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Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Order Number 1341322
American finger rings representing bonds of relationships
Monfredo, Rachel Jean, M.A.
University of Delaware, 1990
Copyright ©1991 by Monfredo, Rachel Jean. A ll rights reserved.
UMI 300 N . Zeeb Rd. Ann Aibor, M I 48106
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. AMERICAN FINGER RINGS
REPRESENTING BONDS OF RELATIONSHIPS
by
Rachel Jean Monfredo
A thesis submitted to the Faculty of the University of Delaware in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Early American Culture
May 1990
© Rachel Jean Monfredo
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. AMERICAN FINGER RINGS
REPRESENTING BONDS OF RELATIONSHIPS
by
Rachel Jean Monfredo
Approved: George B a s a lt Ph.D. Professor in charge of thesis
Approved: '(zLglcm . Q.. Japres C. Curtis, Ph.D. Sirector of the Winterthur Program in Early American Culture
Approved: Carol E. Hoffecker, Acting Associate Provost fo uate Studies
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A number of people helped in the process of this project. My first thanks are expressed
to my advisor, George Basalla, in the History Department of the University of Delaware, who
spent numerous hours pouring over rough drafts, and was continually encouraging and
supportive throughout the entire effort. Special thanks are also offered to Neville Thompson,
the phenomenal librarian in charge of the Printed Books and Periodicals Collection at the Henry
Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, who unfailingly answered all of my questions and
continually referred me to sources that 'might be relevant." Warm thanks to Patricia Keller, who
helped me with the process of picking a topic, developing a thesis, and working through my
ideas.
I would like to thank all the people who allowed me access to the collections and files of
their institutions, or provided me with useful information: James W. Cheevers, United States
Naval Academy Museum; Ensign Steve Debus, United States Navy; Jerold P. Girard, United
States Coast Guard Academy; Joseph Hom'gan, Pro Football Hall of Fame, Inc.; Peter Clark and
Ted Spencer, Pro Baseball Hall of Fame; Tom Snelling, NFL Properties, Inc.; Benjamin Zucker,
Precious Stones Company; David Barquist, Yale University Art Gallery; John Platt, Jonathan
Schau, and Glenys Waldman, the Masonic Temple and Grand Lodge F. & A.M. of Pennsylvania;
Barbara Franco, formerly, Museum of Our National Heritage; Susanne M. Olson, Monticello;
Deborah Smith, the Strong Museum; the Public Relations staffs of Jostens, Inc., the Diamond
Information Center division of N.W. Ayers, and the Jewelers Circular Keystone; Bob Buckley and
the c*aff at Buckley's Photo Lab; and Frank Levy and Anne-Marie Schaaf, fellow fellows in the
iii
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Winterthur Program in Early American Culture. I would especially like to thank the staff of
Winterthur Museum; I think I performed research in almost every division, received extensive
help from numerous people, and I am afraid of leaving anyone out if I attempt to list all the names-
-so to all of you, thank you very much.
For all the people who patiently listened to me rave about rings for the last year, I would
like to express my thanks to my classmates in the Winterthur Program in Early American Culture;
Ken Ames, who encouraged me to interpret material culture using my psychology background;
Pat Elliott in the Office of Advanced Studies; my parents, Frank and Miriam Monfredo; Ellen
Barber; and Kory Berrett, who listened to endless ring stories over games of cribbage at lunch.
And finally my warmest thanks to Harold, without whose enduring love, support, and
wonderful sense of humor, none of this would have been possible.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES ...... vi
ABSTRACT ...... viii
INTRODUCTION ...... 1
CHAPTER 1 RINGS EXCHANGED BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS...... 7
Wedding, Engagement and Friendship Rings ...... 7 Mourning R in g s ...... 21
CHAPTER 2 RINGS WORN BY GROUPS OF INDIVIDUALS...... 32
Fraternal R ings ...... 32 Class R ings ...... 49 Sports R in g s...... 59
CHAPTER 3 COMPARATIVE INTERPRETATIONS OF R IN G S ...... 69
Public and Personal Meanings of R in g s ...... 69 Personal and Social Identity Through R in g s ...... 75 Conclusion ...... 80
FIGURES 81
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 130
v
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Signet Ring Designs, Josten's 1989 College Ring Catalogue, p. 4 .... 82
Figure 2 Gold Wedding Ring, 1776 ...... 83
Figure 3 Gold Gimmel Rings 1791,1795,1834 ...... 84
Figure 4 Gold Posy Ring, ca 1785 ...... 85
Figure 5 Gold Posy Ring, ca 1705-25 and Gold Mourning Ring, 1720 ...... 86
Figure 6 Posy Ring, ca 1750-1800 ...... 87
Figure 7 Friendship Ring, ca 1780-1820 and Friendship Pin, ca 1785-1820 . . . 88
Figure 8 Gold Mourning Ring, 1693 ...... 89
Figure 9 Gold Mourning Ring, 1766 ...... 90
Figure 10 Mourning Ring, 1745 91
Figure 11 Gold Mourning Ring, 1740 ...... 92
Figure 12 Mourning Rings, ca 1780 ...... 93
Figure 13 Mourning Rings, early nineteenth century ...... 94
Figure 14 Mourning Ring, 1828 and Mourning Pin, 1834 ...... 95
Figure 15 Fraternal rings, Eagle Regalia Co., Twentieth Anniversary Catalogue. 1923, p. 2 8 ...... 96
Figure 16 Masonic Blue Lodge Ring, ca 1930 ...... 97
Figure 17 Progression of Masonic Orders ...... 98
Figure 18 Masonic Fourteenth Degree Ring, ca 1930 ...... 99
Figure 19 Masonic Thirty-third Degree Ring, 1 9 1 5 ...... 100
Figure 20 Masonic Thirty-second Degree Ring, 1904 ...... 101
Figure 21 Masonic Thirty-second Degree Ring, 1874 ...... 102
vi
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Figure 22 Knight's Templar Commandery Ring, 1948 ...... 103
Figure 23 Masonic Jewel, ca 1775-1790 ...... 104
Figure 24 Masonic Mourning Ring, nineteenth century ...... 105
Figure 25 Class Rings, Eagle Regaiia Co.. Twentieth Anniversary Catalogue. 1923, p. 1 9 ...... 106
Figure 26 Naval Academy Class Ring, 1869 ...... 107
Figure 27 Naval Academy Class Ring, 1907 ...... 108
Figure 28 Naval Academy Class Ring, 1933 ...... 109
Figure 29a Naval Academy Class Ring, 1914 (d e ta il) ...... 111
Figure 29b Naval Academy Class Ring, 1914 (d e ta il) ...... 113
Figure 30a Naval Academy Class Ring, 1962 ...... 115
Figure 30b Naval Academy Class Ring, 1962 (d e ta il) ...... 117
Figure 30c Naval Academy Class Ring, 1962 (d e ta il) ...... 119
Figure 31 Naval Academy Mniature Class Ring, 1946 ...... 120
Figure 32 Athletic Watch Charms, Eagle Regalia Co., Twentieth Anniversary Catalogue. 1923, p. 53 ...... 121
Figure 33 Super Bowl I Ring, 1967 ...... 122
Figure 34 Super Bowl XXI Ring, 1987 ...... 123
Figure 35 Super Bowl XIX Ring, 1985 ...... 124
Figure 36 Super Bowl XIII Ring, 1979 ...... 125
Figure 37 Super Bowl XIV Ring, 1980 ...... 126
Figure 38 Super Bowl XV Ring, 1 9 8 1 ...... 127
Figure 39 Super Bowl V Ring, 1971 ...... 128
Figure 40 Contemporary Class Ring Designs for Women, Josten's 1989 College Ring Catalogue, p. 1 8 ...... 129
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ABSTRACT
This thesis presents the cultural and historical background for five types of American
rings: (1) wedding, and related engagement and friendship rings, (2) mourning rings, (3)
fraternal rings, (4) class rings, and (5) sports rings. Nineteenth-century etiquette literature and
trade catalogues were investigated to establish ring use. A typology of ring designs is provided
through illustrations.
Comparative interpretations of the rings' forms are explored. The plain "wedding” band
is shown to represent significant relationships between individuals. The signet ring is shown to
have represented group membership since the early nineteenth century.
Theories adapted from sociology and psychology provide methods for interpreting the
significance of rings. Rings serve as forms of verbal and nonverbal communication by disclosing
aspects of an individual's identity. The ring substantiates its wearer's personal and social identity
which can be interpreted at public and personal levels.
viii
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. INTRODUCTION
In this thesis I am interested in pursuing the way in which material culture, specifically
jewelry, symbolically manifests personal relationships and emotional bonds of attachment
between people. A number of questions come to mind. Can objects embody emotional values
or represent social relationships through their design, use of materials, and manipulation of
written and symbolic text? Do objects act as a form of nonverbal communication about the
identity of an individual? Are these expressions culturally grounded and therefore recognizable
by the general populace? Are objects created for individual appreciation and consumption
limited to a specific context independent of larger cultural interpretations?
In order to pursue these questions systematically, I have chosen finger rings in
American culture as my objects of study. The tradition of wearing rings has existed long before
the United States was colonized and, therefore, the use of rings in the American context is a
continuation of an already established practice. However, the forms that rings take within the
American tradition, although similar to previously established forms, are often different in their
cultural context and usage.
I have focused upon two specific forms of rings: the plain band, or "wedding band" type,
and the "signet ring" type. The wedding band type of ring is represented by the familiar
continuous band of metal; the signet is a more complex artifact. The signet ring, unlike the
continuous wedding band, is composed of two specific sections of the ring. The top part of the
ring is referred to as the chaton. This is usually composed of a stone held in place by a bezel, or
it can be a flat, engraved surface (the "table"). The chaton can be contained by a visual outline
as seen in Figure 1. It can also be a distinctly separate part of the ring's construction, attached to
1
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the ring's shoulders, the other main part of the signet. The shoulders may be plain or highly
decorated, bearing symbolic information.
The origin cf this design dates to ancient civilizations when the signet was used as a
primary form of identification for an important individual, a religious, military or political leader, or a
wealthy merchant. The signet ring was of considerable importance in largely illiterate societies.
The chaton of the signet was an engraved surface symbolically distinguished for each individual.
It was used to impress wax seals closing documents which then established the authenticity of
the document. In a true signet, the image cut into the surface of the stone or metal (a style of
decoration called "intaglio") was in reverse so that the image impressed in the wax seal could be
read correctly. A talisman was a ring with the stone or metal surface cut to provide a visually
correct image by itself. The term "signer today applies to this second kind of ring decoration.
Much of the existing literature on rings focuses primarily on the anecdotal history of
individual rings and not upon their symbolic and cultural value. Some of the more popular stories
include: Solomon's ring, which was swallowed by, and later retrieved from, a fish; the ring of
Gyges which granted its wearer the power of invisibility; and the Borgia family's rings which were
said to contain a deadly poison that could be injected into the enemy with a handshake.
Charles Edwards' The History and Poetry of Ringer Rings (1855), is the first of the
modem texts that collected together these anecdotes, some traced to legitimate sources, many
related second or third hand.1 He organized the chapters of his book as follows: "Rings
connected with Power," "Rings having supposed charms or virtues, and connected with
degradation and slavery, or used for sad or wicked purposes," "Rings coupled with Remarkable
Historical Characters or Circumstances” (i.e., Nero, Queen Elizabeth, Shakespeare or Lord
1 Charles Edwards. The History and Poetry of Finger Rings (New York: Redfield, 1855).
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Byron), and "Rings of Love, Affection, and Friendship." While some attempt is given to produce
a descriptive typology of certain forms of rings, more often than not, the text proceeds from
anecdote to anecdote and across all cultures and time. Unfortunately most of the rings Edwards
discusses are no longer extant, and when he does illustrate the text, his images are line
drawings of the objects with no systematic account of size or materials.
