Update status displays. restricts chemical unit ability to ex- Preparation of a smoke annex for Monitor planned smoke engage- ecute smoke missions. Conduct the operation. ment by smoke unit assets: detailed planning for chemical unit – Monitor the smoke unit net. sustainment and supporting logistics. Smoke Unit Commander’s – Determine success (Smoke on tar- Maintain effective command and Responsibilities get on time? Did it achieve pur- pose?). control. Effective plans use all avail- When the smoke plan calls for sup- able controlling headquarters and – Make changes as necessary. port from a smoke generator unit, – Report changes as required. hand off operations smoothly be- the commander of the smoke unit is tween them. – Update status displays. responsible for all activities concern- Monitor planned smoke employ- ing establishing and maintaining Responsibilities ment by maneuver units (for ex- smoke on the designated target. ample, VEESS and smoke pots): When supported by a smoke gener- Based upon information from the – Monitor the appropriate com- ator unit, both the maneuver unit maneuver commander, the smoke mand or maneuver unit net. commander and the smoke unit unit commander performs the fol- – Determine success (Smoke on tar- commander have specific sets of lowing tasks: get on time? Did it achieve pur- responsibilities for planning and Plans for map, air, or ground pose?). coordinating the smoke mission. reconnaissance. – Make changes as necessary. Smoke missions involve close coor- Coordinates the mission with sup- – Report changes as required. dination between the supported unit ported and adjacent units. – Update status displays. commander and staff and the Selects and coordinates smoke Monitor immediate calls for smoke unit commander. Com- lanes (mobile smoke) or smoke smoke: manders must use the same troop- lines (stationary smoke). –Monitor the appropriate net leading procedures for smoke assets Coordinates communications nets. (FScell and smoke unit). as they will for their maneuver Provides input for the smoke – Determine if smoke support is re- units, ensuring smoke unit com- annex. quired. manders have adequate time and Identifies additional support re- – Determine the best asset to resources to plan and prepare for quirements within the limitations of engage. (Note: Fire support assets smoke support. command or support relationships. have the quickest response time.) – Respond if necessary to coor- Maneuver Unit Commander’s Chemical Staff Officer’s dinate smoke support from other Responsibilities Responsibilities than fire support assets. – Update status displays. The maneuver unit commander is The chemical staff officer plans responsible for the overall tactical and monitors the execution of the

FM 3-50 17 Chapter 2

Threat

US forces may have to fight countries. These are excellent refer- established smoke lines up to 100 enemies ranging from sophisticated ences for unit organization and kilometers long, maintaining them armored forces of Warsaw Pact and equipment, operations and tactics, for several days, weeks, and months. the more advanced emerging and specialized warfare. The Soviets state that smoke car- countries to unconventional forces The smoke capability of our poten- ries more importance today than in of the Third World. The reconnais- tial adversaries ranges from field ex- World War II. This is due to the sance, surveillance, and target ac- pedient methods to extensive growth of highly sophisticated, long- quisition (RSTA) capabilities of our smoke-producing equipment and or- range target acquisition systems that potential adversaries range from ganizations in the field. Clearly the relatively inexpensive smoke and binoculars and night vision devices most significant Threat smoke obscurants can defeat. They believe to laser and thermal imaging sys- capability resides within the Soviet that smoke and obscurants can tems. We must focus our training, Union. Their continued emphasis degrade and potentially defeat the doctrine, and tactics in smoke and on adapting existing smoke assets to use of optical, laser, night vision, obscurants on degrading and poten- tactical missions and the develop- and even thermal imaging systems. tially defeating these types of sys- ment of new smoke systems allows For this reason the Soviets plan tems. Soviets to employ smoke in depth that they will use smoke whenever The training begins with identify- and in large areas for extended and wherever the tactical situation ing the location, types, capabilities, periods. permits. and employment procedures of Historically, the Soviets relied For these reasons, our intelligence enemy systems on the battlefield. heavily on smoke. In many instances preparation of the battlefield (IPB) The FM 100-2 series covers the smoke use was directly responsible must include both Threat RSTA Soviet Army and North Korean for operational success. One Soviet and smoke capabilities. This chap- Army. The Cuban Forces Hand- writing states that during an offen- ter outlines Threat RSTA and book, DDB-2680-62-86, dated May sive action smoke screens can smoke employment doctrine. Chap- 1980 and similar handbooks for reduce their losses of combat ters 3 through 5 outline doctrine other countries are excellent sour- vehicles by 60 percent to 80 per- and tactics to attack Threat RSTA ces of information on Third World cent. In World War II, the Soviets efforts and protect the force.

Reconnaissance, Surveillance, and Target Acquisition The effective employment of bat- Threat RSTA encompasses all Aerial reconnaissance sources are tlefield smoke and obscurants re- methods, such as photographic intel- the satellites, front/army aviation as- quires an understanding of Threat ligence (PHOTINT), imagery intel- sets, rotary-wing aircraft, and RSTA capabilities and how these ligence (IMINT), and human remotely piloted vehicles (RPVs). capabilities support Threat opera- intelligence (HUMINT). The most Ground reconnaissance includes tions. The Soviets define reconnais- reliable methods and therefore the long-range reconnaissance units of sance as the collection of most used methods of RSTA are front/army and divisional organiza- intelligence information about the also easily defeated by smoke and tions and special reconnaissance, location, disposition, composition, obscurants. The Threat groups such as NBC, engineer, and medical number, armament, combat these methods into three major reconnaissance. preparedness, character of ac- areas (aerial, ground, and artillery) Artillery reconnaissance uses artil- tivities, and intentions of the enemy that encompass the strategic, opera- lery observation posts through in the interests of combat. tional, and tactical depth of the bat- direct observation, supplemented by tlefield. radar, sound, and flash ranging, and

18 FM 3-50 information resulting from can transmit their information in- The BRM is a BMP variant electronic means. flight. High-performance aircraft mounting the TALL MIKE ground Threat forces will conduct recon- and helicopters can be equipped surveillance radar. Some units will naissance to acquire information on with laser range finders and desig- have the PSNR (portable informa- US nuclear weapons, force disposi- nators. tion gathering station), a man-pack tion, and intentions. In the Soviet Reconnaissance aircraft fly at a radar, or a mixture of both. ground forces, dedicated reconnais- high speed and low altitude, out to Detailed information on the recon- sance units will conduct aggressive 600 kilometers beyond the forward naissance units’ organization and RSTA for commanders from the edge of the battle area (FEBA). equipment can be found in front down to regiment. However, certain reconnaissance FM 100-2-3. aircraft, such as the FOXBAT B Ground reconnaissance is primari- Aerial Reconnaissance (with visual and IR cameras) and ly the concern of the tactical com- the FOXBAT D (with SLAR), may mander at division and below. His Satellite, or "cosmic" reconnais- perform their missions at high al- or her interest is the enemy and ter- sance, includes photography and titude without having to cross their rain to the immediate front, out to television. It is controlled by the forward line of own troops (FLOT). 100 to 150 kilometers. Tactical GRU (general staff’s main intel- Front and army RSTA assets may ground reconnaissance units ligence directorate). One reconnais- include a squadron of drones, com- operate out to 50 kilometers in sance satellite version contains a monly the DR3. Drones may have front of the division. Airborne video system on which images are vertical and side-looking cameras, reconnaissance teams can operate stored and later retransmitted to using visual and IR film. A drone out to 100 kilometers. Soviet ground stations. may also carry a video with real- The information gathered directly Aerial reconnaissance is the prin- time down-link, though this would supports the plan of fire and cipal method of gathering target in- reduce its range. One drone maneuver. Reconnaissance units will telligence. It provides the most squadron could launch 20 missions operate as patrols of two to three timely and reliable information on a day. vehicles. The greatest effort will be the character and location of tar- Aerial reconnaissance is particular- directed toward suspected enemy gets, particularly those in the enemy ly critical to the initial air opera- strength and primary axes of ad- rear. Aerial reconnaissance recog- tion. Predesignated strikes are vance. These patrols will avoid com- nizes four major categories of tar- planned in detail. Maps and terrain bat if possible. They will gets: models are used to familiarize concentrate their efforts on finding Nuclear weapon systems and pilots, plan approach and departure enemy units, determining their storage depots. routes, and determine attack techni- strength, disposition, and weapons. Active and potential airfields. ques and routes. The vulnerability As the battle is joined, these patrols Defensive positions and systems of high-performance aircraft to will attempt to penetrate the FEBA (AD, C3, EW). ground-based air defense neces- to report on rear area activities, Reserves, logistic facilities, and sitates a low-altitude (ideally, 50 to movement of reserves, and location approaches. 100 meters), high-speed approach of supply routes. Front air forces normally include in minimum time. The pilot has In addition to dedicated reconnais- an air reconnaissance regiment, but three to six seconds to identify his sance units, the organization of the may have as many as three. These target. Helicopter squadrons at regiment in march maximizes recon- regiments are self-contained and army and division level will fly mis- naissance. To maintain the momen- process the information they collect. sions in support of engineer, chemi- tum of the attack, the regiment in There are 24 to 40 aircraft per regi- cal, and artillery reconnaissance. march allocates its combat power ment. Their collection capabilities forward in increments of one-third. include fixed-frame and strip Ground This march formation assures that photography, infrared (IR) photog- the main body is not impeded by a raphy, television, and side-looking Reconnaissance small enemy force. airborne radar (SLAR). An ex- Reconnaissance units are assigned The first element is the combat ample is the FOXBAT B, which car- to all echelons of the Soviet force reconnaissance patrol (CRP), con- ries five nose-mounted cameras and structure, from regiment to front. sisting of a reinforced platoon. En- IR linescan equipment. It provides Reconnaissance units are equipped gineer and NBC reconnaissance a coverage corridor of up to 70 with tanks, BMPs, BTRs, and assets usually will be attached to kilometers. The aerial television BRDM2 scout cars, and reconnais- the CRP. The CRP engages enemy with down-link does not give the sance variants of each. Specialized units to determine strength and dis- resolution of still photography, but vehicles perform engineer and NBC position. If the CRP cannot over- it is near-real time. About half of reconnaissance. come the enemy, it will attempt to the Soviet reconnaissance aircraft

FM 3-50 19 fix the enemy in place to facilitate bat vehicles fleetwide. This for target acquisition, topographic the employment of its parent, the capability increases the Threat, be- survey equipment for location data, forward security element (FSE), cause reconnaissance and combat and a fire direction computer. consisting of a reinforced company. units will be able to detect and Battlefield surveillance radars also Next follows the advance guard, a engage friendly units using these support target acquisition and fire reinforced battalion. devices. adjustment. The PRP3 mobile obser- Target acquisition for direct fire vation, a BMP variant, is found in begins early in the battle. A PRP3, Artillery each howitzer battalion. It carries with its SMALL FRED target ac- the observation devices of the quisition radar, will be found with Reconnaissance ACRV and the SMALL FRED the advance guard, if not sooner. A network of observation posts radar, which detects targets and ad- Most Soviet combat vehicles carry controls artillery fire. Artillery obser- justs fire out to 20 kilometers. The active IR for night vision and fire vation posts locate targets and refer- BIG FRED battlefield surveillance control; many are equipped with ence points. They transmit the data radar, mounted on an MTLB, a laser range finders. Laser range back to the firing batteries and ad- light transport combat vehicle, is finders in vehicles and artillery units just fire. Some observation posts found in the target acquisition bat- are usually Nd: YAG (Neodymium: will be located with the advance tery of the artillery regiment. The yttrium aluminum garnett) operat- maneuver elements. Armored com- MI2 HOPLITE from the division ing in the visible spectrum at 1.06 mand and reconnaissance vehicles helicopter squadron is also used for microns. Some Third World (ACRVs) (which function as fire target acquisition and fire adjust- countries are capable of and have direction centers as well as observa- ment. installed thermal imagers rather tion posts) carry day/night observa- than active IR optics on their com- tion devices and laser range finders

Combined Arms Operations The Soviets believe the tank to be both improved and more extensive of Israeli armored vehicles in one the keystone of the combined arms obscuration capabilities and tactics. week. Their doctrine reflects this operation. Their concern about Soviet writings often cite the Arab- concern over defeating enemy an- NATO antitank capabilities gives Israeli War of 1973, in which titank weapon systems. them great incentive to develop ATGMs destroyed over one-third

Threat Smoke Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures In addition to the three battlefield Use decoy smoke at one or more Use smoke to screen the ac- smoke applications, we can expect likely crossing sites in an attempt to tivities of engineer units when clear- the Threat to follow several deceive our forces. ing minefield and to mark passages guidelines when using smoke. These Use smoke to conceal aerial refer- through engineer barriers. include the following: ence points. Use smoke to screen logistics Cover an area five times the size Use smoke to conceal important routes and activities that are within of the target, with the target off cen- locations and possible targets such range of our fire and observation. ter within the smoke. as troop concentrations, crossing Use smoke to mark targets for Light dummy fires or use flares sites, bridges, railroad junctions, aircraft, artillery preparation, and within the smoke to give the false and unloading areas. signaling purposes. impression of a hit when enemy fire Screen flanks of attacking Use blinding, camouflage, and falls within the smoke. echelons. decoy smoke to conceal the direc- Initiate the smoke two to three Use illumination rounds in con- tion and time of attack to minimize hours before starting the operation; junction with blinding smoke to losses. sustain the smoke along a wide destroy night vision on the objective front to conceal river crossing and illuminate the target. Note: Reliable communication and operations. Screen fronts of advancing continuous coordination among Place smoke on both sides of the maneuver echelons. units making smoke, units using river during crossing operations. Screen movement of guns and smoke, forward air warning assets, Make maximum use of floating other weapon systems into firing and air defense systems are essen- smoke pots and smoke barrels to positions and from position to posi- tial. cover the crossings. tion.

20 FM 3-50 Threat Offensive Smoke Use Threat smoke doctrine states that After a Threat attacking force forward elements is 1,300 meters. they will use smoke whenever and passes through the FLOT to our The CRP is part of the reinforced wherever the tactical situation per- side of the FLOT, use consecutive motorized rifle company (MRC), mits. The extent they use smoke in lines of fire with HE and WP/PWP which is part of a reinforced MRB. any offensive operation depends lar- to provide additional blinding The mission of the FSE is to destroy gely on the amount of time avail- smoke. our reconnaissance forces and to able to plan and coordinate for the Use VEESS/grenades on the US destroy or fix our lead company, use of smoke in support of the side of the FLOT only on command thereby fixing our force in position. operation. Smoke usage is also de- of the company and battalion com- Twenty minutes behind the FSE is pendent on other variables, such as mander when required for addition- the reinforced MRB (minus the ad- weather, terrain, and the tactical al protection. vanced guard) that is to actually con- situation. Nevertheless, we can duct the attack. deduce several doctrinal norms for Threat Smoke Example At H-hour supporting artillery our IPB in regard to Threat smoke The following example illustrates deploy and fire a WP round from use in the offense. Expect the the Threat’s use of smoke in the of- each of two 122-millimeter guns to Threat to— fense. The example does not in- mark the enemy’s flanks. The FSE is Use an intense initial artillery clude consideration of either terrain moving forward and will establish preparation with HE and smoke or local meteorological conditions; the FLOT along the screen line of munitions fired for shock and sup- therefore, it is largely mission, the CRP. The advanced guard is pression enemy, terrain, troops, and time moving forward at a rate of 30 Use sustained HE fire to cause at- available (METT-T) independent. kilometers per hour. trition to defenders; this also The example centers around the The artillery and mortar units begin creates large quantities of dust that type, extent, and time frame in their fire at H + 1 minute, using HE stay aerosolized after three to four which the Threat would use rounds on the objective. The FSE volleys. obscurants. The example does not has deployed along the FLOT with Place blinding HE dust and consider our countermeasures and its attached tank platoon in the north- smoke on or in front of defensive does not represent US Army ern sector. positions. doctrine. At H + 9 minutes, the FSE’s com- Use smoke to deny acquisition, In meeting engagements, the bat vehicles initiate camouflage degrade armor or antiarmor Threat attempts to seize the initia- smoke with their VEESSs (Figure 1, guidance systems, and with toxic tive to either overwhelm or force next page). The artillery and mortar smokes create casualties. the opponent into the defensive. units increase their rate of fire. Two In the main attack area, make These tactics generally occur when minutes later (H + 11 minutes) the smoke three to five times wider covering forces, guard forces, two platoons in the northern sector than the zone of attack. patrols, and units moving to contact shut off their VEESS and fire a half On the Threat side of the FLOT, encounter the enemy, either inten- volley of their smoke grenades. These use smoke pots and generators and tionally or unintentionally. They are two platoons will distract attention limited VEESS smoke to normally conflicts of a few hours from the advanced guard, which will camouflage and protect the attack- duration. A meeting engagement conduct the actual attack along a ing force’s advance from long-range will probably occur more frequently more southerly axis. helicopter and indirect fire. than any other encounter and in- At H + 12 minutes, the MRB (-) On the US side of the FLOT, volve the least amount of deliberate arrives at the FLOT and attacks use HE-created dust, projected use of smoke and obscurants. through the area where the two WP/PWP smoke, and on-board A Threat reinforced motorized rifle motorized rifle platoons are still smoke to degrade acquisition and battalion (MRB) has penetrated our generating camouflaging smoke with armor or antiarmor guidance sys- defensive positions. A second- their VEESS. Each of the two tank tems. echelon unit has exploited the platoons from the attacking force Increase artillery tempo as attack breakthrough by continuing the now fires a half volley of grenades. force approaches the FLOT march into our rear area. At H - 9, The units that had previously fired Shift HE and smoke fire to iso- both sides have located each other, their grenades to distract attention late the zone of attack when the at- with neither screening force large fire the rest of their grenades and tacker is 400 to 1,000 meters from enough to initiate combat. Therefore, begin to move forward. our defense. they remain in contact until either At H + 13 minutes, the tanks Conduct the final assault unen- side can bring forward a larger force. from the main attacking formation cumbered by their own obscurants The distance between the opposing fire the rest of their grenades as they

FM 3-50 21 continue to attack The mortar and artillery units start forward. The feint firing an HE/WP mix at H + 15 has stalled and is minutes. now unobscured. At H + 16 minutes, Threat fire HE rounds are shifts to the rear of the defensive posi- still falling on the tions to isolate our force. objective (Figure For a list of total obscurant and ar- 2, below). tillery assets used by the Threat in this example, see Table 3.

Threat Defensive Smoke Use Threat defensive smoke use can To ensure flank and maneuver Smoke to Disrupt be grouped into two broad security. categories. These are smoke for To mislead our forces on the dis- and Defeat protection from fire and smoke to position of second echelons and Advancing Forces disrupt and defeat advancing forces. reserves and planned counterattack directions. The Threat also will use smoke Smoke for Protection To conceal the withdrawal of the while in the defense to slow, dis- battle outpost. rupt, and defeat our advancing for- Examples of Threat smoke usage To counter our reconnaissance, in- ces. Several Threat writings for protection include the following telligence, target acquisition, and expressed concern over identifying To camouflage the maneuvers of weapon guidance and control sys- targets set against forest or brush their subunits of tanks, infantry, and tems. backgrounds. For this reason, the artillery. To protect targets from laser Threat developed techniques involv- To conceal engineer activities designators. ing the use of smoke and illumina- from our observation. To blind our observation posts tion rounds to serve as an artificial To screen replacements of first- and forward observers. background. This makes target iden- echelon units and subunits under To conceal engineer breaching tification easier. These techniques conditions of good visibility. operations. involve firing mortar and/or artillery To camouflage the approach of To conceal aerial reference points. smoke rounds 50 to 100 meters their subunits for counterattack. To defeat the light and heat ef- beyond our advancing forces. Then fects of nuclear weapons. they place illumination rounds just

22 FM 3-50 beyond the smoke to illuminate the Threat Smoke Example When their forces have identified background from the rear. This our axis of advavce, they begin to es- The best illustration of Threat tablish an obscuring line, using WP creates favorable conditions for ob- smoke use in the defense is a servation and acquisition. Threat hasty defense versus a friend- and illumination rounds approximate- Also, Threat doctrine states that ly 150 to 200 meters in front of our ly deliberate attack. In the following FLOT. When our attackers emerge smoke deprives our units, when scenario, Threat forces have attack- shrouded in smoke, of the from the smoke, Threat forces engage ed and are well within our territory. them with ATGM weapon systems. capability to conduct observation of Threat forces have already made an the field of battle. Smoke will make The Threat will establish a second unsuccessful attempt to attack from obscuring line approximately 900 fire control and navigation more dif- a position in contact. ficult. As a result, our attacking for- The Threat force commander is meters in front of our FLOT, using ces can stray off course from the preparing to conduct an attack from HE and WP fire. Again, ATGM fire specified directions and get mixed a position in contact. Before he can will engage our attacking forces when up with each other. There is poten- initiate this attack we attack. Two we emerge from the smoke. As our tial for us to reduce or not aim our minutes after our forces begin their forces reach the point 1,000 meters fire, creating favorable conditions preparatory fire, Threat artillery uses from the the Threat’s FLOT, they for Threat second echelons and counterbattery fire with HE onto our will engage us with HE munitions reserves to deploy, seize the initia- scout platoon. from a 122-millimeter multiple rocket tive, and counterattack. launcher.

Commander’s Considerations Even the most sophisticated Extent of enemy smoke employ- Example 2 shows that the Threat weapon systems are limited by ter- ment. use of smoke degrades the enemy’s rain and weather. Prior planning by Directed-energy weapon own force combat power when we the S2/G2, S3/G3, and the chemical capabilities of the enemy force. have ATGMs with thermal sights officer can increase the limitations We use smoke and obscurants to (for example, TOW II). TOW II of enemy systems with man-made attack Threat EO systems and to can see and shoot through most obscurants. The commander will protect our force. Smoke and smokes. This increases our force have to decide how smoke and obscurants can change the number ratio (2.5:1) over that depicted in ex- obscurants will affect his ability to of effective weapon systems avail- ample 1 (1:6.4) by removing all conduct the direct fire fight. Given able to either force. Once the com- Threat long-range direct fire the various types of EO devices and mander decides to use smoke and weapons while not significantly the number of visual and bispectral obscurants, the outcome of the bat- degrading friendly long-range tank obscurants that will be common on tle and the proficiency of his intel- main gun (M1) and missile shots any future battlefield, the answer to ligence, operations, and chemical (IFV and ITV). this question is not easy. The officers will determine the effective- In example 3, we use smoke Soviets may not have thermal im- ness of his weapons. against a high-technology threat. agery sights on their weapon sys- The four examples in Figure 3, on Our use of smoke degrades the tems. However, other potential the next page, illustrate how smoke Threat’s combat power when we adversaries are attempting to ac- affects the number of enemy have the TOW II. The force ratios quire or already have the systems. weapon systems that can engage the are the same as in example 2. In ex- During any future conflict, you must combat battalion. Example 1 ample 4, we use smoke against a know your enemy, "What?" depicts the force ratio when smoke low-technology threat. This "When?" "Where?" "How?" and is not used. In this example, the eliminates the Threat’s ability to "With how many?" will always be standard force ratio is Threat forces fight the direct fire fight since none the questions to answer. Other 6.4:1 over friendly forces. In ex- of the enemy’s long-range fire sys- PIRs to determine the effects of amples 2 through 4, the same size tems can see through smoke. In this obscurants are the— force uses equal amounts of smoke case, our force ratio significantly in- EO system capabilities of the and puts it in the same location. creases (8:1). Friendly forces are ememy force. However, the force ratio changes in able to engage the Threat’s entire Extent of their employment: each example based on the relative force. whether on reconnaissance systems, abilities of opposing weapon sys- We could describe an infinite num- direct fire systems, or all systems. tems to see through the smoke and ber of combinations of smoke and Smoke delivery capabilities of the engage targets. weapon usage; therefore, com- enemy force.