Later nineteenttvand early twentieth-century ring histories, by William Jones, Fnger-
Rina Lore: Historical. Legendary. Anecdotal (1877), and George F. Kurtz's Rings for the Finger
(1917), not only follow the formula established by Edwards, but tend to reproduce whole
sections of his prose and images in their own works.2 Kurtz was the first to mention fraternal
rings; he listed different organizations and symbolic emblems. However, he made no attempt
to understand the intended use of the rings, or to explain how the tradition of fraternal rings
began. Kunz does include some photographic illustrations, but again most of his text is filled
with anecdotal histories of rings no longer in existence. James R. McCarthy in Rinos Through
theAoes: An Informal History (1945), produced a shorter text on rings, highly sardonic in tone,
and primarily anecdotal, with only cursory references to American fraternal and class rings. He
does include a useful discussion of wedding and betrothal rings, and their history in the United
States in the twentieth century.
The most recent texts are Charles Oman's British Rings 800 -1914 (1974), and Rings
Through the Ages by Anne Ward, John Cherry, Charlotte Gere and Barbara Cartlidge (1981).3
See William Jones. Finger-Ring Lore: Historical. Legendary. Anecdotal (London: Chatto and Windus, 1877), and George Frederick Kunz, Rinos for the Finger (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1917).
3See Charles Oman, British Rinos 800 -1 9 1 4 (London: B.T. Batsford, Ltd., 1974), and Anne Ward, John Cherry, Charlotte Gere, and Barbara Cartlidge, Rings Through the Aoes (New York: Rizzoli, 1981).
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Oman’s text is strengthened by the inclusion of illustrations from collections of rings found in the
British Museum, the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Ashmolean Museum of Oxford, and
elsewhere. His book is useful for presenting a general typology of the high-style rings worn
primarily by the aristocracy of England. Rinos Through the Aaes is an excellent, readable text, it
contains four different essays on rings from antiquity to the present; each essay discusses the
contemporary mechanical and chemical processes involved in making rings. The first three
essays focus primarily on rings from the British Museum, and the Victoria and Albert Museum.
However, the essay on twentieth-century rings includes examples from all over the world. Also
included is a catalogue of color illustrations with detailed descriptive entries.
Two other texts deserve special mention. Joseph MaskelFs lecture, The Wedding
Ring: Its History. Literature, and the Superstitions respecting it (1868T is a thorough and well-
documented history of the use of the wedding ring and its ceremonial and cultural importance
since ancient times.4 The second text is Joan Evan's English Poesies and Posy Rings (1931 ).5
It offers a brief history of this form of ring, and a helpful approach to the overall interpretation of
the "posies" or inscriptions on these rings. The text is followed by over 110 pages of posies
found on existing rings. The inscriptions are listed alphabetically and by type-face.
While most of the above books mention American rings, no book or article focuses
specifically on the American cultural tradition. This dearth of information caused me to spend
most of my time investigating and establishing a typology for five types of rings that exist in
American culture. These five types are covered in two major chapters. The first chapter
describes rings that represent individual relationships, with one section on wedding rings and
4Joseph Masked, The Weddino Rina: Its History. Literature, and the Superstitions Respecting it. a Lecture delivered in various places (London: William Freeman, 1868).
5Joan Evans. English Poesies and Posv Rings (London: Oxford University Press, 1931).
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. related friendship and engagement rings, and a second section on mourning rings, or rings
received at the decease of an individual. The second major chapter entails ri^ s that represent
group relationships-fratemal rings, class rings, and sports rings. In this chapter, I have chosen a
representative group to illustrate the particular trends in each type of ring. The third chapter
discusses the different cultural uses of rings. There I propose several theories for interpreting
the personal and public meanings of rings adopting Edward Hall's theory of dynamic space
explored in The Hidden Dimension (1969). I also explore the use of rings for establishing an
individual’s personal and social identity based on psychological literature investigating the
effects of group membership on an individual's identity.
There are other forms of American rings that I have not included in this thesis. These
include decorative rings in general. Such rings may originally have been received in an
emotional context, but that information is limited to the participating individuals. It is not generally
exhibited in the ring design, except on an individual basis. Also excluded are religious rings,
such as the Catholic bishop's ring or nun's ring. Future research may indicate that the bishop's
ring, like the Pope's official seal ring, fits into the signet ring category. The nun's ring,
symbolically representing the marriage between the woman and the Church or Jesus Christ, is
likely to fit into the wedding ring category. Finally, in the course of my research, I have found that
rings are given as awards in employment, or signs of accomplishment or recognition. I have not
dealt with this specific topic, but aspects of it are covered in the Sports rings section.
In this thesis I present the historical background of a particular facet of the American
culture that fosters the wearing of the ring types mentioned above. In each case, visual images
are included to illustrate the general typology of the rings discussed. It is my goal to
demonstrate that traditionally in the American culture, the plain band or "wedding ring” type has
symbolically represented relationships between individuals, or an individual's faith in a moral
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ideal. By contrast the signet form symbolically has come to represent relationships between
groups of individuals. Bings serve as physical reminders of these relationships to their wearers.
They also provide a means by which an individual can express his or her own identity, as defined
within and supported by these relationships.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Chapter 1
RINGS EXCHANGED BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS
In the following chapter I will discuss rings exchanged between individuals that
symbolize a special relationship. In the first section I will discuss the tradition of wedding rings
and their evolution from symbolizing a transfer of property to symbolizing a love relationship.
The latter use of the wedding ring predominates in the American culture. Related to the use of
wedding rings are the traditions of engagement and friendship rings. The history of the use of
these forms wiil also be addressed. In the second section I will discuss the tradition of mourning
rings. These rings were bequeathed in the wills of deceased individuals for surviving friends
and relatives. The use of the plain gold band to represent a relationship between individuals
exists in all of these traditions. I will explore the use of the gold band through various cultures
and how it specifically has come to symbolize a significant relationship between individuals in the
American culture.
Weddino. Engagement and Friendship Rinos
In the second century B. C., Pliny described the use of a plain iron band as part of the
Roman nuptial service.1 Four hundred years later, TertuIlian claimed that gold was a preferred
metal for wedding rings, being a "nobler and purer metal...thought to intimate the generous,
sincere and durable affection which ought to be between the married parties".2 The practice of
bestowing a ring upon the bride during the wedding ceremony has endured since ancient
1 Masked, Weddino Rino. p. 14. 2lbid.
7
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times. The ring has been received before the wedding as a symbolic promise. The wedding
ring has manifested different forms in different cultures overtime. The use of precious jewels
and other materials has varied widely. However, the plain gold band has been a predominant
styie. The plain band has come to symbolize the promise for commitment the marriage couple
makes to each other. The gold metal has come to symbolize the purity the couple strives for in
their love relationship, it is the symbolism manifested by the gold band that I wish to establish as
the most influential form in the development of the wedding ring tradition in the United States.
In Roman times, the bridegroom would transfer the keys of his household to his wife
upon the day of marriage, turning over the responsibility of management to her.3 The
significance of this event is underscored by a provision for divorce if the wife was found to have
counterfeited the keys.4 An iron ring with a small key projecting from the band was believed to
have been used as the couple's wedding ring. The key on the band symbolized the importance
of the wife's new responsibility to her husband. Examples of such rings exist in the jewelry
collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. These rings represent the unromantic
transfer of property in ancient times. However, excavations at Pompeii uncovered rings with
inscriptions such as Am a te or Amo to (Latin for "I love you”) indicating an ancient romantic use
for rings as well.5
The use of wedding rings appears in many different cultures around the world. In
addition to ancient Roman use, wedding rings can be found in different European cultures. The
3 Edwards, History and Poetry, p 196.
4 Lydia N. Fowler. Marriaoe: Its History and Ceremonies: with a Phrenolooical and Physiological Exposition otthe-Functions and Qualifications for Happy Marriages(New York: Fowfers and Wells, 1848), pp. 29-30.
5Edwards, History and Poetrv. p. 196.
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rings have manifested varying forms in different cultures, and have been worn an all the fingers
from the thumb to the pinky.
Visual sources depict the use of the wedding band in these different cultures. The
exhibit catalogue compiled by the London Diamond Information Centre and entitled The Power
of Love; Six Centuries of Diamond Betrothal Rings (1988) provides a visual history of betrothal
rings and wedding rings from the fourteenth century to the present.6 The Italian tradition is
represented in The Marriage of the Virgin, a fresco painted by Giotto (1305) in the Arena
Chapel at Padua. It is considered one of the earliest visually documented sources for the use of
a ring during a wedding ceremony.7 Another significant pictorial source is the marriage portrait in
which Van Dyke depicted Prince William of Orange holding the left hand of Princess Mary of
England (1641). Plainly visfele in the fourth finger of her hand is a plain gold band.
The plain gold band has inspired many poets.6 In his Amatory Odes. Englishman
Robert Herrick (1591-1674) wrote "A Ring for Julia" describing the symbolic importance of the
continuous gold band:
And as this round is nowhere found To flaw or else to sever, So let our love as endless prove And pure as gold forever.9
®Karen Levi, ed., The Power of Love: Six Centuries of Diamond Betrothal Rinos. exhibition catalogue (London: The Diamond Information Center, 1988).
7M t , p. 4.
8inthe last section of his lecture. Ihe Wedding Ring; Its History .literature and the Superstitions respecting it (1868), Masked has compiled a number of poems about the wedding ring.
9 Masked, Weddino Rino.
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Similar symbolic values of the continuous band have appeared in other cultures.
Outside of Europe, traditions in the Near East value the continuous band believed to mean:
Endless duration of truth, completeness and symmetry... [a] symbol of authority and fidelity, of an honest compact,... binding agreement, of confidence and troth.10
These associations were clearly appropriate for symbolizing the marriage union in any culture.
The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) has several meanings for the word "band,” which when
taken to mean wedding band further reiterates its symbolic significance.11 The literal definition
states that a band is: T h a t with or by which a person or thing is bound.” The figurative definition
describes a band as a 'moral, spiritual, or legal bond or restraint or union: a bond.” The ring
symbolizing marriage ideally represents all three of these bonds. The OED further states that a
band is a "uniting... force or influence by which a union," agreement, promise, or covenant is
maintained. Here the wedding band can be interpreted as a symbol of the covenant of marriage,
and a continual physical reminder of that promise. The dictionary's abstract definition defines
the form of the band: "A strip of any material, flat and thin, used to bind together, clasp, or gird.”
This last description descrbes the physical form of the ring, and symbolically defines the
purpose of the ring as a binding force for a couple. Taken altogether, the dictionary's definition
of the band metaphorically describes an ideal moral, emotional, spiritual and physical union.
While not as decorative as the diamond, ruby, or emerald set wedding rings of the Renaissance
and later, the plain band is highly charged with symbolic meaning. The enduring symbolic
importance of the continuity of the band is demonstrated by the 1913 Tiffany Blue Book which
1° lbid.. p. 9.
110xford English Dictionary (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1933), pp. 646-647.
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charged $16 for a platinum band with a seam. Tiffany's also provided a seamless band ($21) for
those desiring a ring "nowhere found... to sever."12
At various times in history, the nuptial ring was required by law to be a plain
band. For example, the plain band was required in French marriage ceremonies from
the thirteenth through sixteenth centuries.13 The plain gold band appears to have
always been the predominantly used form in wedding ceremonies in the history of the
United States. A mid-nineteenth-century American etiquette manual states: "...If a ring
is to be used, the bridegroom procures a plain gold one...”14
The ring was not incorporated into an English religious marriage ceremony until the
fifteenth century.15 Written in Middle English, with the descriptive text translated from Latin, a
pre-Reformation ceremony reads:
'Ich (name) take the (name) to my wedded wyf [hosebund], to haven and to hoiden fro this day forward, for betre for wors, for rychere for porere, in syknesse and in helthe, til deth us departs, and theerto y plith the my trewth.'