FM 3-50 23 24 FM 3-50 manders must consider the follow- Threat direct fire systems to see your enemy to see and fire through ing principles when using smoke: and shoot through smoke. smoke. Plan the battle accordingly Smoke usage can change the num- Employing smoke improperly can and never leave smoke employment ber of effective weapon systems degrade friendly combat potential. to chance. available to either force. When in doubt, employ smoke only Smoke effectiveness is directly re- when you can see and fire through lated to the relative ability of it. Know your ability and that of

US Countermeasures to Threat Use of Smoke Threat smoke and obscurant use Dispersion using thermal imagers and direct has the potential for significantly fire weapon systems. degrading both our defensive and of- Dispersing our forces laterally and fensive operations. In general, there in depth places a greater burden on Engagement are two options available to counter attacking fire. Combining dispersion enemy smoke use: Move to aler- with rigorous counterreconnaissance of Enemy Forces nate positions on the battlefield to measures forces the Threat to ex- in March Formation continue unimpaired operations, or pend more resources and take use EO devices that allow opera- greater risks in conducting attacks. The Threat does not plan as much tions to continue under smoke. The more dispersed you are, the smoke to protect the force while Our forces must first understand more difficult and costly it is for they are still behind the FLOT. If Threat doctrine regarding use of the Threat to bring blinding smoke we engage enemy march formations, smoke and obscurants to anticipate fire on your positions. Additionally, less enemy smoke use should en- when and where the Threat will dispersing in depth aids in obtain- hance our fire. employ them on the battlefield. ing flanking fire where the Threat Next, our commanders must train smoke is much less concentrated. Limited Visibility their units to operate in periods of Positions limited visibility where target ac- Deception quisition, navigation, and command Threat doctrine calls for the and control are confusing and dif- Tactical deception can cause the Threat to lift all smoke when they ficult. Finally, we must train and Threat to ineffectively use smoke as- come within 1,000 meters of their use tactics, techniques, and proce- sets. For example, an effective ruse objective. Using alternate positions dures that overcome or minimize might cause the enemy to expend forward of your main defense will the effectiveness of Threat smoke greater resources in attempting to cause attrition in their attacking and obscurant usage. blind friendly gunners and force and disrupt their timetables, camouflage tank movement. This creating surprise and confusion Obstacles would reduce overall smoke effec- when they emerge from their final tiveness. Using deception means smoke screen. However, the use of Obstacles placed along the may also cause the enemy to attack any alternate positions increases the enemy’s most likely avenue of ad- in the wrong direction and become need for countersurveillance and vance can slow them, disrupting silhouetted against their own smoke, counterreconnaissance measures. their timetables. Preplanned fire on allowing us to effectively engage Occupation of reverse slope posi- these positions can be an effective their force without smoke degrading tions coupled with alternate or means of engaging the enemy even our line of sight. dummy positions on the forward in dense concentrations of smoke. slope can cause the enemy to waste Acquisition devices that are less Friendly Countersmoke artillery assets and give friendly sensitive to smoke and obscurants defenders more time to react when can acquire the enemy at choke Friendly forces can use smoke and enemy attackers emerge from their points and/or barriers and then obscurants to counter enemy use of own smoke. direct engagement by direct and in- smoke as control measures or phase lines. Friendly visual obscurants can direct fire. Obstacles can delay one Stay-Behind Forces element of the attacking force, draw- flood the area between friendly ing an adjacent element into an defensive positions and enemy Stay-behind forces using nonlinear engagement area, unable to receive smoke lines to disorient the enemy tactics can engage an enemy from supporting fire. Separation of forces and deceive them as to the actual their flanks and rear where they are may also occur due to the enemy’s battle positions. At the same time, often unobscured. own use of smoke. friendly units can engage the enemy

FM 3-50 25 Positioning Ground Surveillance Preplanned of Observers and Radar Disengagements Observation Devices Employ ground surveillance radar Execute preplanned disengage- Position forward observers, warn- (GSR) with maneuver elements to ment based on remote signal ing systems, and ground/vehicle direct, identify, and locate targets in devices rather than visual cues. Use laser locator designators smoke. Ensure our own obscurant a thorough IPB to establish the key (G/VLLDs) where they are less like- operations do not mask GSRs with event for disengagement on your ly to encounter obscuration during millimeter wave obscurants and that decision support templates. the battle. The highest point of a GSRs can continue to provide tar- battle position normally offers the geting data to commanders when Air Defense Positions best lines of sight for laser desig- smoke obscures other surveillance nators. However, because of the vul- means. Position air defense assets where nerability of these G/VLLDs to they obtain the most benefit from smoke and obscurants, commanders Use of Threat Smoke enemy smoke. Emplace systems re- quiring visual target acquisition (for should attempt to avoid blinding by to Conceal placing these devices on the flanks example, Vulcan and Stinger) on of a battle position. Our Maneuver high ground clear of the smoke. Use them to look over the smoke When the Threat uses smoke be- and engage low-flying helicopters Targeting tween their forces and ours, we can and aircraft that silhouette against of Enemy exploit the fact that they are as like- the smoke. Emplace air defense sys- ly to be unable to see through it as tems using thermal or millimeter Smoke Assets we. We can use their smoke to aid wave acquisition in the smoke to In addition to passive counter- in obtaining surprise for our own at- mask missile launch points. measures, we can also take active tack or counterattack. steps to reduce the obscurant threat. Using IPB with a thorough Use of Friendly understanding of how the enemy Aviation employs smoke assets, we can deter- mine the location of those smoke as- Use friendly aviation assets to sets. Once located, enemy artillery identify gaps in smoke coverage. and smoke generator units are ex- Target hand-off procedures must tremely vulnerable to friendly fire. facilitate air and ground target engagement.

26 FM 3-50 Chapter 3

Offensive Operations

The offense is characterized by and obscurant use multiplies the type of offensive operation at any violence, concentration of friendly commander’s ability to project com- level because smoke generally forces, disruption of hostile forces, bat power at the critical time and favors the attacker. and rapid transitions between dif- place to defeat the enemy. Smoke ferent types of operations. Smoke and obscurant use will support any

Historical Perspective The most recent and perhaps prepared Israeli positions defending munications centers, airstrips, and most significant example of smoke the west bank of the Suez Canal. artillery positions (Figure 4). in a combat multiplier role oc- The Egyptians initiated the attack Within moments, Egyptian artillery curred during the 1973 Arab-Israeli by deploying 200 attack aircraft into opened up with a massive barrage War. On 6 October 1973, at 1400 the Sinai to destroy Israeli com- of high-explosive munitions and hours, Egyptian forces attacked blinding smoke. The Egyptians in- tended to degrade the ability of the Is- raelis to engage targets and ad- just artillery fire with that blind- ing smoke. It ac- complished its purpose with devastating results; it in- duced a feeling of total isolation among defend- ing Israeli units. The fear caused by the addition of yellow smoke to the artillery preparation amplified the psychological ef- fects of isola- tion. The defenders believed they were being gassed.

FM 3-50 27 Minutes later Egyptian armored These actions demonstrated the Israeli ability to acquire targets and and artillery assets began to deploy tremendous impact of smoke when spot for attack aircraft. forward to firing positions on their synchronized with a combined arms The Egyptian Army was eventually side of the canal. These units assault. Within the first 24 hours of driven back and sustained consider- engaged the Bar-Lev strongpoints the attack, the Egyptians ac- able losses. Nevertheless, their with direct fire while infantry units complished the almost impossible: forced crossing of what the Israelis conducted a forced crossing in din- They had moved five divisions, believed to be the largest tank ditch ghies under the cover of canister- 100,000 men, 1,020 tanks, and in the world was a complete suc- generated smoke. Air-mobile 13,500 vehicles across the canal and cess. The effect that smoke played operations placed commando units established a bridgehead six miles in that operation was significant. 10 miles into the rear to disrupt into the Sinai. The Israeli forces While the crossing may have been reinforcing echelons. Egyptian en- lost 150 tanks, almost one-tenth of effective without smoke, the Egyp- gineer units emplaced bridges over their total in the Sinai. The blinding tian forces could have sustained far the canal. Smoke from artillery, smoke placed on the Bar-Lev greater casualties, and the crossing canister, and smoke generator as- strongpoints effectively reduced the could have taken far longer to com- sets supported the engineer effort. plete without the cover of smoke.

Tactics The National Training Center Provide additional firepower by— Use (NTC) is an area where smoke – Changing friendly to enemy force training is possible on a large force- ratios by using thermal imagers and Smoke and obscurant use in the of- on-force scale. MG E. S. Leland, millimeter wave acquisition devices fense requires careful planning and former commander of the NTC, such as radars to see through visual execution to prevent interference stated, "Smoke is a far more sig- smokes and using smoke to isolate with movement, assault operations, nificant battlefield factor than I defending and second-echelon for- or target acquisition; to retain the used to believe. It simply must be a ces. element of surprise; and to avoid sil- major planning consideration in – Defeating enemy counterrecon- houetting or drawing undue atten- terms of both friendly employment naissance efforts. tion to friendly forces. and reaction to enemy use." – Enhancing friendly target Smoke use is not without risks. Key insights from the NTC for the acquisition efforts by silhouetting Our use of smoke must increase offense include the following: enemy vehicles with smoke and friendly force survivability without Smoke favors the attacker. using smoke and obscurants we can seriously degrading operational Smoke tightens attack formations. see through but the enemy cannot. capabilities. It must decrease Threat We must capitalize on thermal im- Disrupting enemy maneuver and force command, control, com- ager capability. reinforcement. munications, and intelligence gather- We must plan command and con- – Disrupting the enemy’s ability to ing capabilities (C3I). trol without visual cues. communicate. In addition to the general employ- Training and rehearsal are the Protect the force by— ment techniques detailed in Chap- keys to success. – Reducing friendly force vul- ter 1, techniques to minimize Smoke and obscurants integrated nerability by concealing support interference in the offense include throughout the offensive framework forces from enemy observation and the following: provide major contributions to com- defeating enemy reconnaissance ef- Use covered and concealed bat power in deep, close, and rear forts. maneuver techniques. Assume the operations. In the offense, use – Concealing obstacle breaching. enemy can see through the smoke. smoke to— – Defeating enemy weapons by Do not take unnecessary risks with Support maneuver by— defeating enemy target acquisition the force. – Concealing maneuvering forces efforts, defeating enemy guidance Time smoke delivery with from enemy observation. systems, and negating standoff decision points. Conduct a – Providing tactical surprise and al- capability of enemy long-range thorough IPB and time your use of lowing the commander to set the direct fire weapons. smoke to key decision points in terms of combat. – Degrading or defeating enemy your tactical plan: for example, – Allowing the commander to mass directed-energy weapons. "When we reach Hill 285, we will forces unobserved. call for A Battery to fire smoke and Defeating enemy surveillance efforts. HE onto target XY1007 and sustain – Supporting the deception plan. that fire to obscure enemy observa-

28 FM 3-50 tion of our flanking of Objective Goal your units. Begin making smoke White." prior to crossing the line of depar- Use unobscured weapons to over- The main focus of smoke in the of- ture to confuse the enemy as to the watch. The overmatching elements fense is to defeat enemy RSTA ef- actual location and size of the force. should have target acquisition forts, conceal maneuver and Protecting smoke. Use protecting devices such as thermal imagers support forces, and contribute to smoke as required to defeat enemy that can see through our own tactical deception operations. Our ATGMs and air defense systems. smoke and engage the enemy. This intent is to deny the enemy informa- Obscuring smoke. Use obscuring prevents surprise and enhances the tion about the disposition and com- smoke to defeat enemy reconnais- ability to suppress enemy fire position of our forces, which sance and counterreconnaissance ef- during the assault. provides surprise and security. It forts. Use projected smoke means Do not let your own smoke sil- also allows the commander the to deliver smoke mixed with high-ex- houette your forces. Never overrun flexibility to mass the forces re- plosive rounds before the enemy your smoke cloud prior to the final quired to conduct attacks. The next can pinpoint your units. Plan obscur- assault. "Walk smoke in" towards section presents the tactics for ing fire based on decision points for enemy positions wherever possible. using smoke in offensive operations. the enemy, isolating and confusing This ensures your forces remain con- Appendix A contains tactical their reconnaissance forces. cealed and confuses the enemy as decision aids for determining which Marking smoke. Use smoke to to your exact location and intent. smoke delivery means to use against mark enemy targets for rapid Plan to engage through or the specific smoke targets covered destruction or to reduce the poten- around the smoke. Plan to use by these tactics. tial for firing on friendly forces. weapon systems that can acquire Smoke for deception. Use this and fire through the smoke. Plan Phases smoke to draw attention to areas of limited visibility positions for those little or no importance. Create large- systems that smoke degrades (for ex- The phases of the offense are area smoke away from the main ample, position target acquisition as- preparation, attack, exploitation, body. Consider using smoke mixed sets on flanks or above smoke). and pursuit. with high-explosive rounds to con- Plan for enemy countermeasures. duct preparatory fire on dummy ob- Enemy forces will counter your Preparation jectives. smoke use. Plan to intensify your The preparation phase of offensive Figure 5, on the next page, il- counterreconnaissance and air operations involves the concentra- lustrates smoke employment in the defense efforts. The enemy may use tion of attacking forces and as- preparation phase. countersmoke to confuse your com- sociated support elements into mand and control, so avoid reliance contact with the enemy. Attack on visual signals. The enemy will in- The overriding imperative in a A hasty attack will normally imme- crease use of indirect fire weapons movement to contact is initiative. diately follow a movement to con- when direct fire target acquisition is Use smoke to – tact. If the contact reveals an ineffective. Therefore, plan artillery Conceal movement of maneuver overwhelmingly superior enemy counterbattery and countersmoke and support forces, allowing the force, or our hasty attack is unable fire after crossing the line of depar- commander to mass forces unob- to either outflank or overcome the ture/line of crossing (LD/LC). served. enemy defense, we will conduct a Plan for additional maneuver Provide tactical surprise, allowing deliberate attack. In the attack time under smoke. Smoke slows the commander to seize the initia- phase, use smoke to— maneuver. Base the planning factor tive and set the terms of combat. Provide tactical surprise, allowing on METT-T and the proficiency of Defeat enemy reconnaissance and the commander to seize the initia- your unit to operate under smoke counterreconnaissance efforts. tive early. as shown in previous combat (or Conceal obstacle breaching or Conceal movement of maneuver training) operations. crossing. and support forces, allowing the Verify enemy locations (respon- Smoke employment tactics in the commander to mass forces unob- sibility of reconnaissance). The preparation phase are the following: served. Smoke must provide the enemy can use both our smoke and Screening smoke. Use screening commander with the ability to con- theirs to conceal movement to alter- smoke to conceal maneuver and centrate the maximum possible nate positions or to break contact. obstacle breaching or crossing. Use shock and violence against the Aggressive reconnaissance before smoke in the main body area and enemy. and during the engagement will along the flanks to conceal move- Ruin the enemy commander’s allow you to shoot and remain in ment. You must carefully control synchronization. contact. the smoke to prevent silhouetting

FM 3-50 29 Conceal obstacle breaching or tion of reserves. Use self-defense names as for the preparation phase, crossing. and generated-smoke means to but read on. Defeat enemy target acquisition, deliver smoke across danger areas Obscuring smoke. Use obscuring weapon guidance, and directed-ener- and to the flanks of the force to smoke to isolate the objective and gy weapon systems. limit enemy observation and engage- complement countermobility efforts. The overriding imperative in hasty ment. Use it also to defeat enemy target attacks is agility. Therefore, smoke Marking smoke. The tactics are acquisition and guidance systems use in a hasty attack must assist the the same as in the preparation and defeat reconnaissance and commander to fix and contain the phase. counterreconnaissance efforts. Use enemy, deploy into combat forma- Protecting smoke. The tactics are projected smoke means to deliver tions, and maneuver additional for- the same as in the preparation smoke mixed with high-explosive ces to the flank and rear where the phase. rounds in front of the objective, be- enemy is destroyed by fire or as- Deceptive smoke. The tactics are tween enemy formations, on iden- sault. the same as in the preparation tified forward observers, and on Smoke employment tactics in a phase. ATGM and tank unit positions hasty attack include obscuring The overriding imperative for the before the enemy can pinpoint your smoke, screening smoke, marking deliberate attack is synchronization. units as targets. Use smoke mixed smoke, protecting smoke, and Therefore, smoke use in the with scatterable mines for counter- deceptive smoke: deliberate attack must assist the mobility behind enemy positions. Obscuring smoke. Use obscuring commander to fix and maneuver Use it also between the enemy first- smoke to isolate the objective, against the enemy and prevent the echelon, reserve, and second- defeat enemy target acquisition and enemy from breaking contact. It echelon forces. The critical activity guidance systems, and defeat recon- must also force penetration of the in planning obscuring fire in the naissance and counterreconnais- enemy’s defense and prevent reinfor- deliberate attack is synchronization sance efforts. Use projected smoke cement or counterattack by enemy of all direct fire, fire support, means to deliver smoke mixed with reserves or second-echelon forces. smoke support, and engineer assets high-explosive rounds in front of Smoke employment tactics in a to create maximum combat power. the objective; between enemy. forma- deliberate attack have the same tions; and on iden- tified forward ob- server, ATGM, and tank unit positions before the enemy can pinpoint your units as targets. Using projected smoke as countersmoke and to isolate the objec- tive can significant- ly interfere with the enemy commander’s synchronization. Screening smoke. Use screening smoke to conceal maneuver as you bypass small pock- ets of resistance and breach obstacles. Use it also along the flanks to protect the force and in the rear to conceal dis- position and composi-

30 FM 3-50 Screening smoke. Use screening pressure, compound their disor- Marking smoke. Use marking smoke to conceal maneuver as you ganization, and erode their will to smoke to mark targets for destruc- cross the line of contact, bypass resist. The overriding imperative in tion, identify bypass routes, and sig- small pockets of resistance, or exploitation is depth. In the exploita- nal for battlefield activities. Use bypass or breach obstacles; along tion phase, use smoke to— projected smoke means to deliver the flanks to protect the force; and Ruin the enemy commander’s smoke onto identified enemy in the rear to conceal disposition synchronization. strongpoints or larger formations and composition of reserves. Use Isolate enemy forces, allowing the and to signal forces to consolidate large-area generated smoke to con- commander to keep the enemy in on a particular objective or rally ceal passage of lines and confuse contact and under pressure. point. As exploitation force com- the enemy concerning the disposi- Conceal movement of maneuver manders rely heavily on air cavalry tion and composition of your force. and support forces, allowing the units for reconnaissance, helicopter- Reconnaissance of enemy obstacles commander to protect logistical delivered smoke rockets will pro- is critical to ensure timely employ- units and convoys required to sus- vide the best delivery system. Use ment of large-area smoke to con- tain the momentum of the exploit- generated-smoke means to mark ceal breaching or crossing of ing force. bypass routes (for example, scouts obstacles. Use self-defense and Defeat enemy target acquisition, could drop smoke pots at 100- to generated-smoke means to deliver weapon guidance, and directed-ener- 200-meter intervals along a bypass smoke across danger areas and to gy weapon systems. This is par- route). the flanks of the force to limit ticularly important as the Protecting smoke. The risk of enemy observation and engagement. exploitation force bypasses or con- nuclear weapon use increases when Marking smoke. Use marking tains small groups of enemy forces. conventional means are ineffective smoke to mark enemy targets for Smoke employment tactics in the in stopping our advance. If the rapid destruction or to reduce the exploitation phase use the same five enemy has known or suspected potential for firing on friendly for- types of smoke as follows: nuclear or directed-energy weapon ces. Use projected smoke means Obscuring smoke. Use obscuring capability, concealing your logistics such as helicopter rockets to mark smoke to complement counter- activities in oil smokes may at- close and deep targets for engage- mobility efforts, defeat enemy target tenuate some of the energy. ment by close air support aircraft. acquisition and guidance systems, Supporting smoke for tactical Protecting smoke. If the enemy and isolate enemy forces for deception. Use supporting smoke to has known or suspected directed- piecemeal destruction. Use keep the enemy off-balance and to energy weapon capability, conceal- projected means to deliver smoke draw attention away from critical ing your force in a blanket of oil mixed with high-explosive rounds sustainment activities. Use smoke will attenuate some of the onto targets between enemy forma- generated-smoke means to deliver energy. In the far term, using large- tions, onto enemy units as they at- smoke to multiple locations to the area projected smoke containing mil- tempt to regroup, and in front of rear of the exploitation force to limeter wave obscurants directly on enemy strongpoints as you bypass force the enemy to expend resour- the enemy positions will reduce our them. Use smoke mixed with scat- ces to target logistical activities. vulnerability to directed-energy terable mines behind moving enemy weapons, formations to impede their ability to Pursuit Smoke for deception. Use sup- break contact and to compound As the enemy becomes demoral- porting smoke to draw attention their disorganization. ized and their formations begin to away from the main effort to areas Screening smoke. Use this smoke disintegrate, exploitation may of little or no importance. Use to conceal maneuver and support develop into pursuit. Commanders generated-smoke means (in a forces and defeat enemy target ac- attempt to annihilate the enemy deliberate attack, the best means quisition and guidance systems. As force using a direct pressure force may be smoke pots and generators) protection of supplies and support that keeps the enemy units in flight to create smoke away from the units is essential to maintain the and an encircling force to envelop, main body. The deception story rapid tempo of the exploitation, cut off, and destroy or capture the must be integrated into the overall priority of effort for smoke assets fleeing enemy force. In the pursuit, tactical plan for smoke use to be ef- must go to sustainment activities. use smoke to— fective. Use generated-smoke means to Ruin the enemy commander’s deliver smoke onto key logistics ac- synchronization, denying the enemy Exploitation tivities and to protect convoys. Use time to reorganize a cohesive Commanders should plan to fol- self-defense and generated-smoke defense. If the enemy is able to es- low every attack by bold exploita- means to conceal maneuver units as tablish a perimeter, smoke must tion to keep the enemy under they bypass or harass enemy forces. help to defeat enemy target acquisi-

FM 3-50 31 tion, weapon guidance, and directed- force towards the enemy to obscure force can conceal their maneuver. energy weapon systems. their observation while giving the en- However, since smoke draws atten- Isolate enemy forces, allowing the circling force freedom of maneuver. tion, you may risk losing the ele- commander to keep the enemy in When in place, the encircling force ment of surprise. Use self-defense contact and under pressure. could use generated smoke towards and generated-smoke means to con- Conceal movement of maneuver the enemy to obscure our forces, sil- ceal maneuver units as they bypass forces, allowing the commander to houette the enemy, and generally in- or attack enemy forces. envelop the enemy force. crease the enemy commander’s Marking smoke. The tactics are Smoke employment tactics in the synchronization problems. the same as in the exploitation pursuit include the following ap- Screening smoke. Use screening phase. plications of the five basic smoke smoke to conceal maneuver forces Protecting smoke. The tactics are types: and defeat enemy target acquisition the same as in the exploitation Obscuring smoke. The tactics are and guidance systems. Since the en- phase. the same as in the exploitation circling force generally advances on Smoke for deception. Use this phase. Additionally, use generated parallel routes, screening smoke smoke to keep the enemy off- smoke from the direct pressure along the flanks of the encircling balance and to support hasty at- tacks if the enemy is able to establish a perimeter. Use smoke generators to deliver smoke to multiple locations creating false passage points and to draw attention away from the main effort. Figure 6, below, illustrates smoke employment in the exploitation and pursuit phases.

Attack Scenario The following scenario il- lustrates possible smoke employment options in the offense, from the prepara- tion through the pursuit phases. It depicts a mechanized infantry heavy brigade conducting the movement to contact. The brigade is the 2d Brigade, 54th Infantry Division (M). Smoke delivery means in- clude the direct support ar- tillery battalion, battalion mortars, smoke generator platoon, VEESS, smoke pots, smoke grenades, and aviation assets on-call. Field expedient smoke delivery means include smoke pots strapped to armored vehicles with electrical igni- tion wires running inside the vehicle. 2d Brigade will conduct a movement to contact com- mencing at H-hour today. The commander’s intent is

32 FM 3-50 to reestablish contact with the enemy, The fire support plan also calls for tillery and mortar units increase their seize the brigade objective, and ex- aviation assets to use smoke rockets rate of fire. ploit any success onto the division to mark the gaps between the enemy At H + 45 minutes, the main body objective. The brigade objective is Ob- CRPs and FSEs. The S3 (air) has crosses the LD. The main body jective Fox. The brigade’s follow-on coordinated for the attack helicopter maneuvers to the west of the smoke objective is Objective Jack. The squadron to carry extra WP rockets along the bypass route (Figure 7, on division objective is Objective Midas in their first two sorties. The smoke the next page). some 40 kilometers beyond the line platoon initially travels with the main Attack Phase of departure. body and has on-board capability to Intelligence indicates that the make smoke for 70 to 140 minutes. The movement to contact has enemy is the 1st Guard Motorized At H-hour, our forces cross the line developed into an actual engagement. Rifle Division, 2d Combined Arms of departure. The commander seizes the initiative Army, which relieved another Thirty minutes !ater, aviation recon- and orders the brigade to attack motorized rifle division and is con- naissance sights the lead elements of toward Objective Fox. The main at- ducting a meeting engagement from the enemy CRP. When the CRP is tack is in the west along Axis Andy. the march. The enemy is marching within 3,000 meters of the security The supporting attack is in the east by regiments, with three regiments in force, the artillery battalion fires HE along Axis Tony. The brigade will front and a combined arms reserve and smoke (HC) in front of each consolidate on the objective and con- instead of a second echelon. Terrain CRP. tinue the attack towards the division is fairly open to the west of Hill 268 At H + 35 minutes, the security objective. but is restricted to the east of Hill force sights the CRP through the At H + 46 minutes, the artillery 352. The enemy has excellent observa- smoke using thermal imagers. The shifts fire from the area between the tion and fields of fire from both security force then attempts to fix the CRP and FSE to the area between hills. Figure 3-6 illustrates the disposi- CRP by engaging it with direct fire the FSE and advanced guard (AG), tion of forces as of H-1 hour. weapons through the smoke. obscuring the target with a mixture of At H – 24 hours, the commander is- At H + 36 minutes, the security HE and HC. Also, the mortars shift sues the restated mission and his force will also locate and mark fire from the CRP to between the planning guidance. The brigade bypass routes. The security force ig- CRP and FSE, obscuring with a mix- chemical officer, S2, and FSO go to nites smoke pots and drops them off ture of HE and WP. the intelligence cell and begin target at 200-meter intervals to mark and When the main attack has cleared development. conceal the bypass. the LD, the security force elements in The brigade chemical officer has The smoke platoon moves toward the west turn off their VEESS. At the completed his estimate at H – 18 the LD at H + 36 minutes. NOTE: same time the supporting attack force hours and provides a draft target list The smoke platoon should always engages the enemy FSE and AG to the FSO. While the brigade chemi- remain behind the security force. with flanking fire. cal officer briefs the commander, the At H + 38 minutes, the aviation At H + 50 minutes, the artillery brigade chemical NCO continues reconnaissance and security force shifts fire from the area between the smoke target analysis in coordination sight the enemy FSE. The FSE is FSE and AG to the area between the with the smoke platoon leader. moving forward to establish the AG and the main body in the west, At H – 15 hours, the brigade chemi- FLOT along the screen line of the and onto the objective in the east. cal officer, FSO, and smoke platoon CRP. The artillery continues to fire a mix leader finalize the smoke support At H + 39 minutes, the maneuver of HE and HC. plan. This includes a draft smoke battalion mortars begin to fire HE Also at H + 50 minutes, the mor- support annex to the brigade OPORD. and WP on top of and in between tars shift fire from the area between the CRPs. The artillery battalion the CRP and FSE to the area be- Preparation Phase shifts fire to the area between the tween the FSE and AG, obscuring (Movement to Contact) FSEs and CRPs, obscuring with a with a mix of HE and WP. Prior to H-hour the security force mix of HE and HC. At the same time, the smoke and flank security elements prepare The smoke generator platoon begins platoon stops making smoke. This expedient smoke devices using smoke to make smoke at H + 40 minutes will ensure the objective itself is un- pots strapped onto their vehicles. The at the LD. In addition, the flank obscured during the assault. fire support plan includes quick security force on the eastern flank ig- The main attack force is in position smoke to isolate the enemy combat nites and dumps its smoke pots to make the assault on the objective reconnaissance patrols (CRPs), so within 500 meters of the LD. at H + 55 minutes. The artillery WP and HC smoke ammunition is At H + 40 minutes, the security shifts fire to the regimental main pre-positioned forward of the artillery force combat vehicles initiate screen- body beyond the objective, now firing battalion in the security force area. ing smoke with their VEESS. The ar- only HE. The rnortars shift fire onto the AG in the center and in the west,

FM 3-50 33 obscuring and isolating them with HE and WP mix. At H + 1 hour, the main attack force assaults the ob- jective. Artillery and mortars continue to fire on the enemy main body, isolating the objective from external Support. Exploitation Phase The enemy resistance is crumbling. 2d Brigade has significantly disrupted the enemy's synchronization and has the initiative. Upon secur- ing the brigade objective, the brigade rapidly consolidates and the commander orders them to continue the attack. The brigade’s follow-on ob- jective is to secure Objective Jack and destroy the rem- nants of the enemy division artillery group (DAG). The main attack is in the east along Axis Stef, with the sup- porting attack in the center along Axis Gay. At H + 1.25 hours, the mortars begin to fire on the remaining regimental main bodies, obscuring them with a mixture of HE and HC. At the same time, the artil- lery begins to fire scatterable mines and HE and HC mix into the area behind the first- echelon regiments. This iso- lates the first echelon from the combined arms reserve and delays their retreat. At H + 1.5 hours, the smoke platoon begins to make smoke in the west of the sector to isolate the rem- nants of the easternmost first- echelon regiments from the other first-echelon regiment. This further disrupts the enemy commander's synchronization, command, and control. The main and supporting at- tack forces begun moving towards Objective Jack, keep- ing the enemy under pressure. They will bypass any enemy

34 FM 3-50 forces they encounter, with the resistance has crumbled. The enemy the entire enemy formation. The en- brigade follow-on forces containing is now in full flight. circling force commander now estab- and destroying pockets of enemy for- Upon securing the brigade follow- lishes a hasty defense, blocking the ces bypassed by the main body. on objective, the brigade rapidly con- enemy’s escape route. At H + 1.75 hours, the mortars solidates, and the commander orders At H + 3.75 hours, the smoke and arti!lery shift to fire behind the them to conduct the pursuit. The platoon starts its third mission. The first-echelon regiments and onto Ob- direct pressure force moves rapidly smoke platoon begins to make a jective Jack, respectively. Both mor- forward along a!l available roads, smoke curtain across the enemy’s es- tars and artillery will fire a mix of bypassing small enemy pockets of cape route, while the artil!ery and HE and WP for obscuration and resistance. The encircling force plans mortars from the direct pressure force lethality. to move rapidly to the division objec- stop firing smoke. This allows the The mortars shift fire onto Objec- tive and cut off the enemy retreat. direct pressure force to engage the tive Jack at H + 2 hours, and the ex- At H + 2.50 hours, aviation assets enemy with direct fire weapons that ploitation force positions for the final locate and mark the !arger enemy for- are unobscured while concealing the assault on the objective. mations with WP rockets. The mor- encircling force’s preparations. At H + 2.10 hours, the mortars tars and artil!ery assets with the At H + 4.25 hours, the enemy is and artillery shift fire beyond Objec- direct pressure force then fire succes- forced into an engagement area be- tive Jack. The main attack force as- sive belts of scatterable mines behind tween the direct pressure and encir- saults the objective, destroying the these larger formations. They also cling forces. The smoke from the enemy DAG. fire HE and HC mix onto the forma- smoke generator platoon silhouettes tions to further slow them and com- the enemy force for attack by the Pursuit Phase plicate command and control. direct pressure force. At the same By H + 2.25 hours, it is obvious At H + 2.75 hours, the encircling time, the encirling force is able to that the enemy can no longer main- force leaves its assembly area, engage enemy forces through the tain their position, and 2d Brigade is moving rapidly along the western smoke or as they emerge from the capturing significant numbers of sol- flank towards the division objective. smoke on the other side. The enemy diers and equipment. The enemy By H + 3.5 hours, the encircling is destroyed and forced to surrender. force has bypassed and outdistanced

FM 3-50 35 Chapter 4

Defensive Operations

Defensive operations retain commander’s ability to disrupt will support any type of defensive ground, gain time, deny the enemy enemy attacks, seize the initiative, operation. Used correctly it will access to an area, and damage or and project combat power at the overcome any initial advantage of defeat attacking forces. Smoke and critical time and place to defeat the the attacker. obscurant use multiplies the enemy. Smoke and obscurant use

Historical Perspective During World War II, large-area and dusk and during red alerts for mechanical smoke generators. The smoke denied the Germans observa- antiaircraft defense. The Luftwaffe technique resulted in the produc- tion for directing accurate, indirect made at least one raid each night tion of a light haze between the har- fire onto the US Fifth Army at until mid-February, when the artil- bor and the front lines. The haze Anzio. The 24th Decontamination lery fire increased. The Allies used was thin enough to permit normal Company landed at Anzio on D 8-inch howitzers to demolish operations within it and thick day, equipped with Ml smoke gen- farmhouses suspected of harboring enough to prevent German observa- erators, M4 smoke pots, and eight German observers. They fired tion from the encircling hills. Navy Besler generators. smoke from chemical mortars and On 18 March 1944, the 179th On its first night ashore the unit small-caliber artillery onto nearby Smoke Generator Company moved smoked the beaches and anchorage. ridges and towers. from the harbor to forward posi- Within two days they had set up a Yet, enemy observers had an un- tions. The smoke line formed a 15- smoke line nearly 2 miles long. As restricted view of the entire harbor mile arc around the port (Figure 8, the beachhead forces expanded, from the mountains in the back- on the next page), with 22 possible other smoke troops, including a ground for pinpoint firing with long- positions on land. Based on wind British unit and the US 179th range guns. Although the entire direction, 19 of those 22 positions Smoke Generator Company, moved beachhead was within range of had smoke generators. Also, two to Anzio to increase the size of the enemy guns, the Allies failed to generators were mounted on Navy cloud. Initially, smoke at Anzio was obscure the beachhead itself in patrol craft in the harbor. The intended to be part of the an- January and February. The air smoke generator positions were at tiaircraft screen. This included defense, artillery, and naval com- 1,000-meter intervals just beyond making smoke at night, when flares manders were afraid that smoke on the antiaircraft positions of the port dropped by lead planes appeared to the beachhead itself would interfere and just short of the field artillery be extinguished as they dropped with observation for friendly fire observation posts. The latter into the smoke. and with unloading the ships at prevented enemy observation from The Fifth Army’s VI Corps began anchorage. From 22 January to 10 the flanks of the concave harbor. an end run that bogged down. The February alone, the Allies took The smoke sections began opera- Germans contained the beachhead average daily losses of almost 28 tions ½ hour before dawn and from its establishment on 22 tons of ammunition from enemy made smoke until 14 hour after sun- January 1944 until the Allied long-range fire and bombing. set every day from 18 March until breakout the following May. Ex- To reduce these losses, the corps after the breakout in May 1944. perience showed that a favorite chemical staff and chemical unit During this period, the Allied enemy tactic was low-level bombing commanders, with the approval of troops at Anzio were able to un- attacks at dawn and dusk. Conse- the VI Corps commander, MG load an average of 3,500 tons of sup- quently, it soon became standard Lucian K. Truscott, developed a plies daily. practice to smoke the port at dawn new technique for use of the

36 FM 3-50 Tactics The National Training Center Uses Chapter 3 for additional ways to (NTC) is an area where smoke support maneuver. employment is possible on a large Smoke and obscurants integrated Use smoke to provide additional force-on-force scale. Key insights throughout the defensive framework firepower by disrupting enemy com- from the NTC for the defense in- provide major disruptions to enemy mand and control and forcing the clude the following synchronization providing windows enemy to mass, thus providing a Smoke compresses the battlefield of opportunity for our forces to lucrative target. Other ways are with engagements fought at shorter seize the initiative and set the terms identical to those in offensive opera- range. of combat. In the defense— tions. See Chapter 3. We must use alternate weapon Use smoke to support maneuver Use smoke to protect the force positions in smoke. by– in the same way as in offensive Smoke employment requires – Concealing disengaging and operations. See Chapter 3. more detailed planning. moving forces. In addition to the general techni- Smoke can be used in deception, – Slowing and disrupting enemy ques listed in Chapters 1 and 3, at night, and for obstacle reduction. movement. techniques to minimize interference Units that do not train in smoke – Isolating attacking echelons. in the defense include the following do not perform well. – Concealing engineer operations Verify enemy locations (respon- and defensive preparations. sibility of reconnaissance). In addition, use the guidance in – The enemy can use both our smoke and theirs to conceal move-

FM 3-50 37 ment to alternate positions or to to observe and adjust direct and in- maneuver and support forces. Our break contact. direct fire at targets. intent is to deny the enemy informa- – Aggressive reconnaissance before Plan for enemy countermeasures. tion about the disposition and com- and during the engagement will Enemy forces will counter your position of our forces. That allows allow you to shoot and remain in smoke. The enemy may use us to gain time, concentrate forces contact. countersmoke to confuse our com- elsewhere, control key or decisive – You can use aviation assets to mand and control, so avoid reliance terrain, and wear down enemy for- spot and mark enemy targets for on visual signals. The enemy will in- ces as a prelude to offensive opera- destruction by indirect and direct crease use of indirect fire weapons tions. fire. when direct fire target acquisition is Our overall goal is to improve the Plan and use all sensor and ineffective. Therefore, plan artillery commander’s ability to retain his in- viewer capabilities. Consider plac- counterbattery and countersmoke itiative in operations against a poten- ing ground surveillance radar, air fire when you stop or delay the tially numerically superior force. defense weapons, and target acquisi- enemy. Appendix A contains tactical tion radars on the flanks or high decision aids for determining which ground to acquire targets through Goal smoke delivery means to use against the smoke. Maintain communica- the specific smoke targets covered tions between these systems and As in offensive operations, the by the tactics for using smoke in both direct and indirect fire ele- main focus of smoke in the defense defensive operations. ments. Use the acquisition element is to defeat enemy target acquisition and reconnaissance, and to conceal

Elements of Defense The five complementary elements Security Force force. Use smoke as an active of the defense are deep operations counterreconnaissance measure to— forward of the FLOT, security force Operations Fix the enemy reconnaissance operations forward and to the The fundamental purposes of force. flanks of the defending force, defen- security force operations are to Mark the enemy reconnaissance sive operations in the main battle defeat and destroy enemy reconnais- force for destruction with direct area (MBA), reserve operations in sance forces, force the enemy to and indirect fire weapons. support of the main defensive ef- deploy, confirm the direction and Deny the enemy reconnaissance fort, and rear operations. strength of the enemy attack toward force information about the disposi- the main body, and buy time for the tion, composition, or intent of Deep Operations main body to deploy forward and friendly forces. laterally. Use smoke in security Smoke employment tactics in In the defense, deep operations force operations to— counterreconnaissance are the fol- are aimed at preventing the enemy Conceal movement of maneuver lowing: from concentrating overwhelming and support forces, allowing the Screening smoke. Use screening combat power by disrupting their commander to mass forces unob- smoke to conceal maneuver and momentum and destroying the served. obstacle emplacement. Use smoke coherence of their attack. In deep Provide tactical surprise, allowing in the security force area and along operations, use smoke to — the commander to seize the initia- the flanks to conceal movement. Force the enemy to deploy into tive and set the terms of combat. Use smoke forward of the battle our strength. Defeat enemy reconnaissance and hand over line to allow the security Defeat or disrupt command and counterreconnaissance efforts. force to disengage. You must care- control efforts. Conceal obstacle emplacement. fully control the smoke to prevent Isolate reinforcing echelons from The first part of the defensive bat- silhouetting your units. the assault force. tle that the friendly commander Protecting smoke. Use protecting Smoke employment tactics in deep must win is counterreconnaissance. smoke to defeat enemy antitank and operations are identical to those in Counterreconnaissance is an in- air defense systems. offensve operations (preparation tegral part of the security mission. Obscuring smoke. Use projected phase). See Chapter 3. The focus of the Threat’s reconnais- smoke mixed with high-explosive sance is to confirm or deny the dis- rounds before the enemy can pin- positions and intentions of our point your units. Plan obscuring fire based on decision points for the enemy to isolate and confuse their

38 FM 3-50 reconnaissance forces. Plan obscur- Main Battle Area Once the enemy is in the engage- ing fire during the battle hand over ment area of our choosing, prevent to allow the security force to dis- The decisive battle usually takes them from breaking contact so we engage and pass through friendly place in the MBA. The defender can destroy them immediately. lines unobserved. concentrates the strongest possible Smoke employment tactics in the Marking smoke. Use marking forces for decisive action against MBA are the following: smoke to mark enemy targets for the enemy main effort. Use smoke Obscuring smoke. Use obscuring rapid destruction or to reduce the to – smoke to isolate the engagement potential for firing on friendly for- Defeat enemy target acquisition area and counterattack or spoiling ces. Aviation reconnaissance assets efforts without degrading our own attack objectives, defeat enemy tar- are particularly useful to spot the ability to acquire and engage. get acquisition and guidance sys- reconnaissance force and mark it Create opportunities for com- tems, and defeat reconnaissance with helicopter-delivered smoke manders to seize the initiative local- and counterreconnaissance efforts. rockets. ly and attack. Use projected smoke means to Smoke for deception. Uses are Slow the advance of the attacking deliver smoke mixed with high-ex- identical to those in offensive opera- force. plosive rounds in front of the objec- tions (preparation phase). See Chap- Separate and isolate the attacking tive; between enemy formations; ter 3. Figure 9, below, shows smoke echelons. and on identified forward observer, employment in security operations. Force enemy infantry to dismount. ATGM, and tank unit positions Disrupt the enemy’s ability to ex- before the enemy can pinpoint your ercise command and control. units as targets. Using projected

FM 3-50 39 smoke as countersmoke and to iso- smoke employment for reserves in a enemy to deploy prematurely, seize late the objective can significantly in- counterattack or spoiling attack role the initiative, and conduct local terfere with the enemy are the same as smoke tactics for counterattacks to destroy the enemy commander’s synchronization. the preparation phase of offensive force. Screening smoke. Use screening operations. For reserve forces in a Intelligence indicates the enemy is smoke to conceal maneuver as you reinforcing role, the smoke tactics the 1st Guard Motorized Rifle move to new positions; conceal the are the same as those for security Division, 2d Combined Arms Army, force as you bypass, breach, or force operations in the defense. which relieved another motorized cross obstacles or small pockets of rifle division and is conducting a resistance in counterattack or spoil- Rear Operations meeting engagement from the march. ing attack; along the flanks to The enemy is marching by regiments, protect the force; and in the rear to We conduct rear operations to with three rrgiments in front and a conceal disposition and composition allow the commander freedom of combined arms reserve instead of a of reserves. Use self-defense and maneuver and for continuity of second echelon. Terrain is fairly generated-smoke means to deliver operations, to include continuity of open to the west of Hill 268 but is smoke across danger areas and to sustainment functions and command restricted to the east of Hill 352. The the flanks of the force to limit and control. Use smoke in rear enemy has excellent observation and enemy observation and engagement. operations to— fields of fire from both hills. Identifying smoke. Use the same Conceal support forces, facilities, At H – 48 hours, the commander is- technique as in the security force and activities. Reducing enemy ob- sues the restated mission and his operations. servation reduces the necessity to planning guidance. The brigade Protecting smoke. If the enemy move frequently. When necessary, chemical officer, S2, and FSO go to has known or suspected directed- conceal movement of support forces. the intelligence cell and begin target energy weapon capability, conceal- Deny the enemy use of landing development. ing your force in a blanket of oil zones and/or drop zones. The brigade chemical officer has smoke will attenuate some of the Isolate enemy forces in the rear completed his estimate at H – 42 energy. area. hours and provides a draft target list Smoke for deception. Use this Defeat rear area Threat acquisi- to the FSO. While the brigade chemi- smoke to draw attention away from tion efforts and support base, base cal officer briefs the commander, the the main defensive effort and the cluster, and rear operations brigade chemical NCO continues counterattack or spoiling attack to response to the Threat. smoke target analysis in coordination areas of little or no importance. Smoke tactics in rear operations with the smoke platoon leader. Use generated-smoke to create are also dependent upon the At H -36 hours, the brigade chemi- small- to large-area smoke away commander’s intent and the threat. cal officer, FSO, and smoke platoon from the main body. In general, use smoke to attack leader finalize the smoke support enemy target acquisition and engage- plan. This includes a draft smoke Reserve Operations ment efforts when identified. The support annex to the brigade OPORD. smoke employment tactics are At H -33 hours, the brigade com- The primary purpose of the re- similar to those for a hasty attack. mander approves the final OPORD. serves in the defense is to counterat- Figure 10, on the next page, il- The brigade commander and staff tack, to exploit enemy weaknesses, lustrates smoke use in rear area issue the order to the commanders and to reinforce forward defensive operations. and specialty unit leaders. operations. Use smoke in reserve Three hours later, the smoke operations to— Example platoon makes smoke to conceal Deny the enemy information obstacle emplacement. about the location and strength of The following example depicts a At H – 24 hours, the brigade chemi- reserve forces. mechanized infantry heavy brigade cal officer finalizes smoke support Conceal movement of reserve for- conducting the movement to con- coordination with all units. This in- ces, allowing the commander to tact. The brigade is the 2d Brigade, cludes coordination with adjacent mass forces unobserved. 54th Infantry Division (M). Smoke units that might be affected by smoke Provide tactical surprise, allowing delivery means include the direct if the wind shifts. the commander to seize the initia- support artillery battalion, battalion At H – 20 hours, the brigade chemi- tive and set the terms of combat. mortars, smoke generator platoon, cal NCO verjfies with the FScell that The employment tactics for smoke VEESS, smoke pots, smoke the additional smoke munitions for support in reserve operations grenades, and aviation assets on- the artillery and mortars are on hand depend on how, when, and where call. 2d Brigade will defend in sec- and prepositioned. the commander chooses to use his tor, commencing at H-hour. The reserves. In general, the tactics for commander’s intent is to force the

40 FM 3-50 The brigade chemical officer enemy information and confuse them allow the security force to disengage. receives a brief back from the smoke as to the location and disposition of The smoke platoon makes smoke at platoon leader and assistant S3 our force. the battle hand over line to conceal (operations) officer at H -18 hours. Thirty minutes later, the security the rearward passage of lines. These officers verify rehearsals in the force engages the enemy reconnais- At H-hour, aviation reconnaissance smoke platoon and maneuver units sance with direct fire weapons. Artil- identifies elements of the division (for on-board smoke use). The lery and mortar fire shift to behind main body entering the brigade area FScell and chemical cell also check the enemy reconnaissance force. This of operations. The security force has communications circuits at this time. shifting of fire silhouettes the enemy, done its job and forced the enemy to At H – 15 hours, aviation reconnais- isolates the enemy, and prevents deploy along the western approach, sance spots enemy divisional recon- obscuration of our own direct fire avoiding the high ground on Hill naissance assets. Helicopter-delivered At H – 8 hours, the security force 352. The artillery begins to fire on rockets mark this enemy element for identifies elements of the enemy FSE the flanks and forward elements of destruction by CAS aircraft. moving into the brigade area of the enemy AG and main body. The At H – 12 hours, the security force operations. Aviation and artillery as- mortars begin to fire on the flanks encounters enemy reconnaissance as- sets mark targets with WP for attack and forward elements of the enemy sets. Based on the commander’s by CAS aircraft. FSE. Both use a mixture of HE and decision support template, the DS ar- The security force, at H – 6 hours, WP. This will isolate the enemy for- tillery battalion begins to fire a mix- identifies elements of the enemy AG ces and serve as good reference ture of HE and smoke (HC) onto moving into the brigade area of points for adjusting indirect and identified targets. Mortars moving operations. The smoke platoon stops direct fire. with the security force also fire a mix- smoke at the obstacle emplacement. At H + 30 minutes, the enemy ture of HE and smoke (WP) between At H – 2 hours, the security force main body has entered the engage- the security force and the reconnais- begins to withdraw. Security force ment area. Our indirect fire has sance assets. This will deny the mortars fire HE and WP mix to caused attrition to their FSE and A G and forced the main body into our strength. The brigade commander now orders the artillery to fire FASCAM mixed with HC behind the engagement area to delay reinforcements and to iso- late the main body for destruction. At H + 1 hour, the direct fire fight has begun. Artillery fire switch to HE and HC mix. Mortars fire HE onto the enemy and WP onto the flanks. Our GSR teams pass target acquisition information to the TOW sections of each company. Our for- ces use thermal sights to acquire and engage the enemy, who cannot see through the smoke. By H + 2 hours, the enemy commander is un- able to maintain his momentum and begins to withdraw.

FM 3-50 41 Chapter 5

Other Tactical Operations

Other tactical operations cover a Relief-in-place operations. Jungles. wide range of special-purpose opera- Passage of lines. Urban terrain. tions undertaken routinely during of- Linkup operations. Deserts. fensive and defensive operations. Breakout from encirclement. Winter zones. While these operations are not the River crossings. Nuclear, biological, and chemical main focus of the commander at Obstacle breaching. (NBC) conditions. the tactical level of war, smoke may In addition, there are special con- Finally, because smoke draws at- support these operations as well. ditions and environments we must tention, we must consider smoke These operations include– consider: support for tactical deception. Retrograde operations. Mountains.