(In Latin) Then let the man lay gold, silver and a ring on a dish or book; and let the Priest ask if the ring hath been blessed already, if it be answered not, then let the Priest bless the ring. 'Bless, O Lord, this ring which we hallow in Thy Holy Name, that whosoever she be that shal wear it may be steadfast in Thy peace and abide in Thy will, and live, increase, and grew old in Thy love, and let the length of her days be multiplied.' But if the ring shall have been already blessed, then, as soon as the man have laid it on the book, let the Priest take the ring and deliver it to the man;
12Tiffany & Co., Blue Book. New Series 1913. Vol. XX (New York, NY 1913), p. 487.
13Kunz, Rings, p. 207.
14C.P. Huestis, The Art of Good Behavior, and Letter Writer on Love. Courtship and Marriage (New York: C.P. Huestis, 1848), p. 49.
15Kunz, Rings, p. 196.
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and let the man receive it in his right hand, with the first three fingers, holding the rioht hand of the Bride with his left hand, and say, after the Priest:
■With this ryng ich the wedde, and with my body ich the honoure and with al my gold ich the dowere.'
The ring is then placed on the thumb, second, third and fourth fingers of the bride with each
corresponding line of the blessing, "In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Spirit. Amen," finishing on the fourth finger (the "ring finger" as it is recognized today) with the
"Amen."16
The English Book of Common Praver incorporates the Episcopal Rubric for the
marriage ceremony and dates to the reign of Edward VI (1547-1553):
The Rubric directs that the man shall give unto the woman a ring, laying the same upon the book, and the priest, taking the ring shall deliver it unto the man to put on the fourth finger of the woman's Jgft hand. And he says, 'With this ring, I thee wed, with my body I thee wirship, and with all my worldly gifts I thee endow.'1 ^
A century later the English Puritans tried to abolish the use of a ring during the wedding
ceremony, because they associated it with heathenish practices. Literature exploring New
England Puritan attitudes towards the use of a wedding ring is not currently available. However,
a review of early nineteenth-century etiquette manuals suggests that a ring was not commonly
used in wedding ceremonies in America much before the nineteenth century. It is possible that
the Puritans did inhibit the use of a ring during the marriage ceremony. Nevertheless, plain gold
rings used as wedding rings dating to the early eighteenth century do exist.
The use of a wedding band in the United States before the nineteenth century may
have been limited to those who could afford one. The increased popularity of a ring in the
marriage service, as mentioned in nineteenth-century etiquette books, corresponds with the
16lbid.
1?Edwards, History and Poetrv. p. 204.
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general increase in wealth of the middle class in the nineteenth century. One book described a
mid-nineteenth-century Roman Catholic marriage incorporating the use of a ring sprinkled with
holy water as part of the nuptial blessing.18 a description of contemporary Jewish-American
practices indicated that the "contracting parties" stood veiled under a canopy and drank from a
blessed cup of wine. After drinking, the groom placed the ring upon the right hand, fourth finger
of the bride and said: "By this ring thou art my spouse according to the custom of Moses and
through the children of Israel."19
In a history of the lives of middle class Anglo-Saxon women in Victorian America, Harvey
Green makes reference to late nineteenth-century women's magazines like Demoresfs Monthly
and Godev's Ladv's Book that advertised engagement and wedding rings for use by the middle
class in the 1870s and 1880s.20 However, no mention of rings could be discovered in earlier
mid-1860s issues of Demorest's Monthly21 Between the 1860s and 1880s the use of
wedding and engagement rings apparently grew in popularity. By the late nineteenth century,
the author of an American etiquette book remarked: "At the present day a wedding ring is used
in almost all marriage services."22 The author then described an acceptable ring: "It should not
be so large as to seem vulgar or exaggerated, and is still the plain gold circlet, which seems to
befit the solemn ceremony better than the richest jewel. The bride usually has the ring finger of
18|bid.. p. 205.
19Fowler, Marriage, p. 27.
2°Harvey Green, The Light of the Home: An Intimate View of the Lives of Women in Victorian America (New York: Pantheon Books, 1983), p.18.
21 Demorest’s Illustrated Monthly Magazine (January - December 1865).
^Florence Have Hall, Social Customs (Boston: Estes and Lauriat, 1887), p. 163.
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her left-hand glove cut so that it can be readily removed...*23 In all of these cases, the
references indicate the use of only one ring, intended for the bride. Before this time, some men
apparently did receive rings either during or following the wedding service (see Figure 2). The
"double-ring ceremony" appears to have become common during the second World War.24
According to an informal survey, in 1942, oniy 15% of the men received a ring during the
wedding ceremony. However, by 1943,80% received rings and by 1944,95% of the men
married received a ring during the wedding ceremony. It has been suggested that the increased
popularity of wedding rings was related to the fact that men departing for war wished to take a
tangible reminder of their marriage with them.25 if this is true, one wonders why the double-ring
ceremony did not make its appearance during the first World War or earlier wars.
Modem American Catholic marriage services incorporate the double ring ceremony with
a blessing and exchange of rings, offering three possfole versions for the ceremony:
Priest: (1) May the Lord bless these rings which you give to each other as the sign of your love and fidelity. Amen. (2) Lord, bless these rings which we bless in your name. Grant that those who wear them may always have a deep faith in each other. May they do your wfll and always live together in peace, good will, and love. Through Christ our Lord, Amen. (3) Lord, bless and consecrate (Name) and (Name) in their love for each other. May these rings be a symbol of true faith in each other and always remind them of their love. Through Christ our Lord, Amen.
23ibid.
24McCarthy, Rings, pp. 181-182.
25lbid-
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Following one of these blessings, the bride and the groom each say individually: "(Name), take
this ring as a sign if my love and fidelity. In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the
Holy Spirit."26
It is interesting to note such words as “fidelity" and "true faith," in addition to "love."
They recall the OED definition of "band" and the claim that the ring is a physical representation,
albeit symbolic, of the marriage vow.
The plain wedding band was the predominant form used in America in the nineteenth
century, but a thorough investigation of twentieth-century wedding bands has not been
researched. An example of the band variations in the early twentieth century include the
"Orange Blossom” design. This band was engraved with the design of orange blossoms and
branches alluding to the common use of orange blossoms in wedding ceremony decorations at
the time. No comprehensive study of engagement ring designs of the twentieth century is
currently available. However, the Jeweler’s Circular Keystone and the Gemological Institute of
America, Inc. possess significant amounts of statistical information that could be interpreted to
establish style typologies and the popularity of wedding and engagement rings in modem times.
The history of the engagement ring is closely linked to that of the wedding ring. In past
traditions, the event of the betrothal (or engagement) was so important that it received its own
ceremony and blessing. At the betrothal, the legal binding contract was made that often
involved the transfer of considerable wealth. The ring was a symbol of that contract. An example
of this is the 1518 marriage by proxy of Mary Tudor —aged two~to the Dauphin of France. That
marriage was annulled, and at the age of four, Mary was once again betrothed, this time to the
26Joseph M. Champfin, Together for Life: A Preparation for Marriage and the Ceremony (Notre Dame: Ave Maria Press, ca. 1970), p. 74.
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Emperor Charles V. Ultimately she married the Emperor's son in 1554.27 Rings were used in
each of these cases to symbolize the contractual marriage, and Mary's personal wishes were
overruled by the economic and aristocratic connections deemed important for the union. The
practice of joining or transferring the wealth of families through arranged marriages provides a
possible historical background for the tradition of an engagement ring for women.
In fifteenth-sixteenth century France, engagement rings were worn by both the man
and the woman. This tradition entailed the use of a special form called the gimmel ring. This ring
was created in two parts such that when joined together, the two rings appeared as one. During
the engagement each half was worn by the man and woman. At the time of the wedding the two
parts were joined together (a silversmith was needed to actually join the two pieces) and the ring
was then worn by the female. The tradition appears to have existed outside of France as well,
because Martin Luther of Wittemburg, Germany and his wife are said to have used a gimmel ring
for their betrothal and wedding in 1525.
The gimmel ring tradition was practiced sporadically over the centuries in France. It was
used by the du Pont family in France at the end of the eighteenth century. Three gimmel rings
in the Winterthur collection represent three generations of marriage in the du Pont family (see
Figure 3). Both halves of the rings are engraved with the names and date of marriage for each
couple. The first ring was used by Eleuthere Irenee du Pont de Nemours and Sophie Madeline
Dalmas, and is dated November 26,1791. The second, dated 1795, was used by Eleuthere's
father, Pierre Samuel du Pontde Nemours, at his second marriage to Marie Frangoise Robin
Poivre. Both of these marriages took place in France. However, the marriage of Eleuthere
Irenee’s daughter, Eleuthera Dupont to Thomas Mackie Smith, which occurred in the United
27Levi, Betrothal Rinas, p.12.
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States (1834), is also documented by a gimmel ring. This ring was probably made in America,
and demonstrates how a tradition of engagement ring use could be transferred from Europe to
the United States. The rings are inscribed on each half with one of the names of the betrothed
couple. Traditionally, the half of the ring with the name of the fiance was worn by the fiancee; the
fiance wore the other half. Each of the Winterthur rings shows a seam where one part of the ring
was cut and rejoined, indicating a high probability that the tradition was actually practiced.
An advertisement in the 1913 Tiffany Blue Book suggests that the dual engagement or
gimmel ring was popular in early twentieth-century America. Called "Alliance or French Wedding
Rings" the rings were: "Made of two parts, invisibly joined so as to resemble other wedding
rings; customary inscription may be engraved on the inside, concealed from view, except when
the ring is opened."28
Another popular ring form that was used as a friendship ring, but also as an engagement
and wedding ring, was the posy ring. Its name is derived from the fifteenth century term for the
short poem or "poesy" inscribed upon it.28 In her book, English Poesies and Posv Rings
(1931), Joan Evans includes over 110 pages of poesies inscribed on rings in the following script
styles: Lombardic, Roman capitals, or italic. Underscoring the popularity of these poesies, was
the publication of texts in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries listing popular lines of poetry
that could be inscribed on handkerchiefs, gloves and silverware, and upon brooches and other
forms of jewelry in addition to rings.30 The inscriptions moved from the exterior to the interior of
28Tiffany, Blue Book, p. 488.
^O m an, British Rings, p. 39. Poesies consisted of such amatory expressions as "I love thee," "I am here in the place of a friend," "A token of my love," "Be true to me, as I to thee," "Dick's wife for life" and "Endless as this shall be our bliss."
30Kunz, Rings, p. 237, and Evans, English Poesies, p. xvi.
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the ring between the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Evans tells us: 'Unless otherwise
stated, the rings are plain hoops of gold.*31 The plain band ideally suited the posy ring for a
wedding ring. In the seventeenth century in England, posy rings were popularly used as
engagement and wedding rings. Oftentimes, however, they were given as a gift or token of
affection and were not necessarily intended for engagement. Instead they offered "evidence
of high regard or a romantic attachment"32 American posy rings follow in the same tradition.
Usually plain gold, but sometimes set with a crystal or gem, American posy rings were engraved
with amatoiy or philosophical expressions like: "Be true in heart,” "Love and Live Happy," and
"Death only parts united hearts” (see Figures 4-6). Other inscriptions include: "My heart for
thee is most free," "Let virtue be a guide to thee," and "Live Contented."
In the eighteenth century, rings with French inscriptions gained popularity. One
example is the ring received by Thomas Jefferson's daughter Martha, while the family was in
France in 1788. This gold ring is inscribed on the outside with raised gold letters in a blue
enamel background: 'J'aime etJespersT (I love and I hope).33 The traditional posy form
apparently disappeared from England in the mid-nineteenth century with the Wedding Rings
Act of 1855 which required the identification by hallmark of the ring's maker, year and metal
purity. This left no room for private inscriptions on the inside of the band.34 But in the United
States, friendship rings, pins and other forms of jewelry bearing the imagery of the Neoclassical
31 Evans, English Poesies, p. xxxa.
32Levi, Betrothal Rinas, p. 14, and McCarthy, Rinas, p. 172.