Tactics Smoke and obscurants integrated techniques listed in Chapter 3, spe- such as winter zones with deep throughout the battlefield and opera- cial techniques to minimize inter- snow. tional continuum provide major con- ference include – Use smoke to mask terrain from tributions to combat power in deep, Know the limitations of your aerial observation. With the excep- close, and rear operations. In other delivery systems. Smoke munitions tion of jungles, much of the terrain operations, the major contributions do not behave the same in all condi- described in this chapter affords are the same as those in offensive tions or environments (for example, good aerial observation. By masking smoke tactics. See Chapter 3. the jungles of Central America ver- key terrain features you reduce Smoke and obscurant use in other sus the woodlands of Europe). Plan your vulnerability as targets of op- tactical operations requires the for differences in coverage. Some portunity for high-performance same careful planning and execu- munitions combinations such as HE aircraft. tion as with the offense and and WP are not effective under cer- defense. In addition to the general tain environments or conditions

Retrograde A retrograde operation is a move- – Providing tactical surprise and al- Use smoke to provide additional ment to the rear or away from the lowing the commander to set the firepower by– enemy. terms of combat. – Defeating enemy counterrecon- Retrograde operations gain time, – Allowing the commander to mass naissance efforts. preserve forces, avoid combat under forces unobserved. – Disrupting enemy command and undesirable conditions, or draw the – Defeating enemy surveillance ef- control. enemy into an unfavorable position. forts. – Disrupting enemy maneuver and In retrograde operations– – Supporting the deception story. reinforcement. Use smoke to support maneuver – Slowing and disrupting enemy – Disrupting the enemy’s ability to by– movement. communicate. – Concealing maneuvering forces – Isolating attacking echelons. – Forcing the enemy to mass, thus from enemy observation. – Concealing engineer operations providing a lucrative target. – Concealing disengaging and defensive preparations to the rear – Changing friendly to enemy force moving forces. ratios by using thermal imagers and

42 FM 3-50 millimeter wave acquisition devices the force. Use projected means commander to mass security forces such as radars to see through visual to deliver smoke between the unobserved. smokes and using smoke to isolate delaying unit and the enemy Defeat enemy reconnaissance and defending and second-echelon for- force. Use smoke to conceal counterreconnaissance efforts. ces. obstacle breaching or crossing. Conceal obstacle emplacement, – Enhancing friendly target acquisi- The priority of effort is to breaching, or crossing and hinder tion efforts by silhouetting enemy mobility operations; therefore, pursuit by the enemy. vehicles with smoke and using carefully control the smoke to Conceal designated withdrawal smoke and obscurants we can see prevent slowing or silhouetting routes, traffic control points, and on- through but the enemy cannot. your units. order assembly areas. Use smoke to protect the force. Protecting smoke. Use protecting Create opportunities to disengage (See Chapter 3 under Offensive smoke as required to defeat enemy the force. Smoke Tactics.) ATGMs and air defense systems. Smoke employment tactics in the Use protecting smoke to avoid withdrawal include the following: Delay decisive engagement. Screening smoke. The tactics are Obscuring smoke. Use obscuring the same as those under Delay. Ad- In delays, units give ground to smoke to defeat enemy reconnais- ditionally, use projected means to gain time. Delaying units inflict the sance and counterreconnaissance ef- deliver smoke between the security greatest possible damage on the forts. Use projected smoke means force and the enemy force. enemy while preserving their to deliver smoke mixed with high-ex- Protecting smoke. The tactics are freedom of action. plosive rounds before the enemy the same as those under Delay. In the delay, use smoke to– can pinpoint your units. Attempt to Obscuring smoke. The tactics are Conceal movement of maneuver force the enemy into early deploy- the same as those under Delay. and support forces, allowing the ment. Marking smoke. The tactics are commander to mass forces unob- Marking smoke. Use marking the same as those under Delay. served. smoke to mark enemy targets for Supporting smoke for tactical Provide tactical surprise, allowing rapid destruction or to reduce the deception. Use supporting smoke to the commander to seize the initia- potential for firing on friendly for- draw attention to areas of little or tive and set the terms of combat. ces. no importance. Create large-area Defeat enemy reconnaissance and Smoke for deception . Use sup- smoke away from the main body. counterreconnaissance efforts. porting smoke to draw attention to Conceal obstacle emplacement, areas of little or no importance. Cre- Retirement breaching, or crossing. ate large-area smoke away from the Conceal designated withdrawal delaying force. Consider using In a retirement, a force not in con- routes. smoke mixed with high-explosive tact moves away from the enemy in Maintain contact with the enemy rounds to conduct preparatory fire an organized manner. In a retire- but preclude decisive engagement. of dummy objectives. ment, a heavy rear guard will con- Smoke employment tactics in the duct delaying actions to slow the delay are the following: Withdrawal advance of the enemy and allow the Screening smoke. Use screening main body to increase the distance smoke to conceal maneuver and In withdrawals, a force in contact between itself and the enemy. In obstacle emplacement. Use disengages from the enemy. The general, use smoke to support the smoke along withdrawal routes force may be assisted by another rear guard in its delaying opera- and along the flanks to conceal force or unassisted. In the tions. The tactics for employment of movement. Begin making smoke withdrawal, use smoke to– smoke in support of the rear guard prior to departing your existing Conceal movement of maneuver are the same as for the delay. position to confuse the enemy as and support forces, allowing the to the actual location and size of

Relief in Place In a relief in place, a unit in con- Mark the enemy reconnaissance tion, composition, or intent of tact is replaced by another that as- force for destruction with direct friendly forces. sumes the missions of the outgoing and indirect fire weapons. Conceal the movement of reliev- unit. Use smoke to– Deny the enemy reconnaissance ing forces. This is critical as disper- Fix the enemy reconnaissance force information about the disposi- sion of forces in a relief is difficult. force. The enemy may exploit the massing

FM 3-50 43 as a time to attack with NBC ment. Use smoke forward of the sance forces. Plan obscuring fire weapons. FLOT to allow the relieved force to during the relief to allow the A special consideration for reliefs disengage. You must carefully con- relieved force to disengage and pass is to maintain the illusion the force trol the smoke to prevent silhouet- through friendly lines unobserved. has not changed. Obtain the ting your units. Marking smoke. Use marking relieved force’s smoke annex. In Protecting smoke. Use protecting smoke to mark enemy targets for planning the relief, attempt to dupli- smokes to defeat enemy antitank rapid destruction or to reduce the cate patterns of employment for a and air defense systems. potential for firing on friendly for- brief period. Obscuring smoke. Use projected ces. Use aviation reconnaissance as- Smoke employment tactics in a smoke means to deliver smoke sets to spot the enemy relief in place are the following: mixed with high-explosive rounds reconnaissance force and mark it Screening smoke. Use screening before the enemy can pinpoint your with smoke rockets. smoke to conceal maneuver. Use units. Plan obscuring fire based on Supporting smoke for tactical smoke in the reserve force area and decision points for the enemy, isolat- deception. The tactics are the same along the flanks to conceal move- ing and confusing their reconnais- as in the withdrawal phase.

Passage of Lines A passage of lines is a coor- Conceal obstacle breaching or units. Plan obscuring fire based on dinated movement of one or more bypass. decision points for the enemy, isolat- units through another unit. Units Smoke employment tactics in pas- ing and confusing their reconnais- conduct passage of lines to continue sage of lines are the following: sance forces. Plan obscuring fire an attack or counterattack, envelop Screening smoke. Use screening during the passage of lines to allow an enemy force, pursue a fleeing smoke to conceal maneuver and the force to pass through friendly enemy, or withdraw a security or obstacle breaching. Use smoke at lines unobserved. main battle force. Synchronization the contact point, along passage Marking smoke. The tactics are is the overriding imperative. Use lanes, and along the flanks to con- the same as those under Relief in smoke to— ceal movement. Use smoke forward Place. Conceal movement of maneuver of passage points. You must careful- Supporting smoke for tactical and support forces, allowing the ly control the smoke to prevent sil- deception. Use supporting smoke to commander to mass forces unob- houetting your units. draw attention to areas of little or served. Protecting smoke. Use smoke to no importance. Create large-area Provide tactical surprise, allowing defeat enemy antitank and air smoke away from the main body. the commander to seize the initia- defense systems. Consider using smoke mixed with tive and set the terms of combat. Obscuring smoke. Use projected high-explosive rounds to conduct Defeat enemy reconnaissance and smoke means to deliver smoke preparatory fire of dummy objec- counterreconnaissance efforts. mixed with high-explosive rounds tives. before the enemy can pinpoint your

Linkup Operations Two friendly forces are joined in Deny the enemy information con- units as they bypass or harass linkup operations. Units conduct cerning when and where the linkup enemy forces. linkup operations to complete an en- will occur. Marking smoke. Use marking circlement of an enemy force, assist Smoke tactics for linkup opera- smoke to mark the CFL or RFL, in breakout of an encircled friendly tions are the following: mark targets for destruction, iden- force, or to join an attacking force Obscuring smoke. The tactics are tify bypass routes, and signal for bat- with a force inserted into the enemy the same as those for the exploita- tlefield activities. Use projected rear. tion phase of offensive operations smoke means to deliver smoke onto Use smoke to– (Chapter 3). identified enemy strongpoints or Mark the coordinated fire line Screening smoke. Use screening larger formations and to signal for- (CFL) or the restrictive fire line smoke to conceal maneuver and sup- ces to consolidate on a particular (RFL) to prevent fires being set by port forces and defeat enemy target objective or rally point. friendly forces. acquisition and guidance systems. Protecting smoke. If the enemy Conceal movement of the linkup Use self-defense and generated- has known or suspected nuclear or force. smoke means to conceal maneuver directed-energy weapon capability,

44 FM 3-50 concealing your logistics activities in Smoke for deception. Use this balance and to draw attention away oil smokes may attenuate some of smoke to keep the enemy off- from critical sustainment activities. the energy.

Breakout from Encirclement A breakout from encircled forces Obscuring smoke . Use obsuring the force to limit enemy observation differs from other attacks only in smoke to isolate the rupture objec- and engagement. that units must maintain a simul- tive, defeat enemy target acquisition Marking smoke. Use marking taneous defense of other areas of and guidance systems, and defeat smoke to mark enemy targets for the perimeter. reconnaissance and counterrecon- rapid destruction or to reduce the Use smoke to– naissance efforts. Use projected potential for firing on friendly for- Aid in establishing a deception smoke means to deliver smoke ces. story. mixed with high-explosive rounds in Protecting smoke. If the enemy Isolate and segregate enemy for- front of the objective; between has known or suspected directed- ces to create gaps or weaknesses in enemy formations; and on identified energy weapon capability, conceal- the encircling force. forward observer, ATGM, and tank ing your force in a blanket of oil Conceal movement of maneuver unit positions before the enemy can smoke will attenuate some of the and support, allowing the com- pinpoint your units as targets. energy. mander to mass the rupture force Screening smoke. Use screening Smoke for deception. Use this and main body unobserved. smoke to conceal maneuver as you smoke to draw attention away from Defeat enemy reconnaissance and bypass, breach, or cross obstacles the main effort to areas of little or counterreconnaissance efforts. or small pockets of resistance, along no importance. Since the diversion- Conceal obstacle emplacement, the flanks to protect the force, and ary force is critical to the breakout, breaching, or crossing and hinder in the rear to conceal disposition consider making it the priority for pursuit by the enemy. and composition of both the reser- smoke support. Use generated- Create opportunities to disengage ves and rear guard. Use self- smoke means to create small- to the force. defense and generated-smoke large-area smokes away from the Smoke employment tactics in means to deliver smoke across main body. breakout from encirclement in- danger areas and to the flanks of clude–

River Crossings Units conduct river crossings as project combat power across the Protecting smoke. Use protecting part of a higher headquarters river. smoke as required to defeat enemy scheme of maneuver. The Smoke employment tactics in river ATGMs and air defense systems. commander’s objective is to project crossings include— Obscuring smoke. The tactics are his combat power to the exit side of Screening smoke. Use screening the same as in the preparation the river quickly to maintain the smoke to conceal maneuver and ac- phase for offensive operations unit’s momentum. The overriding tual river crossing sites. Use smoke (Chapter 3). imperative is synchronization. Effec- in the main body area and along Marking smoke. Use marking tive command and control are criti- the flanks to conceal movement. smoke to mark enemy targets for cal for success. Apply all techniques You must carefully control the rapid destruction or to reduce the to minimize the interference caused smoke to prevent silhouetting your potential for firing on friendly for- by smoke. Use smoke to– units. Begin making smoke prior to ces. Aviation assets can deliver Conceal the movement of the ini- conducting the initial assault to con- smoke onto identified enemy posi- tial assault force. fuse the enemy as to the actual loca- tions for destruction by indirect fire Isolate the exit bank of the river tion and size of the force. Use or the follow-on force. for rapid occupation by maneuver projected-smoke means to deliver Smoke for deception. The tactics forces. the initial screening smoke to iso- are the same as in the preparation Conceal emplacement of crossing late the exit bank objectives and phase for offensive operations means such as engineer bridges. give other smoke delivery means (Chapter 3). Isolate follow-on objectives to time to build effective smoke. allow the commander to rapidly

FM 3-50 45 Obstacle Breaching Units breach obstacles when they Conceal movement of the breach- Screening smoke. The tactics are cannot bypass them at an ad- ing, initial assault, and support for- the same as those under River vantage. The commander’s objective ces. Crossings. is to project his combat power to Conceal emplacement of crossing Protecting smoke. Use protecting the exit side of the obstacle quickly means such as engineer bridges or smokes as required to defeat enemy to maintain the unit’s momentum. demolitions. ATGMs and air defense systems. The overriding imperative is initia- Isolate the exit side of the Obscuring smoke. The tactics are tive. In general, platoons and larger obstacle for rapid occupation by the same as in the preparation formations breach obstacles, with maneuver forces. phase for offensive operations most smoke planning consisting of Isolate follow-on objectives to (Chapter 3). immediate fire requests for covert allow the commander to rapidly Marking smoke. The tactics are or hasty breaches or detailed plan- project combat power across the the same as those under River ning for all potential smoke assets obstacle. Crossings. in deliberate breaches. Smoke employment tactics for Smoke for deception. The tactics Use smoke to— breaching include– are the same as in the preparation Isolate the exit side objective. phase for offensive operations (Chapter 3).

Special Conditions or Environments Weather and terrain have a sig- Delivery Means servers may require mountaineering nificant impact on smoke employ- Mountainous terrain is generally equipment to get to the best posi- ment as previously stated. The hard and rocky in the summer with tions, or they may be airlifted. Ter- following paragraphs present special intermittent areas of deep snow. In rain sketches and visibility diagrams climate considerations, employment the winter, the terrain is mostly are essential to deliver fast, ac- tactics, and techniques to overcome curate fire and to identify blind difficulties under these conditions: covered with deep snow. spots. Mountains. Snow. The phosphorus in WP Use ground surveillance radars Jungles. can burn undetected in snow for up and remote sensors to acquire tar- Urban terrain. to four days. gets. Use smoke to— Rocky terrain. Smoke is effective Deny enemy use of narrow pas- Deserts. to deny the enemy the use of nar- Winter zones. row passages, valleys, roads, and sages, valleys, roads, and usable ter- Nuclear, biological, or chemical usable terrain. rain. (NBC) conditions. Winds. Swirling winds make Isolate enemy formations for smoke employment very difficult to piecemeal destruction. Mountains Obscure routes that can be used adjust and maintain. Close coordina- by the enemy to attack, withdraw, In combat operations, mountains tion is required with adjacent ele- and resupply. generally are characterized by ments to ensure that their vision is Obscure likely position areas for rugged, compartmented terrain; not obscured or they are not high- lighted. indirect fire assets, command and steep slopes; and few natural or Adjusting fire. Distances are dif- control elements, CSS assets, and man-made lines of communication. observation posts. The weather spans the entire ficult to judge. Observers tend to Conceal terrain that is subject to spectrum from extreme cold, with underestimate upslope distances snowslides, flash floods, and rock- ice and snow during winter, to ex- and overestimate downslope distan- slides. treme heat in some areas during ces. summer. Although these extremes Jungles are important planning considera- Problems tions, the variability of weather over Mortars are ideal because of their Usually, jungle operations are car- short periods of time, and from high-angle fire. They can deliver ried out by light forces that can get area to area, also significantly in- fire on reverse slopes and over inter- into and out of areas by helicopter. fluences maneuver, fire support, mediate crests. Fire support may be limited to in- and smoke support operations. Position observers on high ground direct fire and air support. Because and spread them to overcome ter- small-unit operations are com- rain masks and compartments. Ob-

46 FM 3-50 monplace, greater challenges accrue observer can estimate the range to fire. Ground surveillance radars and to the chemical officers and fire sup- impact. The speed of sound is ap- remote sensors must be used. port coordinators (FSCOORDs) at proximately 350 meters per second. Use smoke— lower levels such as the company The speed of sound varies accord- To conceal maneuver to the FSO and the battalion chemical of- ing to temperature, wind speed and front, flanks, and rear. ficer. direction, relative humidity, and air Along roads and trails to deny density; but 350 meters per second enemy use. Delivery Means should be used as a start point. At likely ambush sites to obscure In jungle terrain, most contact The observer and smoke control enemy observation and fields of fire. with the enemy will be at extremely officer must determine their loca- close ranges. If the friendly force tions and ensure that the TAC CP Urban Terrain has a substantial advantage in fire and FDC have them plotted. If the support, the enemy will most likely observer or smoke control officer’s In urban terrain, ranges are drasti- try to come in as close as possible initial position locations are way off, cally reduced. There are three and maintain that close contact so the smoke will be way off too. Use major types of terrain in nearly that the friendly force cannot the initial smoke to determine the every built-up area: employ their fire support advantage observer’s own location. Obstructions, such as buildings without inflicting casualties on their Vietnam and World War II also and heavily wooded parks. own troops. showed that the first projected Flat, open terrain over water, In the triple-canopy jungle, HC round in adjustment must be WP such as rivers and lakes. smoke is ineffective. WP is effective smoke. Because the observers are Flat, open terrain over concrete as a marking round and in initial ad- not sure of their own location or or asphalt, such as parking lots, mul- justments. ICM and FASCAM will that of other friendly elements, WP tiple-lane roads and highways, and hang up in the trees and endanger was always fired first to avoid inflict- open lots. friendly forces that later move ing casualties on friendly personnel. Air currents are unpredictable. through the area. Illumination Creeping fire was also used exten- Obstructions tend to break up rounds are ineffective because the sively in Vietnam and World War smoke streamers, which re-form chutes get caught in the upper II. The observer adds 300 to 400 into a more uniform cloud. Convec- canopy. meters to his target location in case tion currents over open areas cause The triple-canopy jungle makes ob- his own position location is wrong. smoke to rise. There are many ob- servation beyond 25 to 50 meters Then he makes corrections of no servation points at multiple levels, very difficult. The jungle also makes more than 50 meters until the fire which allows an enemy to observe map reading and self-location, tar- is on target. In Vietnam, this from either above or below smoke. get location, and friendly unit loca- process sometimes started with an tion determinations very difficult. aerial observer and was taken over Delivery Means by the ground observer once he was Downwind coverage is often less Problems able to see the rounds. The aerial due to obstructions breaking up the observer was often required to relay Experience from World War II smoke, unpredictability of air cur- fire requests from the ground be- rents, and smoke following street and Vietnam showed that observers cause the terrain severely limited and smoke control officers must be patterns. The Berlin Brigade ob- the ranges of radio communications. served that open areas in cities tend able to adjust smoke and mortar Because of the close combat, laser and field artillery (FA) fire by to cause smoke to rise and obscure range finders may not be of great key observation points. This is a par- sound because they often cannot use; however, night vision devices see the rounds to adjust them. This ticular problem over water, garden are extremely critical. Avoid using plots, and wide expanses of con- sound adjustment is very difficult projected smokes during limited and requires wide experience. crete. visibility periods to preclude Smoke diffuses well at night but By taking the recommended adjust- degradation of these devices. Aerial ments of two or more observers in tends to rise to rooftop level about observers help direct CAS assets one hour after sunrise until one different locations, some accuracy against enemy targets. Because can result. The battery fire direc- hour after sunset. Burning rubble ground observers cannot see the degrades the screening efficiency of tion center (FDC) can help by an- whole battlefield, the aerial ob- nouncing SPLASH to let the smoke. Smoke pots weigh between server marks targets for the CAS 27.5 and 33 pounds (M4/M5), observer know when the round sortie (flares, WP, smoke). Radars should impact. The observer then making it difficult for infantry are extremely effective in the jungle, squads to employ without transpor- counts the seconds until he hears since most indirect fire is high-angle the round detonate. Multiplying the tation assets to move them forward seconds by the speed of sound, the first.

FM 3-50 47 Smoke hand grenades make Sweep and clear operations to Smoke pots and smoke grenades smoke for only 60 to 150 seconds. eliminate enemy forces acquiring are effective for concealing move- Squads need to carry four to six our soldiers as targets. This is excep- ment of small units. An example of per person for concealment. Be- tionally effective in reducing or an employment scenario follows: cause of the height and closeness of eliminating sniper activity and in Squad members come under fire buildings and other obstructions, breaching obstacles. However, your from snipers in upper floors. They CAS and artillery fire is degraded. soldiers must be careful to avoid use a grenade launcher to fire smoke Mortars and high-angle artillery are burning debris since this tends to and HE rounds into upper floors, still effective. reduce concealment. blinding enemy observation. They Plan for enemy countermeasures. emplace HC smoke pots or several Problems Enemy forces will counter your smoke hand grenades downwind of Smoke and obscurant use in smoke use. Plan to intensify your and in between themselves and the military operations on urbanized ter- counterreconnaissance and air target area or building. Concealed by rain (MOUT) requires careful plan- defense efforts. The enemy may use the smoke, they maneuver to assault ning and execution to prevent countersmoke to confuse our com- the target. Upon reaching the target interference with movement, assault mand and control so avoid reliance area, they cease to make smoke to operations, or target acquisition; to on visual signals. allow them to operate undegraded. retain the element of surprise; and The enemy will increase use of in- Start the smoke mission prior to to avoid silhouetting or drawing direct fire weapons when direct fire operation start time and continue undue attention to friendly forces. target acquisition is ineffective. well beyond the end of the opera- Time smoke delivery with decision Therefore, plan artillery counterbat- tion. For example, you have points. Conduct a thorough IPB tery or countersmoke fire after planned a canal crossing for 0500 to and time your use of smoke to key crossing the LD/LC. 0700 hours. Start smoke at 0400. decision points in your tactical plan: Reconnaissance must verify enemy Stop smoke at 0800 to confuse the for example, “When we reach Sec- locations. The enemy can use both enemy as to the exact crossing time tor Al, use grenade launchers to our smoke and theirs to conceal and size of the force. smoke the open area and conceal movement to alternate positions or Built-up areas nearly always have movement of B Company as they to break contact. Aggressive recon- civilians/noncombatants occupying emplace smoke pots.”) Ensure you naissance before and during the them. When planning the type of target key terrain to deny the engagement will allow you to shoot smoke weapon system, and you enemy the use of it. and remain in contact. suspect noncombatants are present, Use unobscured weapons to over- Understand that smoke compres- give consideration to the lethality of watch. The overwatching elements ses the battlefield by limiting the system before employment. For should have target acquisition visibility. Smoke drastically reduces example, artillery-delivered smoke is devices such as thermal imagers engagement ranges. Training your useful around the periphery of a that can see through our own soldiers to operate in smoke city. However, you should switch to smoke and engage the enemy. This reduces the degradation caused by less devastating systems in the cen- prevents surprise and enhances smoke. It also reduces psychological ter of the city, such as smoke muni- your ability to suppress enemy fire impact on troops such as confusion, tions from grenade launchers, during the assault. This is particular- fear, and isolation. The Israeli smoke pots, and smoke hand ly important for observers in upper Army successfully used phos- grenades. floors of buildings, enabling them to phorous rounds in Beirut to screen Smoke units are extremely vul- observe enemy movements while their forces and isolate the enemy nerable in urban areas due to friendly forces move unobserved. (enemy forces tended to congregate smoke generator signature. In addi- Limited visibility positions, in the city). The use of smoke tion, stationary smoke positions preplanned and previously produced enemy casualties and need to be closer to the target than prepared, will minimize degradation generated the psychological effects over other terrain, bringing smoke caused by friendly or Threat use of of fear and isolation. generator elements within range of smoke. Rehearsal of displacement Urban terrain causes smoke enemy small arms weapons. Mobile under smoke will help you avoid streamers to break up quickly, creat- smoke systems are best. Stationary confusion and disorientation. It will ing the uniform phase closer to the smoke systems make large volumes also rapidly restore engagement smoke source. You can place of smoke but require additional capability. smoke sources closer to target areas. security support. Employ smoke gen- The best tactical application of Ensure the entire squad, section, erator vehicles in groups of three, smoke in urban areas is smoke or platoon uses the smoke simul- with two vehicles making smoke blankets for concealment. Use taneously to preclude drawing atten- and one vehicle overwatching. smoke blankets prior to assaults. tion to a lone vehicle or element.

48 FM 3-50 Deserts also be shot into the air. The use of Neither shadows, horizon, nor marking rounds as discussed for clouds are discernible. The sense of There are three types of deserts: jungle operations also can help for- depth and orientation is lost. Only Rocky plateau deserts. ward units self-locate. very near, dark objects can be seen. Sandy or dune deserts. Laser range finders must be used, Whiteouts occur over an unbroken Mountain deserts. (Munitions ef- especially when heat waves degrade snow cover and beneath a uniformly fectiveness for mountain deserts is distance estimating by conventional overcast sky. Blowing snow can the same as for any mountainous means. Observers can detect targets cause the same effect. region except that the considera- by observing dust clouds created by Greyout. This is similar to tions of snow are usually not ap- moving enemy forces. Employ whiteout except the horizon is distin- plicable.) smoke behind the enemy to sil- guishable under greyout conditions. It is important to recognize the houette them. The similarity of It occurs over a snow-covered sur- specific terrain of each, because colors in the desert makes specific face during twilight conditions or munitions effects will vary according targets hard to spot. At night, il- when the snow is close to the to desert type. Desert battles tend lumination rounds burning on the horizon. There is an overall grey- to be more centralized. Brigade and ground behind the enemy have the ness to the surroundings. When the battalion commanders often per- same effect. sky is overcast with dense clouds, sonally coordinate the interaction of Usually, air observation is highly there is an absence of shadows, maneuver and firepower. Engage- productive; however, the absence of resulting in a loss of depth percep- ments are often fought at long ran- landmarks in some areas degrades tion. ges. this capability. This problem is en- Ice fog. This is common around in- In rocky plateau deserts, projected hanced because aerial observers habited areas during cold weather smoke and illumination rounds may tend to see the battlefield in a two- below 35 degrees Fahrenheit. Water be degraded by high winds, but may dimensional perspective. vapor created by humans and be used to silhouette the enemy. Lack of trees and hills makes vehicle exhausts may appear around HE/PD is extremely effective, creat- aircraft more vulnerable to enemy soldier and equipment concentra- ing extra shrapnel by splintering air defenses. Use smoke to force tions. Ice fog obscures vision and rocks. FASCAM is very effective enemy aircraft to fly higher, making discloses locations by presenting a and should be employed with acquisition easier. Radars are highly visible cloud to the enemy. smoke and the natural terrain to effective in the desert. Use them to In winter zones, HC smoke and force the enemy into unnavigable aid in adjusting smoke onto targets. generator smoke are effective, and terrain. Use smoke to— colored smoke may be used to sil- In sandy or dune deserts Complement ICM and FASCAM houette the enemy. However, some projected smoke and illumination for obstructing and denying enemy of the canisters may be smothered rounds are effective and can be use of roads. in the deep snow. WP is effective; used to silhouette the enemy. HE, Silhouette the enemy, comple- however, phosphorus may burn un- PD, ICM, FASCAM, and delay are ment illumination fire at night, and detected in the snow for up to smothered by deep sands, making increase the background contrast three to four days and may be a them ineffective. for sensors to acquire targets. hazard to friendly troops sub- Location determination is often Priority targets for HC and WP sequently moving through the area. very difficult in rocky plateau and smoke munitions and for generator HE/PD, HE/delay, ICM, and FAS- sandy or dune deserts. Maps are smoke are likely enemy OPs, CAM are ineffective in deep snow. often inaccurate, dunes shift, and ATGM systems, and enemy air At least 40 percent of the blast heat waves hamper distance estima- defense systems. from these munitions is smothered tions. The Israelis help forward ele- by the snow. ments determine their own location Winter Zones Weather and terrain conditions by using artillery survey teams at cause disorientation; changing ter- two or more points, putting The extreme weather conditions in rain and poor maps make self-loca- searchlights on those points, and, arctic and subarctic regions are tion difficult. Use marking rounds upon request, shooting a beam of dramatic and severely impact on ob- or searchlights and pyrotechnics light into the air. The forward ob- servation, mobility, and delivery of from surveyed positions to help ob- server can then shoot an azimuth to fire. Specific weather phenomena servers and smoke control officers the beams of light and perform a with which the smoke and fire sup- orient themselves. Bright sunlight map resection. The beam of light port personnel must be concerned reflecting off snow-covered must project straight up, and the ob- include whiteout, greyout, and ice landscape causes snow blindness. server must shoot an azimuth at the fog. Amber filters on binoculars and ob- lowest visible point on the beam. Whiteout. The observer appears to With this system, pyrotechnics may be in a uniformly white glow.

FM 3-50 49 servation devices reduce the in- NBC Conditions or to estimate ranges for adjust- cidence of snow blindness. ments. Use of laser range finders is ex- The physiological and psychologi- Hear. Hearing is degraded. This tremely critical because of lack of cal effects of NBC conditions im- is a significant problem on certain depth perception due to weather pact on all elements of combat terrain, such as jungles, where fire and terrain conditions. Use limited power. These conditions, docu- and smoke are adjusted by Sound. visibility positions to prevent degrad- mented in FM 3-100, create special Communicate. Communication is ing these systems. Use aerial ob- problems when either the enemy or more difficult, as speakers and lis- servers because they can see deep friendly force use smoke and teners often perceive that they can- and are not as prone to disorienta- obscurants. Encapsulation in full, in- not enunciate or hear as well. This tion as are ground observers. Fre- dividual protective equipment sig- has significant impact on adjusting quent poor weather reduces nificantly reduces a soldier’s ability fire or positioning smoke units. availability of CAS. Plan smoke use to— React to stress. Sustained opera- from CAS aircraft during windows See. Peripheral vision and visual tions are much more difficult, as en- of opportunity for good weather. acuity are restricted. Observers and capsulation severely taxes human smoke control officers are not able bodies. Leaders are at the greatest to accurately judge smoke on target risk of combat ineffectiveness.

Deception Employed smoke draws attention Protecting the force performing obscuring, protecting, or marking- to the area it covers. This charac- the deception. all apply. Use smoke to obscure, teristic makes smoke use significant Making two-dimensional decoy screen, protect, or mark a dummy in supporting the deception story. material look real. or imaginary tactical smoke target However, never plan to use smoke Planners must provide enough area. Both the deliberate and decep- by itself for deception. resources so that smoke support for tion mission should have the same Tactical deception draws the the deception mission lasts as long visibility requirement and resources. enemy's attention from the area of as the deliberate mission. The key Plan to use projected smoke exten- the main attack. The object is to to a successful smoke deception is sively. make the enemy commit forces to to make the enemy believe that the Planning considerations include– the deception and not the main at- smoke support is for the main ef- Ensure you place smoke on tack. fort. However, smoke support for similar targets for both the main ef- Smoke supports tactical deception the deception force should not be fort and deception. Deception and operations by— so large that it divides or degrades main effort smoke target areas Drawing attention to the decep- the effectiveness of support for the should be Similar in size. tion activity. main effort. Shift smoke assets to the main ef- Limiting the enemy’s ability to Plan to attack the deception target fort only when assaulting the objec- identify the deception for what it is: just as you would in any other tive and when immediate smoke is a ruse, feint, or demonstration. operation. The standard battlefield required to protect an element of applications of smoke—screening, the main effort.

50 FM 3-50 Chapter 6

Sustainment Planning

Sustainment planning for smoke sible. Artillery and mortar basic Plan direct delivery from supply use in tactical operations must loads of smoke ammunition are to user. When you expect very high focus on the sustainment impera- limited. If your plan calls for sus- rates of ammunition or POL con- tives: anticipation, integration, con- tained projected smoke, you may sumption, coordinate for direct tinuity, responsiveness, and need to pre-position ammunition delivery from the COSCOM CSS improvisation. There are several forward to sustain the operation. asset to the user unit. This requires critical factors planners must con- You may also want to pre-position intensive coordination to ensure sider to sustain smoke support in smoke pots or WP main gun rounds. transportation assets are in place at any given operation: Use preplanned or preconfigured the critical time, as well as coordina- Number and types of smoke push packages (LOGPAC) of essen- tion for delivery locations. delivery systems and the quantity of tial items. For missions where Chemical companies, smoke gener- available resources. smoke requirements exceed existing ator companies, and platoons in par- The commander’s priorities for assets, the commander should con- ticular do not have sufficient support. sider tailoring the LOGPAC to ob- organic logistics assets to sustain consumption factors of the tain the required items of combat operations. Because of this, delivery system and large-area ammunition or fuel. chemical units heavily rely upon the smoke assets for the type of opera- Plan for rapid resupply. If pre- supported unit for CSS. When or- tion you are planning. positioning is not possible, plan to ganized under a chemical battalion Critical smoke delivery systems, rapidly resupply artillery and mor- or brigade, the parent headquarters whose continuous operation is cru- tar units. Configure ammunition in acts as an intermediary between the cial to the battle’s success. the ammunition supply point (ASP) chemical company and the division Major tactical contingencies such for rapid sling load or truck or corps support command for sus- as exploitation, pursuit, and transport to user units. Coordinate tainment support. withdrawal. with the division or corps support Both the chemical unit and the Real estate management (for ex- command for dedicated transporta- supported unit conduct planning to ample, the location of delivery sys- tion assets for a specific period of sustain large-area smoke. Planning tems and combat service support time to support the operation. for smoke operations must ensure [CSS] assets). This involves resolv- Upload as much materiel as pos- the smoke element has the following: ing conflicts in unit/base positions sible on unit transportation assets. Maintenance, supply, and of several units in the same area or Use existing assets to carry specific recovery support (fixing and supply- sector. mission needs, and down load items ing). Commanders and their planners that can be brought forward later. Transportation assets available must plan to sustain all smoke Plan real estate management. En- (transporting). delivery means that are in their tac- sure the pre-positioned stocks and Tactical resupply of Class III (for tical plan. Planners must consider the terrain around these stocks are example, fog oil, packaged POL, the following: earmarked for the user unit. The and MOGAS) (fueling). Plan for continuous support. division support command (DIS- Sufficient personnel (manning). Forward positioning of essential COM), corps support command Fire support, to include tactical CSS, such as ammunition and (COSCOM), or area support group resupply of Class V, and security petroleum, oil, and lubricants (ASG) is the focal point for resolv- (arming and protecting). (POL). Execute this at night if pos- ing conflicts in unit/base positions.

FM 3-50 51 Maintenance, Supplies, and Logistics Smoke generators are very limited Supporting Units can be effected. The basic load is in number on the battlefield. Smoke approved by the commander. The generators are also resource-inten- The smoke unit commander basic load is not a fixed quantity; it sive items of equipment. Chemical specifies the items for inclusion into may be altered as situations dictate. brigades and battalions do not have a “push” package. The CSS unit For example, a smoke unit conduct- a support platoon to manage, pick specified in the plan will configure ing a prolonged smoke operation up, and deliver supplies. Chemical supplies for rapid distribution to may have its basic load of smoke units, and smoke units in particular, the smoke unit. Normally, support pots increased for that particular are very dependent upon the sup- to smoke units is on an area basis. operation. porting CSS structure to configure When providing this support, sup- One method of easing the resupp- and deliver “push” packages of sup- port units use varying combinations ly requirements of smoke units is plies. Appendix E outlines smoke of unit distribution such as long- tailoring of the basic loads. Ex- sustainment planning guidance. range patrol (LRP) and supply tended smoke operations away from It is essential that commanders point distribution procedures. the main force can be given larger and planners consider logistical sup- Unit distribution is the preferred or different basic loads of fuel, port for smoke units in the overall method for resupplying smoke parts, or other necessary supplies. tactical plan for an operation. The units. The supporting unit delivers Use the consumption tables in Ap- plan must specify– supplies to the smoke unit’s area pendix E as a guide for preparing Support relationship between the using preplanned or dedicated unit basic loads. supported unit and the smoke unit. transportation assets. The support- Which activities (TAACOM, ing unit generally arranges this Fog Oil Resupply COSCOM, ASG, support group, transportation, although the DSA, BSA, or field trains) provide transportation assets may be dedi- Fog oil is a packaged POL what type(s) of support for the cated to resupplying the smoke unit product arriving in 55-gallon drums. smoke unit: for a particular mission only. The Support units can bulk fog oil by – Class I, II, IV, VI, and VII. supporting unit should plan for transferring the fog oil from the 55- -- Class III package (fog oil and throughput whenever possible. gallon drums to fuel pods or tank other packaged POL). An alternate means of resupply is and pump units. The fog oil used in – Class III bulk (MOGAS, diesel). supply point distribution. The sup- smoke operations comes through – Class V (small arms, mines, porting unit issues supplies from a the corps and division support grenades, and explosives). supply point to the smoke unit. The areas. It may be delivered as far for- – Class VIII and general medical smoke unit uses its own limited ward as the brigade support area by support. transportation assets to move the the supporting CSS unit. From here – Class IX intermediate level main- supplies to its area of operations. the smoke unit’s fuel supply ele- tenance support, less smoke When determining the type of dis- ments pick up the fog oil. Based on generator specific parts. tribution to be used to support the type and duration of the smoke Consumption rates for the smoke units, logistics planners at all mission, the fuel supply element specified mission such as amount of levels should consider– either establishes a forward fuel fog oil and other POL needed to Availability of personnel and supply point or keeps stocks sustain smoke operations. equipment to deliver and pick up uploaded on organic vehicles. For “Push” packages to support com- supplies. rear area missions the smoke-fuel mitted units (for example, delivery Missions of the supported forces. supply point may be supported times and locations, quantities, and Adequacy of road networks in from existing Class III or other frequency). the area of operations. supply activities. Transportation support: Priorities for use of the roads. There are two methods for fog oil – Availability of transportation as- Anticipated distances between resupply on-line resupply and off- sets. supporting and supported forces. line resupply. – Preplanned deliveries to provide Locations of the supported forces. On-line resupply. Stationary the “push” package. Threat to road and rail networks. smoke points are resupplied on line Priorities for support of units or during a smoke mission. This re- areas. Basic Load quires the fog oil and MOGAS resupply squad to move to each Basic load is the amount of equip- point as needed. The resupply ment and supplies required by a squad or section will move tank and unit to sustain itself until resupply pump units (TPUs) to the line,

52 FM 3-50 drop the drums of fog oil at the resupply squad or section and the 1 to 2 kilometers to the rear of the smoke point, or pre-position drums smoke point. smoke line. You can also resupply at a follow-on smoke point. This in- Off-line resupply. Mobile units are stationary units that are displacing creases the vulnerability of the resupplied by rotating individual sys- in this manner. tems through a fuel resupply point

Fire Support and Security When planning for the use of for the crew and are less vulnerable and FSO. Integrate the smoke unit smoke in support of combat opera- to indirect fire than wheeled smoke fire plan with the supported unit tions, it is essential commanders systems. fire plan. Fire support planning and operational planners recognize Lessons learned at the NTC consis- must consider— the vulnerability of smoke units. tently demonstrate that mechanized Priorities of fire support. Smoke generator units conducting smoke systems suffer high-loss rates Availability of smoke rounds smoke operations leave a very recog- when they are among the lead ele- (mortar and artillery). nizable signature on the battlefield. ments of armored assaults. While Named areas of interest (NAI) Smoke by its very essence attracts improper employment at the NTC and target areas of interest (TAI) attention. An observer only needs serves as a valuable training aid for of the maneuver unit. to follow the smoke streamer to its commanders, the same mistake in Coordination with fire support as- source to target the individual combat will result in the loss of a sets for the primary, alternate, and smoke-producing device. Smoke gen- significant and scarce combat multi- supplemental smoke operations erator operators and smoke unit plier. areas or points. commanders are acutely aware of Reconstitution of battlefield losses On-call targets (nominated by the this and utilize every measure avail- will be slow. They may not occur at smoke unit). able to reduce this signature. all based on the availability and Some of these steps include – priority of distribution for such a Security Making maximum use of natural limited asset. In a rapidly moving cover and concealment. armor assault, the commander may Plan for the security for smoke Using reverse slope positioning. wish to plan for additional smoke units based upon availability of the Using self-protecting smoke (for support from his indirect fire artil- supported unit’s assets and example, smoke pots upwind of gen- lery using WP or HC smoke projec- priorities. When security forces are erator positions). tiles integrated into preparatory provided for smoke assets, coordina- Continuously moving mobile sys- fire. This fire placed on or in front tion measures include – tems within designated areas to min- of the objective may accomplish the Determining needed duration of imize effective targeting. desired result and not expose security support. Staggering positions of generators. mechanized systems to unnecessary Determining size of security ele- Digging in or hardening. risk. ment. Making smoke from flanks and Locating overwatch positions for stand-off positions whenever pos- Fire Support security elements. sible. Determining smoke and security While the above actions will en- Supporting smoke assets coor- element leaders understand the hance the smoke unit’s survivability, dinate with the supported unit for commander’s concept, fire support proper employment by the sup- fire support. plan, and communication proce- ported unit is essential. As an ex- Fire support is based on artillery dures, and are aware of smoke tacti- ample, mechanized smoke systems availability and the coordination cal resupply locations. provide some small-arms protection that takes place among the smoke unit, chemical staff office, S3/G3,

Personnel Sustainment Smoke support occurs in many ments. They consider visibility con- (IPE). Heat buildup becomes criti- types of terrain under different straints and heavy work rates during cal to the welfare of the soldier. weather conditions. Operations may smoke missions. Specifically, it is dif- This is especially true when the occur in NBC-contaminated areas. ficult to see in smoke. It is more dif- operator of the M157 smoke gener- Leaders balance mission require- ficult to see in smoke when in full ator set is “buttoned-up” inside the ments against protection require- individual protective equipment M1059 mechanized smoke gener-

FM 3-50 53 ator in full IPE in support of a and distribute their units as the Replacement planning. mechanized or armored division. commander requires in his task or- Limited visibility has a significant Smoke generator crews may be dif- ganization, yet conserve their fight- impact on sustainment operations. ficult to replace in future conflicts. ing strength. Leaders must give It increases the time and decreases Therefore, you must focus on main- special consideration to— sustainment responsiveness. Support taining the available force at peak Health services. and smoke units should thoroughly combat effectiveness. Leadership is Administrative support. rehearse sustainment activities prior the key to maintaining the strength Morale and welfare activities. to execution of the plan. and spirit of the fighting force. Discipline. Leaders must assemble, transport, Stress management.

54 FM 3-50 FM 3-50, Cl

Chapter 7 VISUAL-INFRARED OBSCURANTS Today virtually every nation and non-state The M56 Smoke Generator System (Figure 7-1) organization has access to— mounted on an Ml113 HMMWV is organic to advanced tactical sensors for target acquisition motorized smoke units and dual-purpose (thermal imagers) and intelligence gathering smoke/decontamination units. The M56 can produce surveillance systems (ground and air reconnaissance). 90 minutes of visual/near infrared obscurant and 30 precision-guided munitions delivered by artillery, minutes of infrared obscurant without resupply. This missiles, and aircraft that operate in the IR region of system can produce obscurants while mobile or the electromagnetic spectrum. stationary. These capabilities are available through internal The M58 Smoke Generator System (Figure 7-2) manufacturing or purchase on the world market. mounted on the M113A3 APC is organic to These thermal imaging sights allow them to acquire mechanized smoke units. The M58 can operate and engage targets through visual smoke, at night, mobile or stationary. It can produce 90 minutes of and under adverse weather conditions. To counter the visual/near infrared obscurant and 30 minutes of increasingly sophisticated sensor threat, the M56 and M58 smoke generator systems provide maneuver commanders the capability to control and dominate the visual through far infrared (IR) portions of the electromagnetic spectrum using visual (fog oil) and infrared (graphite) obscurants.

VISUAL-INFRARED OBSCURANT GENERATOR SYSTEMS

infrared obscurant without resupply. Chassis improvements allow the M58 to keep pace with mechanized and armor units. The systems are equipped with a driver’s thermal imager and an NBC contamination particulate filter unit. Each system can selectively produce visual obscurants (vaporized fog oil) to defeat acquisition in the visual, and near infrared and infrared obscuration (graphite flakes) to defeat target acquisition devices that operate in the mid and far infrared. The two obscurants may be employed simultaneously or separately. If employed simultaneous y, the threat force’s capability to acquire targets with day sights and thermal imagers will be degraded. If employed separately, the visual obscurant will degrade day sights and the IR obscurant will degrade the thermal imagers.

OBSCURANT EFFECTS ON SENSORS/SEEKERS Visual and infrared obscurants have distinctly different effects on friendly and threat force sensors.

54-A FM 3-50, Cl

Therefore, commanders and staffs must understand plan to integrate smoke and obscurant assets into the the opportunities and limitations associated with each. operational plan. The goal of the obscurant plan is to Employment of infrared obscurants is a double-edged defeat critical threat sensors and seekers. For sword. A maneuver commander may want the added example, the IPB process has determined that the concealment offered by an infrared obscurant threat possesses a significant thermal imagery (graphite), but must accept the fact it will also capability located with his reconnaissance assets. The degrade his own systems. Commanders and staffs smoke plan would likely focus on employing IR must identify the threat sensor/seeker systems to be obscurants whenever and wherever the threat might countered, determine the obscurant to be employed, attempt to utilize his reconnaissance assets. and identify impacts on their own systems. Table 7-1 The doctrine for IR obscurants is different from the depicts the types of sensors and seekers found on doctrine for visual obscurants. IR obscurants provide today’s battlefields and the relative degree of the capability to defeat a significant threat degradation caused by various natural end man-made asset—thermal imagers. Visual obscurants are used obscurants. primarily to provide force protection from a threat having limited electro-optical capabilities such as first VISUAL-INFRARED generation FLIR or with an even lesser capability OBSCURANT CONCEPTS such as systems that can only operate in the visual Intelligence preparation of the battlefield (IPB) region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Overall, IR determines how the threat arrays sensors and seekers obscurants will be employed directly on the threat or on the battlefield. After the IPB process has been between the threat and friendly forces. Visual accomplished, the chemical battle staff develops a obscurants are employed on friendly forces to provide

54-B FM 3-50, Cl protection while still allowing for the ability to essentially the same for visual and infrared screens. maneuver within the obscurant cloud. However, at night, actual observation of the infrared cloud requires a thermal viewer. Without an IR Offense sensor, smoke control officers will rely on the fog oil cloud to adjust target coverage or on information Employment of an infrared obscurant in offensive provided by the supported maneuver unit. operations gives the maneuver commander an additional element of combat power. IR obscurants are able to defeat threat sensors and seekers. Two Coordination Measures missions should be considered. One is to utilize the Infrared obscurants offer additional options to the IR obscurant as a screen to prevent thermal ground commander: visual only, IR only, or visual/IR sensors from detecting and identifying friendly obscurants. The chemical battle staff must assist the forces. Another is to utilize the IR obscurant to commander in recommending the appropriate type obscure threat sensors. In this mission, given obscurant based on IPB. Limiting factors may be favorable weather conditions, the smoke plainer based on planned friendly activity, the need to would employ the IR obscurant directly on the threat prevent signaling a friendly presence to the threat sensors. force, or danger inherent to friendly operations that might result in increased fratricide. Defense IR obscurants in the defense will provide protection Smoke Control Graphics from smart weapons and prevent those weapons from Smoke target numbering systems and graphic control acquiring their targets. Although the employment of techniques will be increasingly important as IR obscurants reduces the friendly ability to commanders and staffs come to rely more heavily maneuver, the commander may choose this option to upon digitization. Battle staffs will maintain increase the survivability of his forces in the event electronic overlays of planned smoke missions that other resources are unavailable to defeat the (similar to trafficability overlays) to allow for threat’s smart weapons. For example, IR obscurant coordination of mission planning with adjacent and would provide considerable protection from smart higher organizations. With the fielding of large-area weapons for rear area operations such as port infrared smokes, graphic control aids must be facilities, logistical sites, and airfields. developed to portray no smoke areas, visual only smoke targets, visual-infrared smoke targets, and Cloud Dynamics infrared only targets. Target numbering procedures should be standardized to enable adjacent units to Infrared obscurants are subject to the same weather recognize immediately smoke missions that may and terrain considerations as visual obscurants. For adversely affect their operations due to wind shifts, planning purposes, the IR obscurant cloud will travel the cloud traveling farther than anticipated, or flank approximately the same distances as a visual cloud units perhaps being silhouetted. Although subject to and will cover the same size target area. Visibility local SOPs, visual only smoke target numbers should criteria in terms of haze, blanket, and curtain are not begin with a V followed by five digits. IR only smoke true for IR obscurants. Infrared clouds are defined in target numbers should begin with IR followed by four terms of transmittance value in relationship to digits. Visual-infrared target numbers should begin percentage of probability of detection. Given wind with VIR followed by three digits. speed, source strength, and downwind distance (Annex H), chemical staffs are able to estimate probability of friendly forces being detected when Troop Safety screened or protected by infrared obscurants. The same masking requirements and procedures for fog oil employment apply for infrared (graphite) Smoke Control obscurants. Overall, carry the mask when participating in operations that include the use of Generally, smoke control is the function of the smoke infrared obscurants. Mask when passing through or platoon leader or the smoke company commander operating in a dense cloud. If duration of exposure under the direction of the maneuver commander, a will exceed 4 hours or breathing difficulties occur, breach or river crossing site commander, or a facility masking is required. commander. Smoke control procedures will be

54-C FM 3-50, Cl

LOGISTICAL SUPPORT consumption rate of 5 pounds per minute, the system Logistical support for chemical smoke units requires can produce 1 hour of IR obscurant. If the special consideration with the addition of infrared consumption rate is 10 pounds per minute, the system smoke material (graphite). One 5-ton truck is capable can produce 30 minutes of IR obscurant. of carrying the weight (and volume) of 9 barrels of fog oil and up to 4,350 pounds of IR obscurant CONCLUSION simultaneously. If two 5-ton trucks are used to The M56/M58 smoke generator systems provide resupply 6 generators, the travel time to a supply commanders and staffs an additional element of point, reloading with fog oil and IR obscurants, and combat power. IR obscurants in any operation can be returning to the mission site must not exceed 75 employed to protect the force, screen friendly minutes. When consecutive infrared missions are maneuvers, or to obscure and attack threat sensors desired to support maneuver operations, the chemical and seekers. IPB is critical in planning infrared staff with the G4/S4 anticipates resupply requirements missions by identifying threat sensors and seekers and and ensures that the smoke plan is supportable. Use how they are arrayed in theater. The chemical battle the consumption table (Table 7-2) as a logistical staff, by participating in the IPB process, war planning tool for visual infrared smoke operations. gaming, and rehearsals will facilitate an effective Planners should keep in mind the M56 and M58 obscurant plan to support the commander’s intent. smoke generator systems have a variable setting The IPB process, focusing on how the threat arrays capability for both IR (graphite) and fog oil modules. his sensors and seekers on the battlefield, are critical This allows the operator to control the rate graphite steps in planning the employment of IR obscurants. and fog oil is consumed. For example, at a

54-D Appendix A

Smoke Planning

Chapter 1 describes the general timate format (Figure 11), smoke Chemical staff officers must coor- considerations for planning smoke target list work sheet (Figure 12), dinate all smoke support with the support. This appendix provides pro- and a smoke annex format (Figure G3/S3, FSCOORD, and lateral cedures for preparing smoke plan- 13). In addition, Figure 14 shows a units. These planning document ex- ning documents and gives some coordination checklist for chemical amples contain several mechanisms examples. The smoke planning docu- unit commanders to use when they to help staff officers verify such ment examples include a smoke es- receive orders for a smoke mission. coordination.

Target Analysis Procedures Coordinate with the commander Close air support assets. smoke engagement with other than or G3/S3 to determine obscurant re- Naval gunfire. fire support assets. quirements for the unit. Coordinate Other delivery means. Coordinate with the FSO for the with the FSO, and nominate targets Plan targets, to include the follow- final target list and schedule of fire. for obscuration. Identify targets ing considerations: Designate the person, event, or within the FSO’s capability. Also Which delivery means to use. For time that will initiate the smoke mis- identify targets not within the FSO’s guidance, see the employment sion. Coordinate with adjacent capability. matrixes. units, and check weather conditions. Record targets on the target list Which obscurant to use. For Add or delete smoke missions on work sheet. guidance, see Appendix B, Figure the basis of available assets and Identify smoke delivery means to 16, page 73. weather and terrain factors. Coor- support the operation: Duration of smoke on each target. dinate with any adjacent units not Smoke generator unit(s). Time to fire or make smoke. previously affected, but which may Mortars. Coordinate with the G3/S3 for the now be affected by smoke. Maneuver combat vehicles. final target list and schedule of Prepare the smoke support annex Field artillery unit(s). to the OPLAN/OPORD.