33 Susanne M. Olson, Assistant Curator, Monticello, Charlottesville, Virginia. Letter to author (26 February 1990). ^oman, British Rings, p. 39.
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period beca.TiG popular in the nineteenth century, inscriptions such as T o friendship" or in
French," L ’Amitier were worked onto the painted ivory surfaces of miniature pictures (see
Figure 7).
Another nineteenth-century form of friendship ring that bore a disguised message was
the "regard" ring. These rings were so named because they were set with gems to spell out a
word or name. The first letter of the name of each gem stone was a letter in the word. Tiffany's
1913 Blue Book referred to these as "Hoop Rings” stating: "Stones may be selected for hoop
rings and so arranged so as to spell the wearer's name, a motto or sentiment," and offered the
following examples:
R - ruby L • lapis H - hepatite D • cSamond E-emerald O-onyx O-opal E-emerald G -garnet V - vermeiBe P-pearl A-amethyst A - amethyst E - emerald E - essonite R - ruby R - ruby E - essonite 0 - diamond M - moonstone S - sapphire E - epideie T - topaz.35
These rings may have been used as engagement rings in the nineteenth century. From
the etiquette and advice books of the time, it appears that gifts were given during the entire
courtship, and rings such as the posy and regard rings descrfred above, might be one of the
gifts. The gift of a ring in the nineteenth century did not necessarily imply an engagement. How
to Woo and How to Win: Containing Rules for the Eliouette of Courtship offered advice on gift-
giving. The text suggested:
Win her with gifts if she neglects thy words; Dumb jewels often in their silent kind, More than rich words do move a woman’s mind.36
35Trffany, Blue Book, p. 484.
36How to Woo and How to Wm: Containing Rules for the Etiquette of Courtship (New York: Dick & Fitzgerald, ca. 1870), pp. 15-16.
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Nineteenth-century etiquette books also gave advice to men on such important issues as
"Popping the Question," encouraging timid men to follow a prescribed scenario. For example:
One timid gentleman asks, 'Have you any objection to change your name?’ and follows this up with another, which clenches its significance, 'How would mine suit you?'
If a gentleman has received the parent's blessing to court their daughter, the text states:
To tell a lady who has granted the preliminary favors, that you love her better than life, and to ask her to name the happy day, are matters of nerve, rather than form, and require no teaching.37 But advice regarding the gift of an engagement ring, or how to present it, is noticeably absent. This suggests that no prescribed form had yet been established. However, by the end of the nineteenth century, for those in the growing middle class who could afford it, the use of a solitaire diamond engagement ring had become an established tradition.
A solitaire diamond is still the most fashionable engagement ring, though no young lady should expect or even wish to receive such an one where she knows that her lover's means are too limited to justify his making such an expensive present.38
The diamond had been popularly used in betrothal and wedding jewelry for centuries,
but with the discovery of diamond mines in Brazil in the 1730s, and then in South Africa in the
1880s, the diamond became more financially available to middle-class Americans 39 The
development of the now familiar "brilliant cut" diamond with its 58 facets is attributed to the
Venetian cutter, Vincenti Peruzzi, at the end of the eighteenth century. The Tiffany setting, a
six-pronged open mount which allows for the diamond's greatest exposure to light, was
developed in the 1870s.49
37lbid.. p. 21, 23-26.
SSHall, Social Customs, p. 170.
39Benjamin Zucker, Gems and Jewels: A Connoisseurs Guide (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1984), pp. 10, 74.
40Ward, et al., Bings, p. 198.
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Friendship and engagement rings in the United States evolve from the predominantly
plain band of posy rings in the eighteenth century to rings set with precious gems and jewels in
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The meaning of the rings is no longer found in the
shape of the band, but in the ring's decoration. Rings of the later eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries serve a visually decorative, rather than a symbolically commemorative purpose. The
value of these later rings lay more in their precious gems, jewels or painted ivory, than in their
symbolic shape. Symbolic meanings, however, may exist in this manner of decoration. For the
wedding ceremony, the use of the plain gold band was the proscribed form. It symbolized the
vows exchanged between the couple during the ceremony.
I will demonstrate in the following section on mourning rings that early forms of this ring
also take the form of a plain band. The similarity of eighteenth-century American mourning rings
to posy rings may have resulted from the transformation of posy rings into memorial or mourning
rings in times of bereavement (see Figure 5).41 As cultural attitudes regarding death changed
over time, the plain band of the mourning ring evolved into a stylistically decorative ring.
Moumino Rinos
Mourning rings belong to a tradition that began in Europe prior to the settlement of the
first American colonies and ended in the middle of the nineteenth century. Mourning rings, also
known as Memento mori rings (Latin for "Keep death in your thoughts”), were one of the means
by which tokens or souvenirs were offered to friends and relatives of the deceased. Tokens
such as engraved silver spoons, gloves or handkerchiefs were other items given alone or in
41 Evans, English Poesies, p. xxvii.
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addition to gold rings. The purchase of such items was either provided for in the will of the
deceased or by the surviving family. The expense of this venture limited the practice of
bequeathing mourning rings to the wealthy.
In my discussion of American mourning rings, I will provide the religious and cultural
background in which these rings were received, as well as a general typology of the rings made
over the course of approximately two centuries. The survey is limited to several ring collections
which are representative of the existing styles of the time. As with other objects made from
precious metals, older, unfashionable rings were melted down and the metal was reused. This
would be especially true of rings with badly worn, indecipherable inscriptions.
The quality of the funerary tokens depended on the status and wealth of the deceased,
as well as that of the receiver. In her essay "The Early American Way of [Death," Martha Gandy
Fales cites a bill from early eighteenth-century Boston silversmith John Coney to Mr. Peter
Sergeant for thirty funerary rings. They were for three different weights-ten of 3/4 ounces (oz),
1 pennyweight (dwt); ten of 1/2 oz, 2 dwt; ten of 1/2 oz, 3 grains-indicating that different rings
were presented to different individuals.42 For each set of ten rings, Coney charged Sergeant
£1. This suggests that the difference in expense by weight of the rings was counterbalanced by
differing amounts of labor exerted in decorating the rings.
In his book British Rings 800 -1914. Charles Oman cites the wfll of Izaak Walton which
provided for 44 rings to be delivered within forty days of his death. The rings cost 13 shilling 4
pence apiece.4® Three different inscriptions were requested for the rings. For close family
members Walton postulated the inscription: “Love my memory ” for a close friend he requested:
42Martha Gandy Fales, T h e Early American Way of Death," Essex Institute (April 1964), p.76.
^ O m an , British Rings, p. 75.
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"A mite tor a million,* and for his remaining forty friends: *A friend's farewell." Each ring was also
engraved with Walton's name, date of death, and age.
Colonists brought the tradition to the new world from England where the practice of
bequeathing mourning rings is said to date to the Middle Ages. One source claims that Richard II
left nine rings for his executors in the fourteenth century.44 William Shakespeare, in his will
dated 1616, provided for seven rings to be given to fellow actors and townsmen.46 The oldest
known English mourning ring inscribed and decorated with death motifs was made in the
fifteenth century. It is in the Victoria and Albert Museum collection in London.
The style of mourning rings changed dramatically over the course of their use. These
changes were consistent with the changes in American decorative arts aesthetics. Rococo
motifs found on mid-eighteenth-century rings were gradually replaced by neoclassical motifs at
the end of the century. However, the manner in which these motifs are manifested were not
necessarily dictated by fashion. They represent contemporary cultural attitudes towards death.
In seventeenth-arid early eighteenth-century New England, the colonists constantly
faced the occurrence of death.46 Disease was rampant; medical treatment was poor; women
died during childbirth, and accounts indicate that one in three children died before reaching the
age Of 21 47 In The Puritan Wav of Death. David Stannard mentions Thomas Skinner who in
44Shiriey Bury, Jewelterv Gallery Summary Catalogue (London: Victoria and Albert Museum, 1982), p. 217.
45Kunz, Rings, p. 40.
46Fales, "Way of Death,” p. 75.
47David E Stannard, The Puritan Wav of Death: A Study in Religion. Culture and Social Change (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), p. 55.
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1746 admonished people not to become too attached to each other because the increased
affection would result in increased anguish should one of them die. Children were "put out" to
live with other families for extended periods of time. This practice was intended to decrease the
strong bonds of attachment between parents and children who otherwise anticipated painful
emotional loss through death. Stannard claims that the Puritans also defined themselves in
relation to the whole community, rather than as distinct individuals. In this way the death of one
was shared by the community, not just the immediate relatives.
Concern about death and dying pervaded Puritan culture. Early eighteenth-century
ministers like Cotton Mather wrote sermons which dwelt on death to inspire guilt and fear in the
congregation, especially the children, and to motivate them towards ideal moral behavior.48
One of the early Puritan tenets was the uncertainty of one's salvation at death. Salvation could
not be predicted from the way in which one had lived one's Gfe. Death was viewed as a
punishment for sin in this world and the Puritans lived in dread anticipation of Hell. On the other
hand, death was also seen as a reward from life in this world, for those who were destined for
heaven.
This fatalistic attitude towards death and the continuity of community life was reflected in
the designs of early American mourning rings. Some rings were plain gold bands, resembling
wedding rings, except for the obituary information engraved on the inside of the band (see
Figure 5). Others, like Winterthur's mourning ring dated 1693 by Jeremiah Dummer of Boston,
took the form of a wedding band with additional decorative engraving (see Figure 8). Another
common form, if the number of surviving examples in museum collections is any indication, is the
^JbkL. PP. 65-66,150.
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gold band with the death's head motif chased into the surface of the band.49 The death's head
motif, a skull with wings, is similar to that found on contemporary Puritan gravestones. This motif
on rings is said to date to sixteenth century England, but examples from Oman's British Rings
illustrate a three dimensional projection of an enamelled skull from the band. These are unlike
the rings of the colonists with the chased death's heads that so closely resemble wedding
bands. The band form suggests the emotional significance of the former relationship between
the deceased and survivors, but the presence of a death's head served as a grim reminder of
the wearer's own future. This style of mourning ring appears to have endured the longest
Although the death's head on tombstone decoration metamorphosed from the skull with wings
to the cherub with wings during the 1740 s-1760s, the skull and wings imagery continued on
rings into the 1780s. The style was replaced by the more idealized and romantic neoclassical
images of the late eighteenth century.
For religious reasons, the Puritans discouraged excessive funerary preparation,
ceremony or emotional display. They considered the practices heathenish and unnecessary.
This attitude, however, does not appear to have affected the production of rings. In 1742 the
Massachusetts General Court did pass a restraining act on the amount of money expended at
funerals in an attempt to limit the number of rings, scarves, gloves, wine and rum distributed."
Contemporary Sumptuary Laws were passed in Puritan New England to limit the embellishments
to one's appearance relative to the level of one's status. It is difficult to know whether either laws
were enforced. In any case, rings from the 1740s do exist.
49Chasing is a process in silver and gold decoration in which the metal is manipulated on the surface of the object, but not removed, as in the technique of metal engraving.
"Fales, "Way of Death," p.75.
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It was also during the 1730s and 1740s that the Great Awakening occurred in religious
societies. Stannard claims that the Great Awakening arose out of the Puritans' tensions and
anxieties towards an ambivalent sense of their salvation. Religious beliefs promulgated by
ministers began to shift from cynical, pessimistic and unsolvable fears of "reason” to more
enthusiastic, optimistic and hopeful reassurances of salvation. This movement founded the
beginning of romantic and sentimental attitudes towards death that would increase in the
nineteenth century. It also put an end to Puritanical beliefs that salvation could not be known or
attained before death.51
In this period (1740s-70s) the dominant mourning ring style lost the continuous
wedding band appearance of earlier years. Instead, the band is composed of visually discreet S
and C scrolls (see Figure 10). Each scroll is laid on its side, and usually three to five scrolls are
delineated to make a full band. The internal view of the ring shows a continuous gold band. This
S and C scroll motif is contemporary with the Rococo movement of the mid-eighteenth century.