Planning Documents Smoke Estimate Smoke Target List get number for fire support pur- poses. Fire support target numbers Format Work Sheet may be recorded in the remarks After receiving the restated mis- Mandatory entries in a smoke tar- column. Smoke target numbers are sion and planning guidance from get list work sheet include — five characters in length. The first the commander, the chemical of- Smoke target number. Assign a character is a letter; the final four ficer prepares a smoke estimate control number to identfy the are numbers. Divisions and higher (Figure 11). smoke target. The smoke control field headquarters may assign a number contains five characters. specific group of numbers to or- The first character is a letter; the ganizations (for example, 1st Bde is following four are numbers. A local A1001 through A1999; 2d Bde is SOP will establish how to assign B2001 through B2999). These num- these numbers. They are not the tar- bers provide the chemical staff of- ficer with a brevity code for smoke

FM 3-50 55 Target description. Write a brief Priority. This is the priority of at- G3/S3 and G4/S4 officers, description of the target (for ex- tack based on fire support’s target FSCOORD, and smoke unit leaders. ample, combat reconnaissance value analysis. patrol). Remarks. Self-explanatory. Smoke Mission Target location. Enter the center Coordination Checklist of mass UTM grid coordinates for Smoke Annex to the target. Smoke unit commanders or Size. Give the dimensions of the OPLAN or OPORD leaders use this checklist to verify target in meters. The smoke annex to a plan or coordination with the supported EO system. This is the system order implements the commander’s unit and any adjacent units that you will attack with smoke/ decisions concerning how to use might be affected by the smoke. obscurants. smoke in the operation. The chemi- The chemical staff officer provides Delivery means. Identify potential cal staff officer prepares and coor- most of the information (such as delivery means for the smoke. dinates the smoke annex. He or visibility criteria and target loca- Type of smoke. Identify the type she, as a minimum, provides copies tion); but, the smoke unit leader of smoke/obscurant to employ. to subordinate and adjacent units must personally finalize coordina- (if affected by the smoke), the tion, whenever, possible.

Employment Matrixes Use the seven employment the appropriate delivery means for deliberate attack, defense, matrixes (Tables 4 through 10, specific smoke targets. The tables retrograde, special operations, and pages 65 through 71) to determine cover general, hasty attack, MOUT situations.

56 FM 3-50 FM 3-50 57 58 FM 3-50 3-50 59 60 FM 3-50 FM 3-50 61 62 FM 3-50 FM 3-50 63 64 FM 3-50 FM 3-50 65 66 FM 3-50 FM 3-50 67 68 FM 3-50 FM 3-50 69 70 FM 3-50 FM 3-50 71 Appendix B

Electro-Optical Systems

Smoke and obscurants influence natural obscurants. By-product or munitions as described in Chap- the visual portion of the electromagn- obscurants on the battlefield result ter 1 and Appendixes D and E. We etic spectrum. They also provide from combat actions. Examples in- use these specifically to attack protection for our forces by in- clude the smoke caused by the burn- enemy electro-optical (EO) systems. fluencing frequency ranges we do ing of buildings and equipment, Figure 16, on the next page, shows not normally perceive with our sen- dust raised by maneuvering units, the effect obscurants have on target ses. and the airborne dust and particles acquisition and guidance systems All sensory equipment (to include thrown by exploding artillery and from the visible through the mil- the human eye, viewers, vision en- mortar fire. limeter wavelengths of the hancement devices, trackers, and We produce artificial obscurants electromagnetic spectrum. seekers) requires a certain amount with smoke production equipment of energy (a minimum threshold) before they can perform their func- tions. A sensor will also fail to func- tion if the level of energy, in the frequency range the device is designed to work within, is too great (a maximum threshold). Smoke and obscurants provide us a means to render sensors ineffective, by decreasing or increasing the amount of energy available to the device or sensor (Figure 15). There are three categories of obscurants: natural, by-product, and artificial. We can use natural obscurants advantageously if we cor- rectly forecast the weather. Dark- ness, fog, sandstorms, and precipitation are examples of

Sensors and Effects On the AirLand battlefield, what Target Visibility The degree of illumination of the is seen can be hit and killed. area, the background setting, and Precision-guided munitions and When you conceal an object by angle of observation have an impor- sophisticated sensors that provide smoke, a number of factors deter- tant effect. new means of observation and mine the degree of obscuration. The overriding factor in smoke detection have appeared on the bat- Physical properties of the object, screen effectiveness is the total con- tlefield. Smoke and other such as size, shape, color, bright- centration of smoke and the path obscurants can degrade the effec- ness, and reflecting properties of and length of the smoke cloud be- tiveness of sophisticated precision- various parts of the surface, deter- tween the observer and the target. guided weapon systems. mine the density of the smoke re- Thus, one observer may detect the quired for effective obscuration.

72 FM 3-50 target, while a second observer may through light rain, snow, and fog). Sensors and Viewers not, because of extended line of Night vision devices use the IR rays sight through the smoke to the tar- produced by or reflected from an As a result of the development of get. object. Active IR is radiation IR and radar devices during World When considering target visibility, produced by an illumination source War II and subsequent technical ad- it is important to distinguish be- and then reflected from an object; vances, electronic sensors have sup- tween the sighting of an object and heat radiates from an object. IR plemented conventional visual identifying that object as an enemy radiation depends on the type of methods of target acquisition and target. The prevention of detection radiating material and its tempera- aiming. The introduction of is the severest test of a smoke ture. With an increase in tempera- electronic techniques has also en- cloud. Although most detection ef- ture there is an increase in hanced our ability to detect and at- forts in the past were in the visible radiation. In hazy weather, IR tack targets at night and in adverse spectrum, modern technology has devices can give a two- to four-fold weather. extended the useful spectrum increase in range over visible We can degrade the performance beyond the visible wavelengths. spectrum devices. In foggy weather, of electronic sensors by using Infrared (IR) rays have properties IR devices suffer a marked obscurants (smoke and dust). Some similar to those of visible light. How- decrease in range, but are still supe- of these devices can be rendered in- ever, IR rays may readily pass rior to visual devices. Many of the effective; others can be degraded through materials that lessen visible restrictions noted for IR also apply significantly; still others will not be light (for example, IR rays pass to military laser range finders and affected at all. However, to effect more readily through the atmos- seekers. sensors we must use the right kind phere than visible light, even of obscurant at the right place, at

FM 3-50 73 the right time, and in sufficient dust will decrease this contrast and the viewer for a few seconds. Such quantity. brightness by attenuating light hot spots may also divert or decoy The eye is the basic receiver for reflected from the target. Rain, thermal-tracking missiles. several types of EO sensors. Four snow, fog, and haze will also Most smoke attenuates thermal sensors that rely on the eye are the degrade the performance of these radiation less effectively than visual naked eye itself, the telescope, the systems. To use an obscurant radiation, so more smoke is re- television viewer, and the image in- against these sensors, place the quired to degrade thermal viewers; tensifier. Sensors can be active or obscurant in the line of sight be- the relative amount depends on the passive depending on the tween the target and the observer. agent employed. However, some mechanism they use to detect and Obscuration use in moonlight can smoke (for example, HC and fog intensify the images. also degrade the contrast of target oil) is not very effective against ther- and background. We can further mal viewers. High concentrations of Operational Considerations degrade the contrast of a target WP and RP and black smoke are The eye, the telescope, the with its background by the light more effective against thermal television viewer, and the image in- from the sun that fails directly onto viewers. tensifier all require illumination of the obscurant and is then scattered the target and its background. The into the line of sight. The amount Command-Guided of degradation depends on the posi- sun, moon, stars, or illumination Missiles rounds may provide this illumina- tion of the sun and the depth of the tion. The eye detects reflected light obscurant cloud. Degradation is Most command-guided missiles and is dependent upon the contrast greatest when both sun and target are command to line of sight between the brightness of the target have about the same line of sight to (CLOS) missiles, which operate in and its background. The telescope the observer or viewer. Consider- one or more spectral regions. The improves the capability of the eye able degradation can also occur oldest of CLOS missiles are visually by enlarging the target image. when the sun is directly behind the and manually controlled, requiring Television viewers are used to pro- observer or viewer. the operator to track both the mis- vide viewpoints from distant, hos- sile and its target, while simul- tile, or awkward positions. Thermal Viewers taneously guiding the missile to the Television viewers can also function target (for example, the Soviet Sag- as image intensifiers or to enhance Passive thermal viewers use the ger). Tracking the missile can be contrast. Image intensifiers electroni- natural thermal radiation differen- aided by putting a beacon on the cally magnify the light received, in- ces between target and background missile. This guidance scheme has creasing it to a level the eye can to form an image – hence the name been relatively easy to defeat, since see. Contrast enhancement electroni- thermal viewer. Another name for a either the target or the missile can cally increases the brightness of the thermal viewer is forward looking in- be obscured, and a miss results. In target, making it easier to see. frared (FLIR). These thermal addition, the flash from an explod- Passive sensors use available viewer systems require no external ing HE or smoke munition could natural light. We use passive sys- source of radiation and can success- serve to distract the gunner, again tems when the available light is suffi- fully operate on a dark night if the resulting in a miss. cient to illuminate the target. An targets are sufficiently warmer or The next type of missile control is active viewer system consists of a cooler than the background. The semiautomatic CLOS (for example, viewer and an illuminator, which thermal viewer is used in fire con- the Dragon). In this case, the floods the target with light. Il- trol systems, in some thermal operator or gunner only tracks the luminators for different active view- homing missiles, and for surveil- target; the missile is automatically ing sensors include lasers, lance purposes. guided. This reduces the burden on searchlights, or flares. We use ac- Reducing the apparent contrast be- the gunner and increases the ac- tive sensors when there is not tween the target and its background curacy. However, to cause a miss it enough light to illuminate the target. may degrade the effectiveness of is only necessary to obscure either the thermal viewer. Obscurants the missile beacon or the target; fur- Effects of Obscurants degrade sensor performance by at- ther, the sensor tracking the missile tenuating the target radiation signa- may be blinded for a short period Placing obscurants between the tar- ture reaching the viewer. The get and the viewer will degrade the of time by the flash of an exploding thermal radiation produced by the munition. Many systems using this performance of these sensors. Tar- cloud may also degrade perfor- get acquisition and identification type of guidance use a beacon and mance of the sensor. The initial tracking sensor that operate in the depend on the contrast between the burst of a munition will also target and its background and the near IR. With visual target tracking produce a hot spot of thermal radia- this presents no difficulty. However, brightness of the target. Smoke and tion, possibly saturating or blinding

74 FM 3-50 with the advent of thermal imagers sile. The wire is not susceptible to region. The most common seekers a situation known as spectral mis- obscuration; however, severing the operate in the IR. Passive seekers match can occur. In this case, and wire (for example, by shell frag- operating in the visible or IR under obscured condition, it may be ments) will result in a miss. Some regions may be either imaging or possible to see a target with the CLOS missiles receive guidance nonimaging. thermal imager but not to hit the commands by a radio link in the Passive imaging seekers have es- target because of obscuration of the radar or millimeter portions of the sentially the same susceptibility to missile beacon. spectrum. These commands are dif- obscuration as any imaging sensor, A third type of guidance is auto- ficult to degrade using conventional although far IR imaging seekers matic CLOS. Both target and mis- obscurants. Of more importance is may look on a WP cloud that is hot- sile are tracked automatically, the effect of the electromagnetic ter than the target and track the usually by different sensors. This radiation emitted during an HE cloud as the target. This type of type of CLOS guidance is the most detonation. This radiation may seeker may also be blinded by the sensitive to obscuration, especially cause the missile to miss its target. flash from a detonating munition with sensors operating in the As a rule, it is easier to obscure the and therefore miss its target. shorter wavelengths. target tracker of a beamrider sys- Nonimaging IR seekers often use A more recent type of guidance tem than the laser beam that guides two spectral bands. These two command for CLOS missiles is the missile. This target tracker is bands are used to discriminate be- beamrider guidance. Here, a gunner usually a viewer or a thermal tween real and false targets (such tracks the target either manually or viewer. as fires or hot rocks). These seekers automatically while illuminating the Obscuring the target tracker can be decoyed by the difference in target with a beam of light. Usually (viewer or thermal viewer) usually obscuration effects upon the two this beam is provided by a laser, causes a miss and may even prevent spectral regions. This difference and most beamriders operate in the the gunner from launching the mis- may cause the seeker to think the near and far IR spectrums. Most do sile if the target cannot be seen. target is a rock (and ignore the tar- not use the visible portion to The flash of an exploding munition get) or to think a fire is the target prevent exposing the firing position. behind the missile may blind the (and attack the fire). Semiactive Sensors on the rear of the missile tracking sensors on the rear of the seekers use energy reflected from look back at the beam projector. missiles, causing the missiles to miss the target for tracking. Usually, the These sensors track the beam, and the target. target is illuminated by a laser the missile guides itself to the tar- operating in the IR. Target illumina- get. Beamrider guidance suffers Terminal Homing tion does not have to come from from the same obscuration limita- the launch point or site. This type tions as conventional CLOS missiles Missiles of seeker may be defeated by with a beacon. As a rule, the lasers This guidance is characterized by obscuring the beam, either before used in beam projectors have more a missile with a seeker at the front or after it is reflected from the tar- power than the equivalent beacon that tracks the target and guides get. If obscuration is placed closer on a CLOS missile. As a result, the the missile to the target. There are to the laser than to the target, suffi- laser beam is harder to obscure. two categories of terminal homing cient laser energy may be scattered Beamrider missiles are built so missiles: those that lock on the tar- by the cloud to cause the missile to that the spectral mismatch is not get before launch and those that track the obscurant cloud rather the weak link in terms of suscep- lock on the target after launch. Mis- than the real target. tibility to obscuration. If you track a siles that lock on after launch are target using the visible portion of generally more susceptible to Radar and Millimeter the spectrum, guidance is per- obscuration effects than missiles ac- Wave Sensors formed using either the IR or mil- quiring lock before launch. Ter- limeter wavelengths. Similarly, if minal homing seekers operate in We can use radar and millimeter target track is carried out with a one or more of three modes: active, wave sensors to determine the posi- thermal imagerj the missile is passive, or semiactive. tion and/or velocity of the target. guided using a far IR or millimeter Most active seekers operate in the Since these form only poor images wavelength. In effect, the target- radar and millimeter wavelength of the target, we do not get recogni- tracking element of the beamrider regions. These seekers are not, as a tion and identification in the usual system is usually the most vul- rule, adversely affected by obscura- manner. nerable to obscuration. tion, although they may be blinded Dust and conventional smokes do Most CLOS missiles receive momentarily by the detonation of not effectively degrade radar and guidance commands by a wire con- an HE or smoke munition. Passive millimeter wavelength sensors. How- necting the launcher and the mis- seekers may operate in any spectral ever, other highly effective counter-

FM 3-50 75 measures exist. A munition dust or very near, the line of sight. In enemy positions, to degrade radar cloud does produce obscuration for the far term, we will use millimeter and millimeter wave sensors. a few seconds when the burst is in, wave obscurants, projected onto

Directed-Energy Weapons Directed-energy weapons differ in vehicle-mounted mode; and all fire High-Power operation and effect from all other support team members use the weapons. They include lasers; high- GVS-5, binocular-type, laser range Microwaves power microwaves; particle beams; finder. Electric ammunition fuzes and and non-nuclear, directed Additionally, artillery survey par- many missile electronic guidance sys- electromagnetic pulse (EMP). Ex- ties use laser devices for surveying tems can be damaged by cept for lasers and high-power gun positions. Scout platoons are microwaves. Unprotected soldiers microwaves, directed-energy equipped with GVS-5 laser range may experience warmth, pain, weapons are in the early stages of finders. USAF and Navy aircraft headaches, fatigue, weakness, and development. (F4, A7, F111, F105, F16, and A6 dizziness. Directed-energy weapons transmit aircraft) may also carry laser target Terrain masking offers some energy at or near the speed of light designators. Although these are not protection from microwaves. The in the form of subatomic particles intended as weapons, accidental eye high-power microwaves operate in or electromagnetic waves. This ener- damage can occur if someone the millimeter wave spectrum; thus, gy impacts on the target as heat or moves into a laser beam path and smoke and dust have virtually no ef- shock. Directed-energy weapons looks directly at the beam, or a fect and should not be used solely can damage soft targets and soft laser beam reflects off a shiny sur- to degrade their performance. A components of hard targets, such as face into someone’s eyes. A high- munition dust cloud does produce lenses, electrical and electronic comp- power laser beam striking in front obscuration for a few seconds when onents, and eyes. New equipment of an EO device such as night the burst is in, or very near, the line will have built-in defenses against vision devices or thermal imaging of sight. In the far term, we will use known directed-energy weapons. systems may also damage com- projected millimeter wave We will fit older equipment with ponents and electrical circuits or obscurants onto known or protective devices. In the near term, cloud the lens. suspected enemy microwave we will use smoke and obscurants To avoid engagement by laser weapon locations to block or ab- to reduce the impact of attack by weapon systems, use artillery, mor- sorb the energy at its source. directed-energy weapons. tars, or direct-fire weapons to sup- press known or suspected laser Particle Beams Lasers device locations. Smoke can tem- porarily defeat some laser devices. A particle beam is a directed flow As of 1990, no army is known to When operating within the enemy’s of atomic or subatomic particles have laser devices fielded for use line of sight, protect vulnerable sys- transmitted in a series of short pul- specifically as weapons. However, tems by providing them cover or ses; it delivers large quantities of laser target designators and range concealment. Cover sensor systems energy to targets in millionths of a finders are in the inventories of all when not in use. If the mission re- second. The beam penetrates bad major armies, and their numbers quires movement, block the line of weather and smoke better than a are increasing. Any of these laser sight between friendly forces and laser beam and is much more devices can be used as a weapon. enemy location with smoke, and/or destructive. The particle energy im- Laser weapons are effective against use routes with minimal exposure pacts in the form of heat, which optical and EO systems: specifically, time. Shoot-and-move tactics help melts or fractures the target. Par- eyes and fire-control sights. prevent friendly positions from ticle beams may also create gamma Laser range finders are used on being pinpointed and targeted by and X ray when they strike metal. the M60A2, M60A3, and Ml series laser devices. When searching with Millimeter wave obscurant and tanks and our artillery units. Artil- optical or EO devices, use as few type 3 IR obscurant may lessen lery fire support teams for airborne, as possible. Protect unused devices some of the energy but will not be ranger, and special forces units use until they are needed. more than slightly effective. If a par- the lightweight target designator; ticle beam weapon is developed for fire support teams for mechanized, ground combat, use the defensive infantry, and air-assault units use measures taken against other direct the ground-locating laser designator fire weapons. in either the ground-mounted or

76 FM 3-50 Electromagnetic Pulses can damage or destroy unshielded needed at the moment should be electrical equipment. disconnected; small, electronic An EMP is a surge of electromag- To protect electronic equipment items should be placed in empty am- netic radiation generated by a against EMPs and microwaves, all munition cans. Millimeter wave nuclear detonation or a pulse gener- cable and entry points must be obscurant and type 3 IR obscurant ator. An EMP travels hundreds of shielded. The equipment should be may lessen some of the energy but miles in a fraction of a second and completely encased in metal. Extra will not be more than slightly effec- equipment or equipment not tive.

FM 3-50 77 Appendix C

Means of Delivery

Smoke can be delivered to the tar- ators. Your choice of delivery tance to the target, and the get in numerous ways, from artillery means will be determined by the availability of resources. and aircraft to grenades and gener- amount of smoke needed, the dis-

Artillery Munitions The field artillery provides effec- smoke mission to screen a small Special Smoke tive systems for rapidly placing area of 150 to 600 meters for a smoke on distant targets. They use period of 4 to 15 minutes. The objective of a special smoke HC, WP, and RP projectiles. mission is to conceal a large area to Use artillery-delivered smokes to– Immediate Smoke protect or conceal maneuver forces Obscure enemy observers and tar- for an extended period of time. Con- get acquisition and guidance sys- The objective of an immediate sider a special smoke mission when tems (for example, CLOS ATGMs). smoke mission is to obscure the the size of the cloud makes a quick Isolate or segregate enemy forma- enemy’s vision immediately. Use an smoke mission impractical. This tions. immediate smoke mission to type of screen can vary from 400 to In projecting smoke onto the bat- obscure a point of 150 meters or 2,400 meters in length. tlefield, the field artillery uses three less within 30 seconds for 1 1/2 to 5 Table 11 lists characteristics of ar- types of missions: quick smoke, im- minutes. tillery smoke munitions. mediate smoke, and special smoke.

Quick Smoke The objective of a quick smoke mission is to obscure the enemy’s vision or to conceal maneuver ele- ments. The quick smoke mission equates to the normal HE adjust fire mission. Obscuring the enemy is required, but the urgency of the situation does not require immedi- ate smoke procedures. Use a quick

Mortar Munitions Mortars can provide good initial tive indirect smoke delivery means such as CLOS ATGMs, and to iso- smoke coverage because of their available to the maneuver com- late or segregate enemy formations. high rate of fire, but their small mander. Table 12, on the next page, lists basic load limits the size and dura- Use mortar-delivered smokes to characteristics of mortar-delivered tion of the cloud they can provide. obscure enemy observers and target smoke munitions. They are the most rapid and effec- acquisition and guidance systems,

78 FM 3-50 Rockets AH/lS and AH-60 helicopters can Obscure enemy observers and Table 13 lists characteristics of at- deliver smoke munitions using the ATGM and air defense (AD) sys- tack helicopter-delivered smoke Hydra 70 rocket launcher system. terns. rockets. The Hydra 70 fires a 2.75-inch rock- et, which has a WP warhead (M156). Use helicopter-delivered rockets to— Identify/mark targets for CAS aircraft and artillery.

Aircraft-Delivered Smoke The M52 helicopter smoke limited air defense assets. The sys- The UH1 helicopter is the generating system is still in the US tem contains a fog oil tank, an airframe for this system. It is effec- Army inventory, but in January electrical pump to transfer fog oil tive when the UH1 flies at speeds 1982 the Army Materiel Command to the spray apparatus, and jets on less than 90 knots and at heights (AMC) type classified it as Stand- a spray ring to direct the fog oil not to exceed 50 feet; this makes ard B. However, it is a very effec- into a hot exhaust. There, the oil is the helicopter extremely vulnerable tive smoke delivery method against vaporized into a thick, dense, white to air defense systems. This system a low-technology enemy or one with smoke. has application for uses in various low-intensity conflict operations (for example, counternarcotics opera- tions, peacetime contingency opera- tions, and counterinsurgency operations) when the enemy has relatively few air defense systems. Table 14 lists the characteristics of aircraft-delivered smoke.

Rifle Grenades Rifle grenades can deliver smoke green smoke, and M716 yellow Provide immediate suppressive to point and area targets up to 350 smoke cartridges. smoke to degrade enemy weapon meters away from individual sol- Use rifle grenades to– guidance links or tracking. diers. The M203 and M79 grenade Obscure snipers, enemy fighting Conceal the movement of small launchers and the MK19 automatic positions, and heavy weapon tactical units (squad or smaller). grenade launcher all can fire smoke emplacements. Table 15, on the next page, lists grenades. The smoke cartridges in- the characteristics of the 40-mil- clude the M713 red smoke, M715 limeter grenade launcher.

FM 3-50 79 Smoke Pots and Smoke Hand Grenades Smoke Pots either manually (M4A2 and ABC- grenades are not effective for M5) at the emplacement site or screening smokes for units larger Smoke pots produce large volumes electrically from remote positions than one or two squads. Emplace of white or grayish-white smoke for (ABC-M5 only). The pots can be smoke hand grenades by hand or extended periods. They are the fired individually, simultaneously, or manually ignite them with a trip small-unit commander’s primary in a long-burning chain. Smoke pots wire. This technique is effective to means of producing small-area are used by all services. deceive the enemy with a diversion. screening smoke. Pots are necessary Table 16 lists the characteristics of The average soldier can throw a for employing smoke on water, as US Standard A smoke pots. grenade 30 to 35 meters. White the M4A2 floating HC smoke pot is smoke grenades are most often the only smoke-producing system Smoke Hand Grenades used to conceal individual vehicles; that floats. colored smoke grenades are used to Emplace smoke pots by hand, Smoke hand grenades produce mark or spot positions. All services drop them from vehicles or helicop- either white smoke or colored have and use smoke grenades ters, use them as a field expedient, smoke for short periods of time. Be- Table 17, on the next page, lists or fasten them to the outside of ar- cause they only produce small current smoke hand grenades and mored vehicles. Ignite smoke pots amounts of smoke, smoke hand their characteristics.

Warning The M4A2 smoke pot must be vented for five minutes within 24 hours prior to ignition. Vent each M4A2 pot by folding back the tape from at least two of the emission holes.

80 FM 3-50 Generators The mechanical smoke generator is a device that vaporizes smoke generator fog oil number 2 (SGF2). The vapor released condenses in the air as a white smoke. Currently, mechanical smoke generators are the only large-area smoke devices type classified Standard A. Table 18 lists generator systems and their characteristics.

Armored Vehicle Grenade Launchers Three types of launchers for tanks and armored reconnaissance vehicles are designed to rapidly generate small amounts of smoke to conceal or screen individual vehicles. The vehicle commander launches the grenades as soon as he is fired upon, so the driver can take evasive action behind the smoke. The launchers fire either AN-M8 HC and M34 WP grenades (M176 launchers) or L8A1 RP and M76 IR grenades (M239 launchers). Table 19 gives the characteristics of these self-defense grenades.

Vehicle Engine Exhaust System The VEESS is a vehicle-mounted In a heavy brigade-size combined the 1- to 2-kilometer range smoke system that produces smoke arms force scenario, the VEESS decreases as much as 80 percent. In by vaporizing fuel with the exhaust provides a significant reduction (up summary, the lethality of enemy system. Vehicles that currently have to 20 percent) in the vulnerability tanks decreases about 20 percent at the VEESS include the AVLB, of MIs, M2/3s, and Improved Tow close range. Self-defense smoke CEV, M88A1, M60, Ml, M2, and vehicles. When our forces use the provides significant protection in M3 families of combat vehicles. VEESS, the lethality of BMPs from the close battle.