Some decorative rings of this period also have this 'scrolled" band, but do not appear to have
the same form of enamelled inscriptions found on mourning rings. Each scroll on mourning
rings has raised gold letters in a background of black enamel. White enamel was used for
children and unmarried young women. Some rings consisted solely of these scrolls like the one
Boston silversmith Edward Winslow made after the death of his wife Elizabeth in 1740 (see
Figure 11). The Winslow ring is inscribed: ETizh/Winslow/Ob. 1 6 /S ep: 1 7 4 0 /A E 71. The
slashes indicate the separation of the different scrolls. The standard information generally
inscribed on mourning rings is the deceased's name, "Ob. or Obit.” with the date of death, and
also ”AE," (short for the Latin A e ta titf with the deaceasecfs age. Why the age of the person at
the date of death is so significant is unclear. It may be related to the traditional information
51 Stannard, Puritan Dgath. pp. 94-95,143,154.
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engraved on tombstones or it may serve to recall one's last memories of the deceased. It may
also be a form of subtle judgement on the goodness of one's life, represented by how much
time God allowed the individual to remain upon the earth.
Other forms of the scrolled band ring were set with paste or gems such as amethyst.
Crystals were also used. They were cut in faceted shapes-iound, square or rectangular-and in
the shape of a coffin as seen in Figure 10. Often these crystals were set over the image of a
skull or skeleton painted on black or white paper. These discreet scrolls on increasingly
decorative rings suggest that a significant emotional relationship was broken by death. The
images of skulls, skeletons and coffins, like the death's head, were still a constant reminder of
what lay in store for the wearer.
Towards the end of the eighteenth century, romantic ideals regarding death begun
during the Great Awakening gained widespread popularity. The undertaker gained prominence
late in the eighteenth century. He assumed many of the tasks previously performed by family
and friends. One author suggested his appearance marked "the beginning of the alienation of
people from the fact of death.*52 An idyllic vision of death was the result of these events. The
picturesque beauty of death was emphasized along with the belief in the soul's attainment of
peace and justice for eternity.53
52Martha V. Pke and Janice Gray Armstrong, A Time to Mourn: Expressions of Grief in Nineteenth Century America, exhibition catalogue (Stoney Brook, NY: The Museum at Stoney Brook, 1980). p. 50.
S^Pfoe- Time to Mourn, p. 116: Marv Durham-Johnson. "Mourning Glorv* - An Exhibition on Nineteenth Century Customs and Attitudes Towards Death and Dvina, exhibition catalog (Wilmington, OE: Eleutherian Mills Research and Reference Department, n.d), p. 4; Stannard, Puritan Death, pp. 171-173.
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By the 1790s, the American Cult of Mourning had begun. Girls sent to seminary schools
to learn fancy needlework stitches practiced their arts through the creation of embroidered
mourning samplers. A number of etiquette books dictated rules of behavior and appropriate
time spans for proper mourning. Dress codes required black for the first six months to one year
of ’deep” mourning of a dose relative (gray or purple was suitable for distant relatives), and the
immediate survivors were expected to refrain from involvement in social activities. This marked a
dramatic shift in behavior and attitudes from those in the past. In the Puritan era the whole
community mourned the loss of the individual; Victorian American bereavement was usually
limited to family members.
The required lengths of mourning depended on the relationship between the bereaved
and the deceased. The loss of a spouse, parent or child required at least a year while less time
was acceptable for the death of siblings, grandparents, and dose friends. Men were not
expected to adhere to these rules as stridiy as women.
Newly formed department stores and merchants capitalized on the economic
opportunity of produdng material goods intended for use during the mourning period.
Merchants offered mourning stationery, calling cards and handkerchiefs lined with black bands
of different widths to indicate the depth of mourning, or lithographed mourning pictures and
portraits. One store, the Family Mourning Store of Boston, published a broadside declaring
itself the "Onfy place in Boston devoted to the Sale of Mourning Dress Goods and Millinery
exclusively.” Among the many goods it offered were hats, veils, pins, buckles, laces, parasols,
dresses, shawls, gloves, gentlemen's scarves, cravats and black silk neck ties, but interestingly
enough, no rings.^4
“ S. S. Williams, Family Mourning Store, broadside (Boston: S.S. Williams, ca. 1850).
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The decorative motifs used to indicate mouming-death’s heads, skulls, skeletons and
coffins-changed in the late eighteenth century. More fashionable decorative rings now
popularly portrayed neoclassical motifs such as urns, swags, and mourners in flowing classical
dress. The urn as a mourning symbol is said to derive its form from the ancient Etruscan urn
which held both the ashes and vital organs of the deceased. The urn was also considered a
symbolic resting place for the departed spirit.55 The imagery on mourning rings contained the
same vocabulary of symbols used in the embroidered mourning pictures popular from the 1790s
to the 1830s. These included: a plinth inscribed with the name of the deceased and set with an
urn; a mourner in classical dress-black for men, white for women-leaning or weeping over the
plinth; an enclosed garden; and symbolic trees like the willow or oak. Anita Schorsch in
Mourning Becomes America suggests that this garden scene reflected a religious undercurrent
symbolically expressing the hope of rebirth and resurrection.56 The images may also have
alluded to the growing popularity of a new form of burial ground in the nineteenth century. This
new "rural cemetery" moved from private church graveyards to public lots decorated with gates,
greenery, trees and avenues.
David Stannard, drawing on the work of Phillipe Aries, argues that the nineteenth-
century approach towards death and mourning was overly ostentatious.57 And indeed rings
grew from a former band width of approximately 1/8" to a chaton width of 1 and 1/4." Three rings
from the 1780s in the Winterthur collection reveal the use of classical imagery on this larger scale
(see Figure 12). Rings at this time also appear to be intended primarily for female wear,
55Anita Schorsch, Mourning Becomes America: Mourning Art in the New Nation, exhibition catalogue (Clinton, NJ: The Main Street Press, 1976).
56lbid.
57Stannard, Puritan Death, p. 168.
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suggesting that they were losing their "memento mori" aspect, and were intended as a
fashionable piece of jewelry. Men's mourning rings of this period were more likely to retain the
wedding band form in gold with black enameling. Some rings also used plaited hair to decorate a
plain band (see Figure 13).
The use of hair on rings, necklaces, bracelets, earrings and brooches grew in popularity
throughout the nineteenth century. Rings with hair plaited under a glass cover or around the
band were an essential part of romanticized, fashionable mourning. In A Time to Mourn.
Lawrence Taylor quotes from "Hair Ornaments" in Godey's Lady's Book (1860):
Hair is at once the most delicate and lasting of our materials, and survives us like love. It is so light, so gentle, so escaping from the idea of death, that, with a lock of hair belonging to a child or friend, we may almost look up to heaven and compare notes with angelic nature • may almost say: *l have a piece of thee here, not unworthy of thy being [here] now.'®8
During the nineteenth century a wide range of materials in addition to hair were used to
create mourning rings. Rings were still composed of gold, enamel and crystal, but also included
painted ivory, seed pearls, different colors of enamels, moss agate, amethyst, onyx, dark
tortoiseshell, and jet, a black substance popularly used in many forms of mourning jewelry (see
Figure 14).
These fashionable mourning rings resemble other rings of the period. The only
indication that the rings were intended for mourning is the inscription on the back of the chaton.
The decorative nature of these rings symbolized the romanticized attitudes Victorians had
towards death, using bereavement as a stylistic inspiration for fashion.
^ P ik e , Time to Mourn, p. 46.
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Later in the nineteenth century, mourning rings lost their popularity. Charles Oman
suggests that mourning rings fell out of fashion because they had moved from the exclusive
realm of the upper class, to wide use by the lower classes.59 But this explanation does not
explain the ring's loss in popularity at the lower class level. StannarcTs explanation of a late
nineteenth century change in attitude is more convincing. He and other scholars believe there
was a reaction against the earlier sentimental attitudes of the Victorians, and a move towards a
more cynical, realistic view of death. As the Cult of Mourning fell out of favor so too did mourning
rings.
Mourning rings once reminded survivors of those gone "but not forgotten." In addition,
they also served as a continual reminder of one's own inevitable mortality. Mourning rings were
part of a tradition in which the deceased acknowledged survivors by bequeathing some token or
remembrance in wills. But rings and other tokens also served as a sign of reassurance, as did
tombstone markers, that after death the deceased will be remembered.
Mourning rings provided a proof of one's presence on earth. The distribution of multiple
numbers of rings at the death of an individual also enabled survivors to share a common physical
remembrance of the individual. The bereaved also shared a common emotional bond of grief
with each other. As I will show in the following chapter on group rings, these common bonds
may have been instrumental in the development of fraternal and class rings.
590man, British Rings. 75.
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RINGS WORN BY GROUPS OF INDIVIDUALS
In this chapter I will discuss the origins and use of three kinds of rings worn by groups of
individuals: fraternal rings, class rings, and sports rings. The rings all have the signet shape:
broad shoulders that attach to or continue into a broad chaton. The signet form enables
extensive use of engraving and symbolic images to decorate its surface. The three kinds of ring
traditions were chosen because each of these groups uses rings to identify members of their
specific group. The ring also serve additional specific purposes for each group.
Fraternal Rinos
In this section I will provide a general history of the formation of fraternal groups in the
colonies and nineteenth-century United States, with a special emphasis on the history of the
Masonic Grand Lodge of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. By exploring the rites and rituals of the
Masonic fraternity, and emphasizing the Masons' use of symbols to teach the rites, I propose to
explain why fraternal members in the early nineteenth century wore rings.
Fraternal organizations in the American colonies began in the 1730s with the
Freemasons of Boston and Philadelphia. From 1730 -1737, Benjamin Franklin’s daily business
journal accounts for his private printing work with the Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted
Masons of Pennsylvania. His journal documents this fraternity as the oldest group of its kind in
the history of America.1 The Boston and Philadelphia groups were chartered by previously
1 Wayne A. Huss, The Master Builders: A History of the Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of Pennsylvania, vol. 2 (Philadelphia: Grand Lodge F. & A.M. of Pennsylvania, 1988), p. 61.
32
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established fraternities in England. The earliest antecedents to Freemasonry were probably the
Craft Guilds of England and the British Isles in the late Middle Ages, which flourished during the
time of the great cathedral building. The guilds were formed to regulate the stonemasons'
workmanship. They also provided "comradeship and mutual support", and required secrecy of
their members to limit the exchange of trade secrets with nonmembers.2 The masons were
highly mobile and often travelled great distances to obtain employment. Special symbols were
worn to facilitate the recognition of fellow members of the guild. Over time, the decrease in
cathedrals built decreased the need for skilled stonemasons. Subsequently guild membership
diminished until early in the eighteenth century when two Englishmen revived Freemasonry with
a modem format. In 1716, James Anderson and John Desaguliers proposed a fraternity that was
based on the guild's tradition, but that accepted members who were not stonemasons. The new
fraternity stressed spiritual growth, moral improvement and character development through
intellectual and rational pursuits among group members.
With this background, "modem" Freemasonry was founded in the colonies. The
group's ideals appealed to a wide range of men. By the mideighteenth century, Freemasonry
in Pennsylvania consisted of thirty-nine percent tradesmen and men in commerce, twenty-two
percent artisans and retailers, and fifteen percent professional men.3 The members were
predominantly those of the upper social and economic classes. Patriotic citizens Ifce George
Washington, Benjamin Franklin, Paul Revere and John Hancock, and many Revolutionary War
military leaders were members of the Fraternity, and all played an influential role in the founding
of the nation. When the nation gained its political independence in 1786, ties to the Grand
2lbjd. vol. 1, pp. 1 -2 ,6 . The symbolic importance of this tradition of secrecy is one of the most valued of the Masonic traditions.