FM 3-50 81 Safety Safety with smoke and smoke smoke and safety for the weapon or measures for US smoke and delivery systems depends primarily delivery systems. Tables 20 and 21 delivery systems. on two things: characteristics of the identify safety constraints and

82 FM 3-50 Appendix D

US Smoke Organizations and Capabilities

Most chemical command and con- company-sized elements or smaller. This appendix describes the trol headquarters are Reserve Com- Task organizing platoons from these capabilities, limitations, and struc- ponent organizations. In the active companies provide the commander ture of chemical command and con- Army, there are few battalion-level a mission-tailored mix of assets nor- trol headquarters, smoke units, and chemical organizations. Most corps mally associated with battalion and chemical unit task organizations. and division-level smoke assets are higher levels.

Chemical Command and Control Headquarters The two major chemical command can provide limited administrative headquarters and headquarters and control headquarters are the support, logistics, mission/opera- detachment and two to five chemi- corps chemical brigade (HHD) tions planning, and execution super- cal companies. The battalion can (TOE 03-4721) and the corps chemi- vision for the chemical battalions. provide limited administrative sup- cal battalion (HHD) (TOE 03- The chemical brigade does not have port, logistics, mission/operations 476L). organic supply and transportation planning, and execution supervision assets for sustaining its assigned bat- for the chemical companies. The Chemical Brigade talions. chemical battalion does not have a support platoon; therefore, it has Chemical brigades normally are as- Chemical Battalion no organic supply and transporta- signed one to each corps. Each tion assets for sustaining its as- chemical brigade is composed of a Chemical battalions usually are as- signed companies. headquarters and headquarters signed to a chemical brigade at detachment (HHD) and two to five corps, or one per TAACOM. Each chemical battalions. The brigade chemical battalion is composed of a

Smoke Generator Units The major smoke generator unit mored Cavalry Regiment (TOE 03- the company is 100-percent mobile tactical organizations are– 377L). and is completely air-transportable. Corps Chemical Company (SG) There are two different types of Motor smoke units equipped with (Motorized) (TOE 03-067J). motorized systems and one the M157 have 36 to 48 smoke gen- Corps Chemical Company mechanized smoke generator sys- erators mounted on 18 to 24 M1037 (Smoke/Decon) (TOE 03-257J). tem. The M3A4 and the M157 are HMMWVs. This company, also, is Corps Chemical Company (SG) motorized, and the M1059 is 100-percent mobile and is complete- (Mechanized) (TOE 03-077J). mechanized. ly air-transportable. Heavy Division Chemical Com- Motor smoke units equipped with Mechanized smoke units equipped pany (Mechanized Smoke Platoon) the M3A4 have 36 to 48 smoke gen- with the M1059 smoke generator (TOE 03-387). erators mounted on 18 to 24 M998 carrier have six (heavy division com- Division Chemical Company (Air- series HMMWVs or M151 series 1/4- pany) or seven (mechanized smoke borne/Air Assault) (TOE 03- ton trucks with trailers. These company) M1059s per platoon. This 027J500/03-057L). smoke systems provide stationary element is 100-percent mobile on Chemical Company smoke only. Depending on terrain, any terrain and is completely air- (Smoke/Reconnaissance/Decon), Ar- transportable.

FM 3-50 83 Corps corps Division Chemical Company Chemical Company Chemical Company (SG) (Motorized) (SG) (Mechanized) (Airborne/Air Assault) The motorized smoke generator The mission of the chemical com- This company provides smoke and company provides large-area smoke pany (smoke generator-mechanized) decontamination support to the air- support for tactical and rear opera- is to provide smoke concealment borne or air assault division. This tions. The two platoons of the for maneuver units and other criti- company has three dual-purpose motorized smoke company have cal areas. This company was platoons. Each of the three three squads each. There are 24 developed because motorized com- platoons can provide both smoke smoke generators per platoon. Each panies lack the necessary armor and decontamination support. How- platoon (if weather, terrain, and the protection and mobility to operate ever, the platoon can do only one situation are favorable) can support forward to support close operations mission at a time. Each platoon has up to a maneuver brigade. in mid- and high-intensity conflict. two dual-purpose squads and one It is organized into three smoke resupply squad. The company has Corps platoons. Each platoon has 14 36 generators – 12 per platoon. smoke generators. (Two generators The most difficult task of this com- Chemical Company are mounted on each armored pany is the transition from decon- (Smoke/Decon) vehicle.) The seven vehicles form tamination to smoke support (or seven mobile point sources. the reverse). This transition can be The corps smoke/decon chemical carried out at the company CP or company or dual-purpose company in the BSA. provides smoke and decontamina- Heavy Division tion support to the light infantry Chemical Company Chemical Company division or units located in the (Mechanized division or corps rear area. This (Smoke/Recon/Decon) Smoke Platoon) company has four dual-purpose Armored Cavalry platoons. Each of the four platoons The smoke platoon of the chemi- Regiment can provide both smoke and decon- cal company (heavy division) gives tamination support. However, the the division a large-area smoke This company provides smoke and platoon can do only one mission at capability. It also provides limited decontamination support to the ar- a time. Each platoon has two dual- site selection for decontamination mored cavalry regiment. The com- purpose squads and one resupply squads. The platoon has six M1059 pany has one dual-purpose platoon. squad. The company has 48 smoke smoke generator systems. Each of Unlike other dual-purpose platoons, generators — 12 per platoon the two smoke squads has three this platoon has seven M1059 The most difficult task of this M1059s with six smoke generators smoke generator systems. The company is the transition from per squad. platoon can provide both smoke decontamination to smoke support and decontamination support. How- (or the reverse). This transition can ever, the platoon can do only one be carried out at the company CP mission at a time. The platoon has or in the BSA. two dual-purpose squads and one resupply squad, with a total of 14 smoke generators.

Chemical Unit Task Organizations The three unique chemical unit Chemical-Engineer platoons and is particularly useful task organizations are– when the platoon is supporting Chemical-engineer task force. Task Force obstacle emplacement or covering Chemical company team. The chemical-engineer task force force operations. Chemical battalion task force. attaches one or more smoke or dual- purpose chemical platoons to the division engineer battalion. This provides a habitual association for logistical support for the chemical

FM 3-50 Chemical Company pany for command and control brigade could be attached to a par- during a particular mission. ticular chemical battalion when that Team battalion is supporting the corps The chemical company team at- Chemical Battalion main effort. For example, if a division had to conduct a river taches one or more platoons to a Task Force chemical company for specific mis- crossing as part of the corps sions. For example, a smoke The chemical battalion task force scheme of maneuver. The corps platoon from a corps motorized attaches one or more platoons or commander might task organize smoke company could be attached companies to a chemical battalion most of his smoke generator com- to a heavy division chemical com- for specific missions. Every smoke panies under one battalion for company in a corps chemical direct support of this mission.

Capabilities Tables 22 and 23 show smoke and types of generators or point kilometers; and the prime movers platoon area coverage based on the sources.. The coverage is given in are listed for the generators. type of platoon and the number

FM 3-50 85 Appendix E

Smoke Support Sustainment Planning Tables

The tables in this appendix pro- sustainment requirements for smoke tion planning on smoke unit struc- vide smoke pot spacing guidance missions. ture, smoke duration, and fuel and ammunition and fuel consump- Base your ammunition consump- delivery packaging. tion data. Use the tables to deter- tion planning on target size and mine ammunition or fuel smoke duration. Base fuel consump-

Smoke Pot Consumption Table 24 is the spacing guide for (decimals) to the next larger whole know the length of the target area smoke pots. When using Table 23 number. in meters and the spacing between to determine actual spacing require- Table 25, below and on the facing pots in meters, plus how long the ments, round up all answers page, is the smoke pot consumption target must be smoked. guide. To use this table, you must

Continued 86 FM 3-50 Enter the table from the left– Under the spacing find your target and the smoke time row intersect smoke time. Locate the spacing be- length. The cell where this column contains the number of pots needed. tween pots at the top of the table.

Fuel Consumption Tables Use Tables 26 and 27 to deter- sumptions of a smoke generator single M3A4 or M157 smoke gener- mine fog oil and MOGAS consump- platoon running all generators simul- ator, multiply the planning figure by tion for smoke generators. These taneously. When a crew operates a 0.5. tables are based on normal con-

FM 3-50 87 Ammunition Consumption Tables Use Tables 28 through 31, below, Start with the wind speed, rate of and use the table to discover the to determine consumption rates for fire, (or weapon and target size) number of rounds required for the artillery, and mortarmunitions. and duration of smoke requested, mission.

FM 3-50 88 Appendix F

Weather and Terrain

Environmental factors and terrain ing winds, temperature gradients tant for accurately predicting smoke affect smoke cloud behavior. Steer- and the type of terrain are impor- cloud travel.

Weather Meteorological conditions that Wind direction determines where face. They are the winds that actual- have the most effect on smoke smoke must be released and where ly carry the smoke and determine screening and munitions expendi- it will travel. Basically, there are the direction of smoke travel. tures (including the deployment of four different types of wind direc- Wind speed has as much influence smoke generators) include wind, tions that affect smoke operations: on smoke behavior as wind direc- temperature gradients, humidity, head winds, tail winds, flanking tion has. Low wind speed or calm precipitation, and cloud cover. winds, and quartering winds. conditions allow smoke to remain in Favorable wind directions in rela- the target area for a longer period Wind tion to the smoke objective are the of time. In addition, some types of tail, quartering, and flanking winds smoke behave differently at dif- The weather condition with the (see Figure 17). ferent wind speeds. For example, greatest impact on smoke opera- Head winds are those blowing WP tends to pillar if winds are less tions is wind. Both wind direction from the smoke objective directly than 9 knots (17 kilometers per and wind speed play a significant toward the smoke source and are hour). HC smoke rises when the role in almost everything that deals unfavorable for smoke generator wind speed is less than 4 knots (7 with smoke operations. These fac- operations. kilometers per hour), and it is torn tors are important in estimating Tail winds, the most favorable for apart by wind speeds over 13 knots equipment, munitions, and fog oil smoke operations, blow toward the (24 kilometers per hour). Smoke requirements for a smoke opera- smoke objective from behind the from mechanical smoke generators tion. smoke source. may be effective in higher wind Flanking winds blow speeds because of the great volume directly across the produced. smoke objective and the smoke source and Temperature Gradients are generally favorable for smoke operations. Temperature, by itself, has no Quartering winds direct relationship with making ef- blow between the fective smoke. It does, however, other winds toward have an indirect relationship, which the smoke objective. is a result of temperature gradients. It is important to Temperature gradients are deter- make the distinction mined by comparing the air between those surface temperature at .5 meter above the wind directions just ground with the air temperature at discussed and steering 4 meters. Three types of tempera- winds. Steering winds ture gradients influence smoke: un- occur between 6 stable (lapse), neutral, and stable meters and 200 meters (inversion) (Figure 18, next page). above the earth’s sur-

FM 3-50 89 Unstable. An unstable (lapse) con- may reduce visibility at ground snow reduce visibility; therefore, dition exists when air temperature level. Inversion conditions are excel- smoke is rarely needed for conceal- decreases with an increase in al- lent for smoke hazes and smoke ment during those conditions. When titude. This condition is charac- blankets but only if there is enough used during periods of precipita- terized by vertical air currents and wind to carry the smoke over the tion, smoke tends to remain close turbulence. Thus, smoke tends to target area. to the ground and spread out over break up and become diffused. a large area. Lapse conditions are best for Humidity producing smoke curtains. Cloud Cover Neutral. A neutral condition exists Practically all smoke particles ab- when air temperature shows very lit- sorb moisture from the air. Mois- The amount of clouds in the sky tle or no change with an increase in ture increases particle size and gives an indication of how smoke altitude. Neutral conditions also density and makes the smoke more will act on the battlefield. The exist when the wind speed is effective. Most smoke munitions general rule is when the sky is greater than 9 kilometers per hour. produce a denser (thicker) smoke covered with clouds, the atmos- Under this condition, vertical air when the humidity is high than phere is relatively stable, and the currents are very limited. Neutral when it is low; therefore, high conditions are generally favorable conditions are best for smoke hazes humidity is generally favorable for for making smoke. and smoke blankets; however, this smoke employment (Table 32). Table 33, on the next page, is not the most favorable tempera- provides a summary of favorable ture gradient for smoke. Precipitation and unfavorable conditions for Stable. A stable (inversion) condi- smoke production. tion exists when the air temperature Since light rains increases with an increase in al- decrease visibility, titude, This condition greatly limits less smoke gives vertical air currents. A smoke cloud concealment produced during inversion condi- during these rains. tions lies low to the ground and Heavy rains and

Terrain Effects Since smoke is carried by the coverage will be in a specified area. Flat, Unbroken Terrain wind, it usually follows the contours Smoke will act differently over the of the earth’s surface. Therefore, different types of terrain. and Over Water the type of terrain over which the On flat, unbroken terrain, and smoke travels has a tremendous im- over water, the individual smoke pact on how effective the smoke streamers take longer to spread out

90 FM 3-50 and mix with other streamers. Large Hill Masses Slopes and Valleys Therefore, the uniform phase will usually develop a greater distance and Mountains In areas where there are valleys downwind. and other types of slopes, the Steep hills and mountains tend to climatic conditions are usually dif- split winds. The winds eddy around ferent at different times of the day. Obstructions the hills and mountains as well as over them. Large hill masses and These areas are characterized by Obstructions, such as trees and rugged terrain cause strong cross thermally induced slope winds that small buildings, tend to break up occur throughout the day and night. currents. These currents disperse During the daytime, the heating ef- smoke streamers. These streamers smoke excessively and create holes re-form, cover a much larger area, and unevenness in the smoke fect causes these winds to blow up and eventually create a more screen. In addition, thermally in- the slope, and they are referred to uniform screen. This uniform screen duced slope winds occur throughout as up-slope winds. At night, the develops much quicker and closer the day and night. These conditions cooling effect causes the winds to to the smoke source than if the ter- make it extremely difficult to estab- blow down the slopes, and they are rain were open. A wooded area, lish and maintain a smoke screen. called down-slope winds. This is a which contains an abundance of Wind currents, eddies, and tur- very general rule; however, it is one obstructions, is the most favorable bulence in mountainous terrain which needs to be kept in mind type of terrain for smoke generator must be continuously studied and when planning smoke operations. operations. observed.

FM 3-50 91 Appendix G

Obscurants and How They Work

Obscurants are particles obscurants (such as fog); by- the general characteristics of suspended in the air that block or product obscurants (such as dust); obscurants, how they work, and attenuate a portion (or portions) of visual smoke (such as WP); and what obscurants the United States the electromagnetic spectrum. The bispectral multispectral and special has in its inventory. six types of obscurants are natural obscurants. This appendix describes

Characteristics Obscuration occurs when there is Smoke, placed between a target Grayish or white smoke obscures a decreased level of energy avail- and viewer, degrades the effective- in the visible range by reflecting or able for the function of seekers, ness of that viewer by interfering scattering light, producing a glare. trackers, vision enhancement with the reflected electromagnetic During bright sunlight you need a devices, or the human eye. Bat- radiations. The amount of smoke re- lower concentration than with black tlefield visibility can be practically quired to defeat that viewer is high- smoke to effectively obscure a tar- defined as the distance at which a ly dependent upon meteorological get. At night or in limited visibility, potential target can be seen and conditions, terrain relief, available considerably more than black identified against any background. natural light, visibility, and the ab- smoke is needed. Reduction of visibility on a bat- sorption effect of natural particles Years of experience with white tlefield by any cause reduces the in the atmosphere. Other factors in- smoke technology have shown it to amount of smoke needed to clude smoke from battlefield fires be superior to black smoke for obscure a target or objective. and dust raised from maneuvering most applications. Available white Obscuration generally is not as- vehicles and weapon fire. smoke producers include WP and sociated with combat power be- The ability to detect and identify a RP compounds, HC, and fog oil cause it is not a lethal tool on the target concealed by such a smoke (SGF2). WP, RP, and HC are battlefield. However, the deliberate cloud is a function of target-to-back- hydrocopic (that is, they absorb use of smoke and the inadvertent or ground contrast. Smoke clouds water from the atmosphere). This in- planned use of dust and/or adverse reduce target-to-background con- creases particle diameters and weather conditions on the bat- trast, making the target more dif- makes them more efficient in scat- tlefield have always been of value to ficult to detect. tering light. Fog oils are nonhydro- units in the field. The effectiveness of obscuration scopic and depend upon In general, smokes are composed depends primarily upon charac- vaporization techniques to produce of many small particles suspended teristics such as the number, size, extremely small diameter droplets in the air. These particles scatter and color of the smoke particles. In that absorb and scatter light. and absorb (attenuate) different the visible range, dark or black Smoke produced by a smoke gen- spectra of electromagnetic radia- smoke absorbs a large proportion erator unit or from a series of tion. This absorption reduces trans- of the electromagnetic waves strik- smoke pots has four distinct phases: mittance of that radiation through ing individual smoke particles. streamer, build-up, uniform, and ter- the smoke. When the density (con- Dining bright sunlight you need a minal (see Figure 19, on the next centration) of smoke material be- higher concentration of black page). tween the observer or EO device smoke to effectively obscure a tar- Streamer phase is the smoke and an object exceeds a certain min- get because black smoke particles cloud formed by a single smoke imum threshold value (Cl), the ob- are nonscattering. At night or in device before it begins to blend ject is considered effectively limited visibility, considerably less with the smoke from other sources. obscured. black smoke is needed.

92 FM 3-50 Build-up phase is the stage of smoke cloud production when individual streamers begin to merge. Uniform phase is a uniform smoke cloud that occurs after individual smoke streamers have merged. This is the phase com- manders want over the target area. Terminal phase is the stage of a smoke cloud in which the smoke has dispersed and concealment is no diffusion on the battlefield Continuous line sources (such as longer effective. originates from four basic smoke a series of smoke generators set up The diffusion of smoke particles source configurations: crosswind). into the atmosphere just above the Continuous point sources (such Area sources (such as munitions earth’s surface obeys physical laws. as smoke release from a smoke gen- that scatter smoke-generating sub- Wind speed, turbulence, atmos- erator or smoke pot). munitions like the armored vehicle pheric stability, and terrain all Instantaneous point sources (such smoke grenade launchers). govern diffusion of smoke. Smoke as bursting of a WP projectile).

Natural Obscurants Natural obscurants are produced can operate at near-normal efficien- ly effectively obscure all observation by nature and are therefore no cy during periods of reduced and target acquisition devices with drain on our assets. However, they visibility or darkness. the possible exception of ground are uncontrollable and may aid the surveillance radars and other re- enemy as much as friendly forces. Fog lated devices operating in the We can use natural obscurants to microwave region of the electromag our advantage if we accurately Fog can be an effective form of netic spectrum. predict the weather and if there is a obscuration for use on the bat- firm understanding of the impact of tlefield. Fog has the capability of Precipitation that weather on the battlefield. providing a good obscurant on the Natural obscurants will create large battlefield because it will attenuate Precipitation can definitely recognition and identfication visual and near infrared signals in obscure battlefield viewers depend- problems. Examples of natural the same manner as visual smoke. ing on the concentration. Rain, obscurants are darkness, fog, Ice fog can also be a very effective mist, sleet, or snow will degrade bat- sandstorms, and precipitation. obscurant because it degrades sys- tlefield visibility greatly. When these tems that operate by the use of a elements are present in heavy con- Darkness longer wavelength such as thermal centration, there is no need to imagers. Fog also degrades laser produce smoke. These elements can Darkness is the most common range finders and target designators. reduce visibility by themselves. The form of obscuration found on the use of image intensfiers, active in- battlefield. Darkness will degrade Sandstorms frared systems, thermal imagers, visual observation and target-acquisi- laser range finders, and ground sur- tion devices that are not equipped Sandstorms are encountered in veillance radars can be degraded with active infrared, image inten- arid and semiarid regions and can and possibly defeated when the con- sification, or thermal imaging. Sys- have a dramatic effect on military centration of precipitation is heavy. tems equipped with these devices operations. These storms will usual-

FM 3-50 93 By-Product Obscurants By-product obscurants that Degrading performance of produce concealment are a result of precision-guided other activities associated with bat- munitions and EO tlefield operations. They are often sensors. HE dust inadvertent; however, when under- can be used to in- stood, they may be planned and terfere with the tar- used to the advantage of friendly get acquisition forces. Examples of by-product sequence or to obscurants are smoke from burning break "lock-on" of vehicles and buildings and dust an acquired target. caused by vehicular movement and Dust, depending artillery/mortar fire. on how it is produced, can By-Product Smoke obscure different portions of the Smoke produced by fire on the electromagnetic battlefield will obscure viewers. This spectrum, in either fire can be man-made or naturally the visible, infrared produced by elements such as light- millimeter wave, or ning. Other methods of generating radar portions. fires that may result from a man- Dust is often made device are fires produced by produced inadver- mortar or artillery rounds. Whether tently by bombing, naturally produced or man-made, gunfire, and this obscurant will decrease visibility vehicular move- on the battlefield. ment. However, we can plan and use Dust dust to the ad- vantage of friendly Battlefield dust is like the prover- forces. Dust bial two-edged sword: its presence degrades the per- and use can cut both ways. For ex- formance of sen- ample: dust can be used for — sors and Concealing details of military for- precision-guided ces and movement. Dust is often an munitions. indicator of movement of troops and equipment. If the amount of dust generated is large (perhaps deliberately so), details of troop movement can be obscured. If no dust is desired, a simple expedient is to keep the road wet, which can be done if sufficient equipment and ample water are available. Blinding enemy observation points to deprive him of the oppor- tunity to adjust fire. Artillery volleys or naval salvos can be used to tem- porarily obscure a narrow field of view for a short period of time. HE dust clouds are generally only effec- tive as obscurants for several seconds but may be effective up to a minute or more.