3Jbid., p. 30.
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Lodge of England were cut, and an American version of Freemasonry blossomed. In
Pennsylvania, throughout the eighteenth century, various factions challenged the established
lodge in Philadelphia. Conflicts arose between the ideals and traditions of the ’Ancients" and
the "Modems," but by the end of the eighteenth century, the Ancient Accepted Scottish Rite of
Masonry, with 33 degrees of rites, was firmly grounded.
Following the success of the Revolution, the Masonic fraternity experienced nationwide
popularity and a steadily increasing membership. Reflecting this popularity was the profusion of
Masonic symbols displayed on common decorative art objects like ceramics, glass, textiles and
furniture. In the nineteenth century other fraternal organizations formed patterned after the
Masonic model. They all advocated the principles of democracy, virtue and morality. Following
his visit to America, Alexis de Toqueville (Democracy in America. 1831) noted:
Americans of all ages, ail conditions, and all dispositions constantly form organizations... If it is proposed to inculcate some truth or to foster some feeling by the encouragement of a great example, they form a society.4
The Odd Fellowship fraternity began in late eighteenth century Britain; the first
American lodge was established in Baltimore in 1819. Originally founded for working class men,
the Odd Fellowship sought to imitate the respectability of the Freemasons by recruiting
members from the middle class: lawyers, physicians, merchants, skilled mechanics and
tradesmen.5 By the end of the nineteenth century the Odd Fellowship exceeded the
Freemasons in membership, although many men belonged to both organizations.
^ ite d in Barbara Franco's Fraternally Yours: A Decade of Collecting, exhtoition catalogue (Lexington, MA: Scottish Rite Masonic Museum of Our National Heritage, 1986), p.7.
5Mark C. Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), p. 25.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Societies with orientations different from the Masonic tradition also formed in the early
nineteenth century. The first academic society, Phi Beta Kappa, was established at William and
Mary College in Virginia in 1776, and the Kappa Alpha fraternity was founded at Union College in
New York, in 1827,6 In Fraternally Yours. Barbara Franco discusses how the great waves of
immigration in the nineteenth century led to the foundation of a number of fraternal
organizations as a means of maintaining cultural identity.7 Prejudice and fear of unknown
fraternal secret rituals spawned an Anti-Masonic movement during the late 1820s and 1830s,
culminating in a political party whose main platform was to abolish the fraternal organization.
Membership in the Masonic fraternity decreased dramatically during this time. However, the
general popularity of fraternities throughout the period is indicated by the number of individuals
who applied for membership in the Odd Fellows and Order of Red Men fraternities, as well as
many other organizations.8 These different fraternities shared common traits and offered similar
benefits to members:
Rituals and degrees borrow(ed] exotic titles and dramatic scenarios from ancient legends, historical incidents, or mythology. Bonds of secrecy helpjed] establish solidarity among members. Symbols servejd] as aids to teach members virtues, principles and values. Regalia providejd] fantasy and drama: the lodge providejd] fellowship; and death and sickness benefits offered a sense of security prior to Social Security, pension plans, medical and life insurance.9
By the time of the Women's Rights Convention in Seneca Falls in the mid-nineteenth
century, women’s auxiliary fraternal groups were established such as the United Order of True
Sisters (formed In 1846 for Jewish women} and the Daughters of Rebekah (the female corollary
8Kunz, Rings, p. 334.
7Franco, Fraternally Yours, pp. 11-12.
8Cames, Secret Ritual, p. 25, and Franco. Fraternally Yours, pp. 10-16.
9 Franco, Fraternally Yours, p. 7.
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of the Odd Fellows, formed in 1851).1® Meanwhile the Masonic Fraternity had regained its
popularity, and was again experiencing a growth in membership. The requirements for Masonic
membership began to focus less upon traditional Christian beliefs. Members were allowed
greater freedom for their own individual belief systems. This was a significant development at a
time of vast immigration into the United States, and indicates the organizations' commitment to
the ideal of equality. By the end of the nineteenth century, approximately five and a half million
men in North America (out of a total nineteen million) belonged to a fraternal group.11
Both George F. Kunz and James R. McCarthy discussed fraternal rings in their
respective books, Rinas for the Finger (1917) and Rings Through the Ages (1945L but neither
explained how the tradition of wearing rings may have begun in fraternal organizations. Kunz
provided photographic images of some fraternal rings, but did not identify his sources.
Therefore, I have made a thorough study of nineteenth and twentieth-century trade catalogues,
and of the collection of rings in the Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons in Philadelphia
(Grand Lodge F. and A.M., the Masonic Temple), in an attempt to determine the origins and
importance of fraternal rings.
One of the earliest trade catalogues to carry fraternal jewelry is the Macov catalogue
issued by the Macoy Publishing and Masonic Supply Company founded in 1849.12 Although a
catalogue from 1849 is not currently available, it is likely that Maco/s was established to meet an
existing demand for Masonic supplies, including regalia. Many of the rings in the Masonic
10Cames, Secret Ritual, p. 25.
11 Ibid.. p. 1.
12Macoy Publishing & Masonic Supply Co., Inc. Macov (Richmond, VA, 1983).
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Temple in Philadelphia appear to have been ordered through Macoy’s. The company is
currently the most popular for fraternal jewelry and regalia purchase among Masons.
Other companies also sold fraternal jewelry in the nineteenth and early twentieth
century. The Winterthur Library has several trade catalogues from these companies. The Auld
Company of Columbus, Ohio, established in 1871, issued a catalogue in 1908 that provided
emblems, rings, scarf and hat pins, watch charms and pendants to college fraternities.13 A
1892 catalogue from the Charles F. Irons company, ’ manufacturer of Solid Gold Emblems, Pins
and Charms for All Societies* includes in its index over 420 different clubs, fraternities,
associations, and union groups for whom the company provided distinct designs for pins. There
are approximately 95 different charm designs, and approximately 40 different lapel button
designs. Irons also offered designs for presentation jewels and commandery badges.14
Interestingly enough, only three pages of the catalogue are dedicated to rings-each with the
same design and shape but incorporating the different symbolism of each fraternity. This is in
direct contrast to the Eagle Regalia Company 1923 catalogue. Pages of rings with multiple
designs for the same fraternity are offered. Many of these rings portray an assortment of
symbols (see Figure 15).1^ Pins, medals, watch charms, trophies, pennants and banners were
also available through the company.
The Standard Silver Ware Company in Boston, Massachusetts published a catalogue in
1894 which offered society emblem watch charms, pins and lapel buttons for Masons, Odd
13D.L. Auld & Co., Catalogue for 1908 (Columbus, OH, 1908).
14Charies F. Irons, Solid Gold Emblems. Pins and Charms for All Societies (Providence, Rl, 1892).
15Eagle Regalia Co., Twentieth Anniversary Catalogue - Rinas. Pins. Medals. Trophies. Pennants. Banners (New York, 1923).
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Fellows, Knights Templar and other fraternities.16 The catalogue of the W. J. Feeley Co.,
Jewelers and Silversmiths of Providence, Rhode Island (1896) offered pins, rings and medals to
Catholic fraternities such as the Knights of Columbus and Sisters of Mary.17 Even Tiffany's Blue
Book (1913) lists Masonic jewels, pins, charms, lapel buttons and gold Scottish Rite Thirty-
second degree rings (discussed below). The Redding and Company Catalogue of Masonic
Works and Outfits (ca. 1895), claimed to be "the only firm doing a strictly Masonic business in the
country." The catalogue's introduction stressed the need for Masons to purchase regalia of the
highest quality. The text emphasized the importance of appearance through which a fraternity
identifies itself, and by which the fraternity is subsequently judged for its significance as an
organization.
An Organization [of Masons] hie grandest and most ancient Order under the Sun is watched not only by its friends, but by the skeptical and prejudiced, and when its members parade in public, they are judged principally by their appearance-their regalia or uniforms-and when such a procession is seen wearing cheap and shabby regalia, it is fikely to challenge adverse criticism, not only on that particular procession, but on the Order to which it belongs; for the public very naturally concludes that where so little pride and interest is shown there is little to be proud of or interested in.18
The greater significance of this statement lies in the fact that outside of authorized
public processions, the Masons and the other fraternal orders, were not permitted by the
fraternity to wear any of their regaiia-the aprons, badges, or official jewels of office. Thus the
rings, pins, lapel buttons and watch charms available through trade catalogues such as those
listed above, were used to identify the bearer with his particular fraternal order.
16Standard Silverware Co.. The Standard Silver Ware Co. fBostnn. MA, 1894).
17W.J. Feeley, Catalogue of the W.J. Feeley Co.. Jewelers and Silversmiths (Providence, Rl, 1896).
18Redcfing & Co., Catalogue of Masonic Works and Outfits (New York, ca. 1895).
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The L.G. Balfour Company, one of the largest modem ring companies in the United
States, was founded in 1913. L. G. Balfour, who had been a travelling representative for a
fraternal jewelry company, noted the lack of standardization and inferior work offered by the
existing manufacturers of fraternal jewelry. He also noted the "lack of control fraternal
organizations had over the distribution of their insignia."19 Through the formation of his
company, Balfour sought to standardize the industry. His attitude underscored the importance
of the emblems' appearance for identification, and the need to control who had access to the
emblems' designs.
As I will discuss in the next chapter, the association of an individual with a particular
group has a variety of implications. If a group has a reputation for encouraging or advocating
specific beliefs and behaviors, these attributes are associated with the individual belonging to
the group. Thus, if a man is identified as a Mason by his ring or other form of jewelry, those
behaviors and beliefs associated with the Masonic fraternity win be attributed to him.
Throughout its existence in the United States, the membership requirements for
Freemasons have stressed the possession of a high moral and religious character, intelligence,
a lack of selfishness or self-interest, steady employment and physical perfection. "All Masons
are to be good men and true-m en of honor and honesty, by whatever religious names or
persuasions distinguished."2^ In the late nineteenth century the following requirements were
listed: belief in God, legitimate birth, good character, mature age, physical perfection, secure
financial position, voluntary desire to join, and literacy.21 The popularity of the Masons in the
19Dorothy T. Rainwater. American Jewelry Manufacturers (West Chester, PA: SchiHer Publishing Ltd., 1988), p. 33.
20Huss, Master Builders, vol. 1, p. 193, and William A. Carpenter, The Exemplar A Guide to a Mason's Actions (Philadelphia: Grand Lodge F. & A.M. of Pennsylvania, 1985), p. 6.
21 Huss, Master Builders, vol. 2, p. 66.
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early nineteenth century, especially the popularity of individual members like George
Washington, made public these attributes of Masonic members. Thus individuals recognized as
Masons would be expected to possess these characteristics. One's reputation and social
standing were enhanced by the associative implications of fraternal membership. Therefore the
wearing of rings or other jewelry to identify one's membership in a fraternity, would have great
appeal.
Rites and rituals comprise the secret activities of Freemasons inside their lodges. They
are intended to further develop the moral character of the fraternity members.22 The practice of
rites and rituals enable:
A continuous advance, by means of the instruction contained in a series of Degrees, toward the Light [truth], by the elevation of the Celestial, the Spiritual, and the Divine, over the Earthly, Sensual, Material and Human, in the Nature of Man.23
According to the Liturgy of the Ancient and Accepted Ereemasoniya (Liturgy),
rite is a degree earned within the Masonic system. The degrees are numbered from one to
thirty-two, with the Thirty-third degree restricted to honorary conferral. The first three degrees
are the Blue Degrees: the Apprentice, the Fellow-Craft or Companion, and the Master Mason,
and can be conferred in any Blue Lodge. These are required for the acceptance of an initiate
^ N o te: One of the caveats in studying a fraternity with secret rituals is the lack of written information. When ft does exist, it usually requires a decoding of the text. Fraudulent texts were intentionally published to lead inquirers astray, and the scholar needs to be wary of such a possibility. The following section is based on the text Liturgy of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite o* Fraftmflsftnrvfortha Southern Jurisdiction of the United States, vote, l-lV, by the Sovereign Grand Commander of the Supreme Council (New York: Robert Macoy, 1878). The Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania has practiced an oral tradition for passing the instructions of their rituals, and therefore no written information is available. However, the text appears to correspond with what information the Masons at the Grand Lodge in Philadelphia-Northern Jurisdiction-were willing to communicate with the author during the course of research. The following discussion will proceed assuming its accuracy and general correspondence to Northern Jurisdiction practices.
23lbid. vol. 1, p. 20.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. into the Masonic fraternity. After achieving these degrees a Master Mason is permitted to wear a
Blue Lodge or Master Mason ring (see Figure 16). This is one of the most common fraternal
Masonic rings. It takes the form of a signet with the "square, compasses and G” emblem
portrayed on the chaton. Additional degrees achieved may be indicated by the presence of
additional symbols on the shoulder of the rings. One example of this is the trowel on the ring
illustrated in Figure 16. Blue Lodge rings may also bear symbols that identify the Mason's home
lodge. These rings are rarely engraved with the owner's name or a date, a significant omission in
light of the information inscribed on other Masonic rings. This fact affirms the commonality of this
ring form, and its availability to all Masons following initiation into the fraternity. The rings are
purchased by Masons individually. Therefore, stylistically, Masons may have different Blue
Lodge rings, but they will all portray the common square, compasses and G symbol.
To earn higher degrees (see Figure 17) requires special authority for conferral, and
usually entails a visit by the Mason to a specialized Masonic chapter, ether in a specific district, or
in the state's Grand Lodge. Each state has a Grand Lodge independent of all other Grand
Lodges, and all must respect the jurisdiction of each other's territory.
The text of the Liturgy for the rites is written in symbolic language with blank spaces for
the inclusion of specific symbols or ritualistic objects required for enacting a particular rite.
However, it appears that the first rite for the Apprentice requires a belief in a Supreme Being and
an understanding of the word "virtue." The text of each rite teaches an important lesson or tenet
of Freemasonry. For example, the Second degree teaches the importance of brotherhood,
education, science and moral improvement. As a degree is earned, the Mason gains a specific
title, as illustrated in Figure 17, and each degree is identified by particular symbols which the
Mason then wears on his regaiia-his jewel and his apron.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Two degree rituals in the progression confer special rings as part of their ceremony: the
Fourteenth degree, which is earned, and the Thirty-third, which is received as an honorary
conferral. A 1925 Encyclopedia of Freemasonry described the Fourteenth degree ring as
symbolic of the 'covenant entered into with the [fraternal] order * This bears a similarity, the
author suggested, to the ring used to represent the covenant of marriage, "those who receive
only the Fourteenth degree... wear the ring as a symbol of the covenant of affection and fidelity
into which they have entered."24 Instead of resembling the signet form of the Blue Lodge ring,
this ring takes the form of the continuous wedding band (see Figure 18). The plain band form of
the ring emphasizes the significant relationship the individual possesses with his God, the
Masonic "Supreme Being," not with the members of the fraternity as a group. For these
purposes wedding band form is an appropriate form. The Fourteenth degree ring may be a plain
band or decorated on the exterior by a small incised triangle, inserted with the Hebrew letter
"yod," the symbol of the Fourteenth degree meaning "Ineffable Name.” Inscribed on the inside
of the ring is the motto of the Fourteenth degree," Virtus junxitmors non separabit," Latin for
"What virtue joins, death cannot separate." The ceremony or covenant for receiving the ring is
found in the second volume of the Liturgy:
This [ring] is a vistole mark of the compact that you have now made. Its motto is [Virtus junxitmors non separabit]. Promise me that you w il wear i during your life time, and that you will provide that, after your death, ft shall go into the hands of no other person than your widow, your eldest son, or the friend whom of all you most love.25
In addition to its resemblance to a wedding ring, the Fourteenth degree ring is traditionally worn
on the fourth finger of the left hand.
24Albert G. Mackev. An Encvdooedia of Freemasonry and its Kindred Sciences (New York: The Masonic History Company, 1925), pp. 625-826.
25Supreme Council, Liturgy, vol. 2, p. 185.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Unfortunately, the text for the covenant of the Thirty-third degree ring is not available,
but it too has a continuous band form. The ring features three bands joined together (three is a
symbolic number in the Masonic fraternity), and is set with a raised equilateral triangle with a "33"
in its center (see Figure 19). Thirty-third degree rings are inscribed inside with the bearer's
name, the name of the individual's home lodge, the date received, and the motto "Deus
meumque jusT (God is my right). This again emphasizes the relationship of the individual to the
Supreme Being. The earliest known example of this ring, dated ''1850,'' is in the collection of
the Scottish Rite Masonic Museum of Our National Heritage in Lexington, Massachusetts.
One can see the Thirty-third degree ring worn by Past Grand Masters in the series of
portraits hung in the Central Stair Had of the Masonic Temple in Philadelphia. Many of the hands
in the portraits are hidden so a ring is not visible. In portraits painted after 1939 a ring regularly
appears on the fourth finger of the left hand of the subjects.
The most popular Masonic rings are those purchased after the bestowal of the Thirty-
second degree. These signet forms are not commonly inscribed with the bearer's name or date
of reception, which distinguishes them from those received in ceremony. The symbol of the
Thirty-second degree is a double-headed eagle clutching a sword and is commonly displayed
on the ring's chaton. A black enamel background lined with gold rays surrounds the eagle, and
often a diamond is set into the eagle's chest or stomach (see Figure 20). Symbols such as the
Hebrew ayod," a "32* set in an equilateral triangle, or a red enameled cross with a white rose, are
usually portrayed along the shoulders of the ring.
From the extant examples in the Pennsylvania Grand Lodge Museum, it appears that
the Thirty-second degree ring may have had a specific ceremony associated with it in the
nineteenth century. L9 second degree rings bear a date inserted on the inside which usually indicates its reception at a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 44 specific event. Some of the Thirty-second degree rings resemble the Fourteenth degree ring: a plan band inscribed with a small triangle outlined in blade, and with a "32" inside it. Four Thirty- second degree rings exist in the Grand Lodge F. and A.M. of Pennsylvania collection from the nineteenth century. The surfaces of three are decorated with different Masonic symbols (see Figure 21). These particular rings are reminiscent of the Catholic Decade rings which date to the thirteenth century in Europe. Decade rings are so called for the ten bosses or projections from the surface of the band that serve the same function as the beads of a rosary, each representing a prayer. Much Masonic symbolism is religious or spiritual in its origins. When portrayed on rings, these images are intended to evoke the moral tenets of Freemasonry in the minds of the wearer similar to the prayers evoked by the projections on the Decade rings. In addition to those discussed, other rings exist which use symbolic imagery to identify positions of leadership in the fraternity such as Past Master Masons and Past High Priests. The Commandery ring illustrated in Figure 22 is worn by members of the Knight’s Templar in the York Rite Masonic Order, indicated by the cross and crown emblem. The custom of wearing regalia-ihe official Masonic apron and jewel suspended by a ribbon or collar-was first practiced in England. The tradition was brought to the colonies when Freemasonry was established in America. The British use of Masonic jewels to define rank and office dates to the 1720s.26 The first known reference to American Freemasons wearing gold and silver badges is a Masonic procession in Boston in 1737.27 The Ahiman Rezon. first written in 1756 by Laurence Dermott, spells out the general codes of conduct and basic membership 26Bemard E. Jones, Freemasons' Guide and Compendium (Toronto: George G. Harrap and Company, Ltd., 1965), p. 446. 27Franco, Fraternally Yours, p. 41. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 45 requirements for Pennsylvania Freemasons. It also deals with the regulations for dress codes in Article 15.28 All Masons are expected to wear a Masonic apron. The apron's color of trim and tassels, and the specific symbols embroidered upon it, distinguishes those Masons who currently hold office positions, and those who have held positions in the past. Each position is represented by specific symbols and colors. Masonic jewels are also required to be worn in the lodge, suspended from colored collars or ribbons. The jewels are decorated with different symbols, each indicating the office of the bearer. Those symbols representing the Officers of the Pennsylvania Grand Lodge are: Grand Master The Compasses, extended to 45 degrees, with the segment of a Circle at the points and an Eye within a Triangle, surmounting a Glory, in the center Deputy Grand Master The Compasses and Square united, with the blazing Sun in the center Senior Grand Warden The Level Junior Grand Warden The Plumb Grand Treasurer The Cross Keys, tied by a ribbon Grand Secretary The Cross Pens, tied by a ribbon, the points resting on an open book in scroll form Past Grand Master The Compasses and Square united, with the irradiated Sun, in the center, setting behind clouds, and with the Gavel pendent between the legs of the Compasses Past Deputy Grand Master The Compasses and Square only District Deputy Grand Masters The Open Bible within a Triangle, surmounting a Glory Deputy Grand Secretary The Cross Pens on a scroll, tied by a ribbon Grand Deacons The Dove and the Olive Branch Grand Stewards The Cornucopia Grand Marshal The Sword Grand Sword Bearer The Broadsword Grand Pursuivant The Cross Swords 28Huss. Master Builders, vol. 1, pp. 12-13, and The Ahiman Rezon or Book of the Constitution of the Right Worshipful Grand Lodoe of the Most Ancient and Honorable Fraternity oi Free and Accepted Masons of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia: Grand Lodge F. & A.M. of Pennsylvania, 1989), pp. 49-51. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Grand Tyler The Swoid, with the Key across the Hilt.29 The above was reproduced here to indicate the complex division of responsibilities within the Lodge, as well as the intricate network of nonverbal communication used to identify each Mason and his specific role in the fraternity. It is extremely important that all lodge members are able to identify their officers. The 1878 Liturgy declares: "No brother should be permitted to sit in a Lodge, unless properly clothed, with the Cordon, Apron and jewel of the Degree [or office]..."30 The aprons and jewels of the regalia are not permitted to be worn outside the lodge, unless the Masons is involved in a sanctioned public activity. Therefore, the high degree of individuation maintained within the Lodge is not carried into the public sphere, except for the wearing of rings. Specific rings identify members of a Blue Lodge, Masons having attained the Fourteenth, Thirty-second, or the Thirty-third degree, and Past Masters or Past High Priests. Rings serve the purpose of identifying the Masons and their attained degrees to fellow Masons and to others. The representation of the Masonic symbols also holds special significance for the bearer. It has been said that "the symbolism of Freemasonry is the Soul of Freemasonry."31 One nineteenth-century author wrote of the importance of the Masonic symbols: Every character, figure or symbol delineated on the tracing Boards [used during Masonic lectures for granting degrees] or placed visfoly before the eye in the 29Ahiman Rezon. pp. 51-52. 30Supreme Council, Liturgy, p. 16. 31 Carpenter, The Exemplar, p. 3. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 47 Lodge, possesses a moral reference and inculcates the practice of moral and social virtue.32 The symbols adopted by the Masons consist of the tools of the ancient stonemasons, geometric principles, features of Solomon's temple, and common everyday objects: The Trowel Once used to spread the cement which unites a building is considered in modem times to spread the cement of "brotherly love" The Square Symbolizes virtue The Level Symbolizes equality The Plumb rule Symbolizes uprightness The Chisel Symbolizes the advantages of discipline and education The Mallet Symbolizes reason over the passions: ambition, envy, anger The Compasses Appeared on the 1472 Mason's Company of London Guild "G" Represents Geometry or God The Classical orders Symbolize Wisdom, Strength and Beauty The Black and White floor Represents Good versus Evil.33 (from Solomon's Temple) Therefore, the Mason looking at his jewel when within the Lodge, or his ring when without, sees the symbols that are representative of the moral values and tenets of the fraternity (see Figure 23). Several historical events support the thesis that the Masonic ring tradition began early in the nineteenth century. Barbara Franco's essav in Masonic Symbolism in American Decorative Arts, indicates that the Masons' popularity grew following the Revolutionary war. Between 1775- 1830, Masonic symbols were commonly used as decorations on household goods.34 Hence it 32Cited in the Scottish Rite Masonic Museum of Our National Heritage, Masonic Symbols in American Decorative Arts, exhibition catalogue (Lexington, Mass.: Scottish Rite Masonic Museum and Lfcrary, Inc., 1976), p. 19. 