94 FM 3-50 Munition-Produced Dust and infrared portions of the weather conditions. Dust clouds When HE munitions are used, spectrum. created by HE have three succes- dust will be produced. The amount As a rule of thumb for drier soils, sive phases: impact, rise, and drill produced depends on the size of dust generally has less effect on IR and dissipation. the munition, its point of detonation sensors than on visual sensors such Impact phase. Upon munition im- (above or below the surface), and as the eye. For moist or very sandy pact, two parts of a dust cloud are the state of the soil. The initial ex- soils, the two sensors are often af- created instantaneously. One part is plosion throws up a variety of fected equally, and under some con- the hot dust or fire ball, which has crater materials. From small clumps ditions the IR sensors are obscured an initial size of 4 to 6 meters and down to individual soil particles, more than the visual sensors. In is close to the surface. The dust or obscuration will occur at all frequen- general, infrared sensors will usually fire ball is initially several hundred cy bands of the electromagnetic offer some advantage over visible- degrees hotter than its surround- spectrum (assuming the explosion is radiation sensors when looking ings. Most of the dirt and dust are on or near the line of sight). through dust. contained in this initial dust or Obscuration times are generally 3 Figure 20, at left, shows the fireball. The second part is the dust to 10 seconds in the millimeter phases of a munition dust cloud. skirt, which has a greater horizontal wave portion of the spectrum; this The initial phase lasts only a few extent of 6 to 10 meters high, and is the amount of time required for seconds and quickly blends into the has nearly the same temperature as the small clumps and large particles rise phase that lasts about 10 its surroundings. to fall back to the ground. The seconds or less. The degree and Rise phase. The initial dust or remaining airborne dust that forms time of obscuration depend on the fireball begins to rise and expand, the drifting dust cloud continues to dust cloud drift and dissipation cooling as it rises. The dust cloud provide obscuration in the visible phase of the dust cloud with top may reach heights of 10 to 30 respect to the line of sight and the meters in less than 10 seconds. The dust skirt does not rise but will con- tinue to diffuse outward. Drift and dissipation phase. The entire dust cloud, both the buoyant part and the nonbuoyant dust skirt, begin to drift. Wind causes the upper portion to move out ahead while the lower dust skirt lags be- hind. As the dust cloud drifts, it dif- fuses, becoming thinner and gradually dissipating. Vehicular Dust The amount of dust produced by vehicular traffic depends on the weight of the vehicle, the number of wheels (or tread area), the speed of the vehicle, and the state of the soil. Because vehicles kick up the smaller particles present on the soil surface, vehicular dust does not ef- fectively attenuate the radar or the millimeter wave portions of the spectrum. However, vehicular dust clouds can provide effective obscura- tion in the visible and infrared por- tions of the spectrum. Vehicular dust can be divided into two phases: generation and drift and dis- sipation (Figure 21). Generation phase. In this phase, the dust is thrown up or lifted off the surface by the vehicle’s wheels

FM 3-50 95 or treads and is swept up in the tur- Drift and dissipation phase. After depend on the position of the dust bulent air under and behind the the dust has been swept up behind trail with respect to a line of sight vehicle. The total amount of dust the vehicle, it begins to drift and dif- and the weather conditions. produced increases with the speed fuse with the wind. As before, the of the vehicle. degree and duration of obscuration

Artificial Obscurants We cannot control the behavior ces into the air where it condenses phorous particles being highly incen- of natural and by-product into a dense white smoke. This diary. This makes phosphorous obscurants with the degree of cer- smoke can produce effective smoke excellent for harassing tainty required to defeat enemy obscuration of the visual through enemy personnel and starting fires, RSTA efforts. While natrual and by- near-infrared portions of the as well as its having excellent smoke product obscurants block or at- electromagnetic spectrum. properties. tenuate portions of the Phosphorous smoke burns so hot electromagnetic spectrum, we must Hexachloroethane Smoke produce obscurants artificially to at- HC is a pyrotechnic composition tack enemy electro-optical systems. of hexachloroethane, zinc oxide, Caution We classify US obscurants as visual, and aluminum powder. A pyrotech- Phosphorous smoke produces bispectral, multispectral, and spe- nic starter mixture usually ignites phosphoric acid. Soldiers must cial.. the burning reaction. The smoke wear respiratory protection, such While 98 percent of all current bat- produced is zinc chloride during as protective masks, if exposed to telfield viewers operate in the visual burning. This zinc chloride reacts phosphorous smoke. portion of the spectrum, future sys- with the moisture in the air to form tems will acquire and engage, using a zinc chloride solution in tiny IR and millimeter wave tech- droplets: smoke. When first that it tends to form a pillar of nologies. This will require integra- produced, HC smoke is very hot smoke, which rises rapidly. While tion of each class of US obscurant but cools rapidly and has little ten- this pillaring reduces the efficiency to attack and defeat these systems. dency thereafter to rise. HC muni- of phosphorous smoke, the by- The following portions of this ap- tions generally have definite burn product of the heat is that it pendix describe the militarily sig- times, which are useful for planning obscures from the visual through nificant, artificially producted purposes. the far-infrared portions of the obscurants. electromagnetic spectrum. The Phosphorous Smoke three phosphorous smokes are WP, Visual Smoke PWP, and RP. WP is a spontaneously flammable Many years of experience with natural element. It ignites on con- smoke technology has shown white Caution tact with air and is relatively un- smoke to be superior to black HC is carcinogenic. Soldiers must stable in storage. WP burns at 5,000 smoke for most applications. Cur- degrees Fahrenheit, making it the rently we have no black smoke wear respiratory protection (for ex- ample, a protective mask) while in most effective smoke agent to production agents, although the US HC smoke. defeat thermal imagery systems. Navy does have black smoke PWP is a formulation of white production capability. The three phosphorus and some other agents principle agents for producing white Phosphorus is a flammable solid (for example, butyl rubber) to stabi- smoke are oils (SGF2 and diesel), that burns to form solid particles of lize the smoke agent fill and slow HC, and phosphorous. phosphorous pentoxide in the air: the burning. This slowed burning smoke. The phosphorous pentoxide tends to produce a more coherent Oil Smoke then reacts with moisture in the air smoke cloud with less pillaring. We make oil smoke by vaporizing to form phosphoric acid. We use RP is not spontaneously flam- fuel oils in mechanical smoke gener- phosphorous smokes in instan- mable, requiring ignition to burn ators or engine exhausts. The gener- taneous-burst munitions (for ex- and make smoke. RP burns at a ator or engine exhaust vaporizes ample, artillery and rifle grenades), lower temperature – 4,000 degrees either SGF2 or diesel fuel and for- with the showers of burning phos- Fahrenheit – which produces a

96 FM 3-50 more coherent smoke cloud with the visual and infrared portions of degrade multiple portions of the less pillaring. It is less incendiary the spectrum. Other bispectral electromagnetic spectrum. Challen- than either WP or PWP, making it capabilities include type III IR ges associated with this technology safer for use in smaller cartridges obscurant, which is a micropul- include preventing the inadvertent (for example, 40-millimeter verized metal compound. Currently suppression of friendly force EO grenades). Some munitions such as we use this bispectral obscurant in systems. In the mid-term we will the M825 155-millimeter howitzer self-defense systems only (for ex- have and use multispectral cartridge use felt wedges saturated ample, the M76 smoke grenade for obscurants. with RP to produce an even dis- armored vehicle grenade launchers). tribution of smoke agent around the In the near term we will have and Special Obscurants point of burst. use a large-area bispectral obscurant capability. Special obscurants will defeat Bispectral Obscurants specific portions of the electromag- Multispectral netic spectrum. Bispectral obscurants defeat or degrade two portions of the Obscurants electromagnetic spectrum simul- AS implied by the name, multi- taneously. As previously stated, spectral obscurants will defeat or phosphorous smokes defeat both

FM 3-50 97 FM 3-50, C1

Appendix H PROBABILITY OF DETECTION

97-A FM 3-50, Cl

97-B FM 3-50,C1

97-C FM 3-50, Cl

97-D References

New reference material is being published all the 3-101, Chemical Staffs and Units time. Present references, as listed below, may become 6-20, Fire Support in the AirLand Battle obsolete. To keep up to date, see DA Pam 25-30 (on 17-95, Cavalry Operations microfiche). 25-100, Training the Force 34-1, Intelligence and Electronic Warfare Operations Required Publications 71-3, Armored and Mechanized Infantry Brigade Required publications are sources users must read to 71-101, Infantry, Airborne, and Air Assault Division understand or comply with this publication. Operations (HTF) 100-2-1, Soviet Army Operations and Tactics Field Manuals (FMs) 100-2-2, Soviet Army Specialized Warfare and Rear 3-6, Field Behavior of NBC Agents (Including Smoke Area Support and Incendiaries) 100-2-3, The Soviet Army Troops Organization and 100-5, Operations Equipment 101-5, Staff Organization and Operations 101-5-1, Operational Terms and Symbols Related Publications Soldier Training Publications (STPs) Related publications are sources of additional informa- 3-54B1-SM, Soldier’s Manual, MOS 54B, Chemical tion. They are not required to understand this Operations Specialist, Skill Level 1 publication. 3-54B2-SM, Soldier’s Manual, MOS 54B, Chemical Army Regulations (ARs) Operations Specialist, Skill Level 2 310-25, Dictionary of United States Army Terms 3-54B34-SM-TG, Soldier’s Manual, Skill Levels 3/4 and 310-50, Authorized Abbreviations and Brevity Codes Trainer’s Guide, MOS 54B, Chemical Operations Specialist Field Manuals (FMs) 3-100, NBC Operations

98 FM 3-50 Glossary

AA – assembly area. spectrum (such as visual and in- DEW – directed-energy weapon frared). (such as high-energy microwaves, AAR – after action report. lasers). blanket – See smoke blanket. abn — airborne DISCOM – division support com- BMNT – beginning morning nauti- mand. ACR – armored cavalry regiment. cal twilight. DPICM – dual-purpose improved ACRV – artillery command and bn – battalion. reconnaissance vehicle. conventional munition. BSA – brigade support area. aerosol — fine particles of solids or DS – direct support. liquid suspended in air. build-up phase – the second stage DSA – division support area. of smoke cloud production; oc- AD – air defense. curs when the individual smoke EA – engagement area. AG – advanced guard. streamers start to merge. EENT – ending evening nautical AICV – armored infantry combat CAS – close air support. twilight. vehicle. CCA – Combat Command A. eff — effective. AirLand battle imperatives – key CEOI – Communications- electro-optical system — a device operating requirements for suc- Electronics Operation Instructions. that detects targets by converting cess on the battlefield to ensure the electromagnetic radiation unity of effort; anticipate events CEV – combat engineer vehicle. (visible, infrared, microwave) on the battlefield; concentrate CFL – coordinated fire line. given off by the target into combat power against enemy vul- electric current; this current is nerabilities; designate, sustain, CFV – cavalry fighting vehicle. amplified, then used to power a and shift the main effort; press CLOS – command to line of sight. viewer or targeting system; this the effort; move fast, strike hard, devise can detect targets not and finish rapidly; use terrain, CMO – civil military operations. visible to the naked eye. weather, deception, and OPSEC; COSCOM – corps support com- EMP – electromagnetic pulse. conserve strength for decisive ac- mand. tion; combine arms and sister EO – electro-optical. services to complement and rein- CP – command post. EW – early warning. force; understand the effects of CRP – combat reconnaissance battle on soldiers, units, and patrol. FA – field artillery. leaders. CRSTA – counterreconnaissance, far infrared – electromagnetic ener- AMC – Army Materiel Command. surveillance, and target acquisi- gy with wavelengths of 8 to 14 APC – armored personnel carrier. tion. micrometers. arty – artillery. CSS – combat service support. FASCAM – family of scatterable mines. ASG – area support group. curtain – See smoke curtain. FDC– fire direction center. ASP – ammunition supply point. DAG – division artillery group. FEBA – forward edge of the battle ATGM – antitank guided missile. decon – decontamination. area. attenuate — reduce the effective- deliberate smoke – characterized by FFL – free fire line. ness, amount, or force of. integrated planning; may be used for extended periods for station- flank wind – a wind that blows bispectral obscurant – an obscurant ary or mobile missions. directly across a line between the that blocks or attenuates two por- tions of the electromagnetic det – detachment.

FM 3-50 99 smoke objective and the smoke HE – high explosive. found. For smoke operations, the source. state is defined as unstable. This HMMWV – high-mobility multipur- condition is normally the most un- FLIR – forward looking infrared. pose wheeled vehicle. favorable for the release of smoke. FLOT – forward line of own troops. head wind – wind blowing away LC – line of crossing. fog oil – petroleum compounds of from the smoke objective and selected molecular weight and directly toward the smoke source. LD – line of departure. composition to facilitate forma- HUMINT – human intelligence. LIC – low-intensity conflict. tion of smoke by atomization or combustion; the resultant smoke ICM – improved conventional muni- LOGPAC – logistics package. is white. tion. LRP – logistics release point. FScell - fire support cell. IFV – infantry fighting vehicle. LTOE – living table of organization FSCOORD – fire support coor- IMINT – imagery intelligence. and equipment. dinator. individual streamer – the initial m – meter(s). FSE – forward security element. phase of a smoke cloud, before the streamers from the point sour- marking smoke – smoke employed FSO – fire support officer. to relay prearranged communica- ces merge. tions on the battlefield. g – gram. inversion — an increase of air Frequently used to identify tar- temperature with increase in gets, evacuation points, and gen – generator. height (the ground being colder friendly unit perimeters. GS – general support. than the surrounding air); this MBA – main battle area. GSR – ground surveillance radar. condition usually occurs on clear or partially clear nights and early mech – mechanized. G/VLLD – ground/vehicle laser mornings until about one hour locator designator. METT-T – mission, enemy, terrain, after sunrise, but sometimes per- troops, and time available. hasty smoke – characterized by min- sists longer. When stable imal planning; used for short conditions exist, there are no con- mid-infrared — electromagnetic ener- periods to counter enemy action vection currents and, with wind gy with wavelength in the range speeds below 5 knots, little of 3 to 8 micrometers. or anticipated enemy action of mechanical turbulence. Therefore, concern to the commander. stable conditions are the most min – minute(s). haze – a light concentration of favorable for ground-released mm – millimeter(s). obscuration that restricts accurate smoke. enemy observation from the air MOGAS – motor gasoline. and ground. This prevents ac- IPB – intelligence preparation of the battlefield. MOUT – military operations on ur- curate enemy target acquisition, banized terrain. but does not disrupt friendly IPE – individual protective equip- operations that require limited ment. MRB – motorized rifle battalion. visibility, such as river crossings. MRC – motorized rifle company. A smoke haze allows limited ir — infrared. visibility that reduces the recogni- ITV – integrated TOW vehicle. MSR – main supply route. tion of personnel and equipment k – knot(s) MTOE – modified table of or- from 50 to 150 meters. ganization and equipment. km– kilometer(s). HC – a pyrotechnic smoke-produc- multispectral obscurant — an ing composition of kmph – kilometer(s) per hour. obscurant that blocks or at- hexachloroethane, zinc oxide, and LAMPSS – large-area mobile tenuates more than two portions aluminum powder employed in of the electromagnetic spectrum certain smoke munitions; has a projected smoke system. (such as visual, infrared, and mil- sharp, acid odor; toxic if released lapse – a marked decrease of air limeter wave). in sufficient quantities in enclosed temperature with increasing al- places; the smoke is cool burning titude (the ground being warmer NAI – named areas of interest. when contrasted to white phos- than the surrounding air). During NBC – nuclear, biological, and phorus. unstable or lapse conditions, chemical. strong convection currents are

100 FM 3-50 NBCC – nuclear, biological, and OPSEC – operations security. enemy forces to degrade enemy chemical center. ground and aerial observation; PD – proximity detonator. used to conceal ground NCO – noncommissioned officer. phases of smoke – see individual maneuver, breaching, and near infrared — electromagnetic streamer, build-up phase, uniform recovery operations, as well as energy with wavelengths of 0.7 to phase, and terminal phase. key assembly areas, supply routes, 3 micrometers PHOTINT – photographic intel- and logistic facilities. neutral – a meteorological condi- ligence. selected area – as used in this tion that exists when conditions PIR – priority intelligence require- manual, an area to be concealed are intermediate between lapse ment. by smoke. and inversion; neutral conditions SG – smoke generator. tending toward lapse favor PL – phase line. production of smoke curtains; plt – platoon. SGF2 – smoke generator fog num- neutral conditions tending toward ber 2; also called fog oil. inversion favor smoke blankets or POL – petroleum, oils, and signature — the visible or audible ef- hazes. lubricants. fects produced when firing a night-vision device — a viewer ena- protection smoke – smoke weapon or operating a piece of bling an operator to see in the produced to defeat or degrade equipment, such as noise, smoke, dark; also called night-observa- target acquisition or guidance sys- flame, heat, or debris; also, an tion device. tems or the effects of electronic emission subject to NFL – no fire line. directed-energy weapons. detection and traceable to the PWP – plasticized white phos- equipment producing it. NTC – National Training Center. phorus. silhouette – the outline or general OB – order of battle. shape of something contrasted quartering wind – a wind that against a lighter background. obj — objective. blows between tail and flank SLAR – side-looking airborne radar. obscurant – chemical agent that winds, toward the smoke objective. decreases the level of energy avail- RAG – Regimental Artillery Group. smoke – a particulate of solid or liq- able for the functions of seekers, uid, part of low-vapor pressure trackers, and vision-enhancement rd – round. that settles out slowly under devices. recon — reconnaissance. gravity; in general, smoke par- ticles range downward from obscuration smoke – smoke placed red phosphorus – a form of phos- about 5 micrometers in diameter on or near enemy positions to phorus not spontaneously to less than 0.1 micrometer in minimize enemy observation both flammable. diameter; also means the suspen- within and beyond the position RFL – restrictive fire line. sion of small liquid or solid area. particles in air; the filling for oil smoke – see fog oil. RISTA – reconnaissance, intel- smoke munitions, such as bombs, ligence, surveillance, and target shells, and grenades; to produce OP – observation point. acquisition. signaling or screening smoke with OPCON – operational control. RP – red phosphorus. any munition; generally, any artifi- cial aerosol. operational continuum – the RPV – remotely piloted vehicle. strategic environment within each smoke blanket – a dense concentra- theater, consisting of a variety of RSTA – reconnaissance, surveil- tion of smoke established over political, military, and economic lance, and target acquisition. and around friendly areas to conditions and a range of threats S1 – adjutant. protect them from visual observa- that result in a wide range of tion from the air and visual operations conducted within a S2 – intelligence officer. precision bombing attack, or es- continuum; consists of three S3 – operations officer. tablished over an enemy area to general states: peacetime competi- protect attacking aircraft from air tion, conflict, and war. S4 – logistics officer. defense fire. Blankets can also be OPLAN – operation plan. screening smoke – smoke employed used at night to prevent enemy- in areas of friendly operation or observed air attack by flare light, OPORD – operation order. in areas between friendly and A smoke blanket reduces visual

FM 3-50 101 recognition of personnel and process of situation development TOC – tactical operations center. equipment to less than 50 meters. and intelligence preparations of TOE – table of organization and the battlefield. smoke control officer — the officer equipment. designated by the maneuver unit SOP – standing operating proce- TOW – tube-launched, optically commander to coordinate and dure. tracked, wire-guided. control the smoke operation. sophisticated weapons — precision- TPU – tank and pump unit. smoke curtain – a vertical develop- guided munitions, equipped with ment of smoke that reduces the infrared, electro-optical, or laser TVA – target value analysis. enemy’s ability to clearly see what seekers/trackers with or without uniform phase–phase of smoke is occurring on the other side of command links; munitions with during which the uniformly the cloud; visual recognition high accuracy and, hence, high obscuring cloud exists – the depends on the curtain width and probability of kill against a target. streamers have joined and smoke density. special smoke — an obscurant that breakup of the cloud has not smoke generator – a mechanical blocks or attenuates a specific begun. device that vaporizes fog oil and portion of the electromagnetic unstable — see lapse. releases it to condense in the air spectrum (such as visual, in- as a white smoke. frared, and millimeter wave). UTM – universal transverse mer- cater. smoke haze — a light concentration spt – support. of smoke placed over friendly in- VEESS – vehicle engine exhaust stallations to restrict accurate sqd – squad. smoke system. enemy observation and fire, but stable — see inversion. visibility – the distance at which it not dense enough to hamper streamer – the smoke cloud formed is possible to distinguish a friendly operations; density of by a single smoke source. prominent object against the back- haze is equivalent to that of light ground with the unaided eye. fog. synchronization — the coordination of activities in time, space, and visibility criteria — the unit smoke munition — a device that is purpose to achieve maximum com- commander’s requirement for either discharged from a weapon bat power at the decisive point. minimum visibility in a smoke or thrown and that makes smoke. cloud. For example, in obstacle TAA – tactical assembly area. smoke point source — the point emplacement by engineers, the from which a smoke munition or TAACOM – theater Army area maneuver brigade commander smoke device generates an in- command. may want to conceal the engineer dividual streamer of smoke. operation without hindering their TAC – Tactical Air Command. work. He establishes a visibility smoke position – location of a TAI – target areas of interest. criteria (such as 150 meters) for smoke pot or mechanical smoke the smoke. generator. tail wind – a wind that blows toward the smoke objective from visible spectrum — the portion of smoke pot – an expendable bucket- behind the smoke source. the electromagnetic spectrum or pot-like ammunition that lying between 0.4 and 0.7 produces a dense smoke by burn- temperature gradient – comparison micrometers. ing a smoke mixture. of the air temperature at .5 meters above the ground with the white phosphorus — a spontaneous- smoke projectile – any projectile air temperature at 4 meters ly flammable solid that burns to containing a smoke-producing above ground; see also inversion, form solid smoke particles of agent that is released on impact neutral, and lapse. phosphorus pentoxide; the phos- or upon bursting; also called phorus pentoxide then reacts with smoke shell. terminal phase – that stage of a moisture in the atmosphere to smoke cloud when the cloud has smoke shell – see smoke projectile. form droplets of phosphoric acid; thinned out and the cover is no the dilution depends on the rela- smoke target analysis — the process longer effective; see also smoke tive humidity. of selecting the optimal smoke blanket. WP – white phosphorus. delivery system to attack specific thermal infrared – electromagnetic EO systems. energy with a wavelength range smoke target development — the of 3 to 20 micrometers.

102 FM 3-50 Index

A Countermeasures, US Obscurant effects, 73. See Threat, US countermeasures. Particle beams, 76. Applications curtain Radar wave sensors, 75. See Obscuring, screening, protect- See Screening smoke. Sensors and effects, 72, ing, marking. Sensors and viewers, 73. Artillery smoke D Terminal homing missiles, 75. See Smoke sustainment, Ammuni- Darkness Thermal viewers, 74. tion consumption. See Obscurants, how they work. F B Deception, 50. Fog Battlefield, 11. Deliberate smoke operations, 7. Delivery systems, 14. See Obscurants, how they work. Close operations, 12. Armored vehicle grenade Fog oil consumption Deep operations, 11. See Smoke sustainment, Fuel con- Rear operations, 12. launchers, 14. Battlefield applications Generated smoke, 14. sumption. Obscuring, 13 Generators, 14. Mobile smoke, 14. G Screening, 13 Projected smoke, 14. Guide, smoke pot spacing Protecting, 13 See Smoke sustainment. Marking, 13 Self-defense smoke, 14. Smoke pots and hand grenades, 14. H Blanket Stationary smoke, 15. See Screening smoke. Hasty smoke operations, 7. Breakout from encirclement, 45. VEESS, vehicle engine exhause smoke system, 14. Haze Building effects See Screening smoke. See Terrain effects, Obstructions. Weather and terrain effects, 15. Delivery, means of HC smoke By-product smoke See Obscurants, how they work. See Obscurants, hews they work, Aircraft-delivered smoke, 79. Armored vehicle grenade Hill masses effects By-product. launchers, 81. See Terrain effects. C Artillery munitions, 78. Historical perspective, 5. How and where to use smoke, 6. Chemical battalion Generators, 81. Mortar munitions, 78. See also Uses of smoke and See Command and control head- obscurants. quarters. Rifle grenades, 79. Rockets, 79. Humidity Chemical brigade See Weather effects. See Command and control head- Smoke pots and smoke hand quarters. grenades, 80. J Chemical staff officer responsi- Vehicle engine exhaust systems, 81. Jungle effects, 46 bilities, 17. Description of smoke and Chemical unit task organizations, 84. obscurants, 6. L Cloud cover Desert effects, 49 Linkup operations, 44. See Weather effects. Dust Command and control headquarters See Obscurants, how they work. M Chemical battalion, 83. E Marking smoke, 13. Chemical brigade, 83. MOGAS consumption Conditions, special, 46. Electro-optical systems, 72. See Smoke sustainment, Fuel Deserts, 49. Command-guided missiles, 74. consumption. Jungles, 46. Directed-energy weapons, 76. Mortar smoke Mountains, 46. Electromagnetic pulses, 77. See Smoke sustainment, Ammu- NBC conditions, 50. High-power microwaves, 76. nition consumption. Urban terrain, 47. Lasers, 76. Mountains effects Winter zones, 49. Millimeter wave sensors, 75. See Terrain effects.

FM 3-50 103 O Security, 53. Smoke units, 15. Obscurants, how they work, 92. Situation and target development, 8. Chemical staff officer’s respon- Artificial Obscurants, 96. Smoke estimate format, 55, 57. sibilities, 17. Bispectral obscurants, 97. Smoke mission coordination check- See also Smoke organizations. By-product obscurants, 94. list, 56. Command and support, 16. By-product smoke, 94. Smoke target list work sheet, 55, 59. Commander’s responsibilities, 17. Characteristics, 92. Supplies, 52. Organization and principles, 16. Darkness, 93. Support plan development, 8. Responsibilities, 17. Dust, 94. Support plan execution, 9. Tactics, techniques, and Fog, 93. Supporting units, 52. procedures, 15. HC smoke, 96. Sustainment, 51. Unit guidelines, 16. Multispectral obscurants, 97. Target analysis, 55. Special conditions Natural obscurants, 93. See also Smoke sustainment. See Conditions, special. Oil smoke, 96. Precipitation Spectrum of conflict, 11. Percipitation, 93. See Obscurants, how they work. Phosphorous smoke, 96. See also Weather effects. T Special obscurants, 97. Protecting smoke, 13. Tactics, defensive See Operations. Visual smoke, 96. R Obscuring smoke, 13. Target analysis Obstacle breaching, 46. Reconnaissance, surveillance, and Situation & target development, 8. Obstructions target acquisition, 18. Procedures, 55. See Terrain effects. Aerial recon, 19. Target list, 55. Oil smoke Ground recon, 19. Terrain effects, 90. See Obscurants, how they work. Artillery recon, 20. Flat, unbroken and over water, 90. Operational concept Relief in place, 43. Large hill masses and mountains, 91. Command and staff considera- Retrograde, 42. Obstructions, 91. tions, 10. Delay, 43. Slopes and valleys, 91. Operational level of war, 10. Retirement, 43. Threat, 18. See also Operations. Withdrawal, 43. Aerial recon, 19. Tactical level of war, 10. River crossings, 45. Artillery recon, 20. Defensive smoke, 22. Operational continuum, 10. S Conflict, 10. Ground recon, 19. Peacetime, 10. Safety, 82. Offensive smoke use, 21. War, 11. Sandstorms Smoke tactics, 20. Operations See Obscurants, how they work. US countermeasures to Threat Screening smoke, 13. smoke use, 25. Defensive, 36. Smoke blanket, 13. Defensive tactics, 37. U Offensive phases, 29. Smoke curtain, 13. Offensive tactics, 28. Smoke haze, 13. Urban effects, 47 Operational concept, 9. Slope and valley effects Uses of smoke and obscurants, 6. See also Battlefield. See Terrain effects. See also How and where to use Smoke and obscurants, smoke. See also Hasty and deliberate. Categories of, 7. P Smoke Capabilities, 85. W Passage of lines, 44. Smoke estimate Weather effects, 89. Phosphorous smoke Preparation, 8. Cloud cover, 90. See Obscurants, how they work. Format, 55. Humidity, 90. Planning, 7. Smoke generator units, 83. Percipitation, 90. Basic load, 52. Smoke organizations, 83. Temperature gradients, 89. Estimate preparation, 8. Smoke sustainment, 86. Wind, 89. Fire support, 53. Ammunition consumption, 88 See also Terrain effects, Large hill Fog oil resupply, 52. Fuel consumption, 87. masses and mountains, Slopes & Logistics, 52. Smoke pot consumption, 86. valleys. Maintenance, 52. Smoke pot consumption guide, 86. Winter zones, 49 Personnel sustainment, 53. Smoke pot spacing guide, 86.

104 FM 3-50 FM 3-50 4 December 1990

By Order of the Secretary of the Army:

CARL E. VUONO General, United States Army Chief of Staff

Official:

THOMAS F. SIKORA Brigadier General, United States Army The Adjutant General

Distribution:

Active Army, USAR, and ARNG: To be distributed in accordance with DA Form 12-11E-R, require- ments for FM 3-50, Smoke Operations (Qty rqr block no. 743.

✰ U.S. Government Printing Office 1993—342-421/81771 PIN: 023613-000