33ihid., P- 20. ^Ibid- p. 17. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. is reasonable to assume that people would generally recognize Masonic symbols when they saw them. The heightened popularity of the fraternity at this time suggests that members' would find it desirable to be identified with such a popular institution. At about the same time (ca. 1780- 1820) personal Masonic jewels became popular. They often commemorated the date of the initiation of the wearer.35 The Fourteenth and Thirty-third degree covenant rings are also engraved with the date of initiation and were probably influenced by this practice. Another facet of culture that may have affected the development of a ring tradition in the early nineteenth century is the great popularity of mourning rings and mourning paraphernalia from 1790 -1 8 30 . In recognition of the death of Brother Mason George Washington (1799), the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania participated in six months of mourning by draping the lodge room in black and decreeing that all officers wear black armbands and black emblems on their aprons.36 Subsequent deaths of significant officials of the Fraternity, Jonathan B. Smith in 1812, Peter L. B. Duplessis in 1815, George A. Baker in 1816, and William Adcock in 1817 were all recognized with elaborate funeral processions and the draping of jewels, furniture and hangings in black mourning for three to six months.37 It is possible that mourning rings might have been worn by members of the Fraternity in memory of their lost friends. The importance of Masonic symbolism at this time would suggest that these symbols were incorporated in the designs of mourning rings for the Masons. For example, the ring pictured in Figure 24 differs from the standard Blue Lodge rings in its use of black jet (or tortoiseshell) instead of the more traditional blue color. Mourning rings are known to have been made after the death of George Washington, and it is possible that fraternal members possessed such commemorative tokens. 35M L , PP- 26-27. 37lbid„ p. 84. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 49 Another theory that might be useful to consider is the suggestion that Masons began wearing rings in the early nineteenth century in response to the formation of other fraternities. Fraternal members identified themselves to each other through secret handshakes, passwords and other devices. The possible confusion of fraternal membership through the miscommunication of these nonverbal acts would have been alleviated by a clear emblem of identification in the form of a ring. Watch charms, pins and lapei buttons Ike those offered in the nineteenth century trade catalogues would serve a similar purpose. Still another theory to explain the origin of fraternal rings takes us back to the Ahiman Rezon. This document was revised in 1825 after Lodges complained about the lack of sufficient training or knowledge to grant degrees, and the use of different rituals throughout the state of Pennsylvania. This addition is said to have enlarged its section of ceremonial practices, and it may have included the tradition of conferring rings for the Fourteenth and Thirty-third degrees. The Ahiman Rezon was not revised again until 1855. Since the earliest known Masonic ring dates to 1850, it is Ikely that the earlier version of the Ahiman Rezon did incorporate the tradition of conferring rings. While this information is speculative, it is important in the development of the signet ring tradition as used among groups of individuals. In 1835, West Point Military Academy began the tradition of granting class rings. The number of Masons in official military positions during the Revolutionary War may have influenced the traditions established at the Military Academy. Therefore the origin of the military class rings may be traced to the signet rings worn by Masons. Class Rinos The class ring is a piece of jewelry received before or during graduation from a college, university, academy or high school. It documents the wearer's enrollment in that particular Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 50 school, and the year of graduation. The tradition of wearing class rings began in 1835 at the United States Military Academy (USMA) at West Point. However, it was not until the early twentieth century that the purchase of class rings by students had become a common practice. At this time, ring companies sent out sales representatives and produced catalogues to encourage students to buy their products. One such company, the Eagle Regalia Company, advertised an extensive array of class rings in their Twentieth Anniversary Catalogue (1923)38 Rings pictured in the catalogue bear the signet form of decorated chaton and shoulders. The rings were usually made of metal and were decorated with enamel or a stone set into the chaton. These rings were representative samples from which a school ring committee could choose a particular style. The school's own name or initials, motto and class year were then worked into the design of the ring. Rings were sold in a minimum quantity of ten rings, which suggests that a class of students would share the same design of ring. A representative page from the Eagle Regalia catalogue demonstrates how the basic shape of the ring varied little from an octagonal, rectangular, or oval chaton joined to broad shoulders (see Figure 25). The chaton and shoulder were decorated in a number of ways to indicate the school name and year of graduation. In the introduction of the Eagle Regalia Company catalogue, there appears this appraisal of their product: There is sentiment in rings... [In our designs] we have taken the beauty of the spirit which prompts schoolmates... to want to wear some permanent reminder of their friendship and common endeavor ...39 The Eagle Regalia Company was one of several companies formed early in the twentieth century to produce school and fraternal jewelry and rings. Josten's Manufacturing Company of 38Eagle Regalia Co., Twentieth Anniversary Catalogue - Rinos. Pins. Medals. Trophies. Pennants. Banners (New York, 1923). 39lbi&. P- 8. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 51 Owatonna, Minnesota first opened in 1897 as a jewelry and watch repair shop, and began making class rings for midwest schools in 1906 40 L G. Balfour of Attleboro, Massachusetts began making class rings soon after the company was formed in 1913.41 Josten's and Balfour are currently two of the largest ring companies in the United States. The appearance of class ring manufacturers in the early twentieth century indicates the growing demand for collegiate and high school class rings at that time. As mentioned, the tradition started early in the nineteenth century. According to Michael J. McAfee, who is the Curator of Uniforms and Military History at the United States Military Academy Museum (West Point), the custom of receiving a class ring began at the Academy in 1835.42 The explanation for the establishment of this tradition appears to have been lost over time. However, familiarity with the history of the Military Academy suggests some reasons for the ring's appearance in the 1830s. The first military school at West Point was opened in 1794. The school subsequently burned down in 1796, and was not re-installed until 1801. Since 1776, the governing leaders had desired to establish a military academy. The nation's military leaders stressed the need fo r [A]n institution at which young men might receive a military education, who, when separated from it, and scattered throughout the length and breadth of the land, might serve as instructors of the untrained militia in times of peace, and, upon the outbreak of war, furnish a powerful aid in organizing and concentrating the enormous militia resources of the country.43 40Connie McCaffrey, ed., Josten's Today (Vol. 13, no. 2, August 1987). 41 Dorothy T. Rainwater, American Jewelry Manufacturers (West Chester, PA: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 1988), p. 33. 42Michaei J. McAfee, Curator of Uniforms and Military History at the United States Military Academy Museum, West Point, New York, letter to William W. Jeffries, 12 January 1978, United States Naval Academy Museum, Annapolis, MD. ^Brevet-Major Edward C. Boynton, History of West Point and its Military Importance During the American Revolution (New York: D. Van Nostrand, 1871), p. 183. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 52 Brevet-Major Sylvanus Thayer became the first Superintendent of West Point in 1817. Upon his arrival, Thayer instilled "method, order and prosperity” into the education of the cadets, as the students were called.44 By the 1820s, Thayer had garnered public support for the milftary academy; this in turn increased the number of well-qualified applicants. The qualifications for candidates applying to the Academy prescribed that: Candidates must be over 16 and under 21 years of age at the time of entrance into the Military Academy; must be at least five feet in height, and free from any deformity, disease, or infirmity, which would render them unfit for the military service, and [free] from any disorder of an infectious or immoral character.4® Additional qualifications covered mental capacity, literacy and general character, and required a recommendation from the applicant's state senator. There are a number of parallels between the requirements for membership in the Academy, and those for the Masonic fraternity discussed earlier. These include moral character and physical perfection. Although further research is needed to establish a firm connection, there may have existed some relationship between the Masonic fraternity and the Military Academy. Members of both groups came from upper class backgrounds. George Washington himself was a Mason, and by his instigation the Academy was first formed in 1794. Wayne Huss' history of the Masons of Pennsylvania indicates that many army officers during the Revolutionary War were Masons. A number of officer's sons were in the early classes at the Academy, and there may have been an overlap between Masonic officers and their son’s attendance at West Point. The Freemasons, enjoying an increasing popularity in the early 1820s began wearing fraternal rings at this time. This influence might account for the subsequent appearance of the first class ring at West Point in 1835. ^ Ib id - pp. 217-218. 45lbid.. pp. 266-267. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 53 Like the Masonic fraternity, the military had a complex dress code that indicated the rank and orders of its officers and corps. In addition to strict requirements for uniform appearance, the Battalion (military unit) Orders were regulated: For the designation of rank, chevrons will be worn on the arms of the Battalion Officers and non-commissioned officers. The Colonel shall wear three on each arm; the Captain shall wear two on each arm; the Adjutant one on each arm; the Lieutenant one on the left arm; the Sergeant-Major two on each arm; the Sergeants one on each arm; the Corporals one on the left arm. Those worn by the officers to be of gold lace, and those of the noncommissioned officers to be of yellow ribbon.46 During the 1820s through the 1850s there appears to have been controversy concerning the commissioning of officers and their proper training. There were three ways to attain the rank of an officer (1) from civilian life without any previous training; (2) from the rank and file with practical military training; (3) from cadets following four years of practical military education at the Academy. Cadets were often chosen for advancement in the officer's corps because of their broad training and experience, as well as their reputation for staying with the service twice as long as the average civilian. It was said of the Academy graduate: He can readily drSI a Battalion of Infantry, a Battery of Artillery, or a Squadron of Cavalry... His moral character [has been] elevated by the practice of virtuous habits...while, from the class which contains him and his fellows, the idle, the stupid, the incapable, and the vicious, haye, in the four yearn passed at the Academy, been thoroughly weeded out.47 The appearance of an Academy ring may have been intended to distinguish Academy graduate officers from their civilian counterparts. It served visually to indicate an officer's background and training. After the United States Naval Academy (USNA) was formed in Annapolis, Maryland (1845) it too adopted the class ring tradition. The first Naval Academy rings were received by 46lbid.. p. 218. 47lbid.. p. 233. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 54 students following graduation in 1869. Today, museums at both the USMA and the USNA possess collections of their respective class rings. However, the Naval Academy Museum had a special ring exhibit built in 1935 to celebrate the tradition, and since then it has maintained a nearly complete collection of rings. Therefore the class rings of the Naval Academy are discussed here as an exemplary collection; they are intended to represent the wider usage of such jewelry. Although the first class rings at the Naval Academy date to 1869, it was not until 1881 that the custom of bestowing rings upon the students (midshipmen) became an annual tradition. Other options in the earlier years of graduation included class swords, albums or banners. Prior to 1881 rings were purchased after graduation. Eventually a yearly event developed at which the midshipmen received their rings. This occurred in their junior year, prior to their becoming midshipmen First Class. At first the midshipmen "christened'' the rings by throwing the wearers over the seawall. This practice ended in 1924 when the fafl killed a student Since then a Ring Dance has been held at which the ring is received in an elaborate ceremony. The Ring Dance makes the bestowal of the class ring an institutionally recognized event involving the entire class. The other United States defense academies also sponsor a ring dance like the Naval Academy's. The USNA budgets a portion of each midshipman's personal stipend for the purchase of the ring.4® Although a midshipman is not "required" to purchase a ring, his refusal to do so requires that he explain his actions to the Junior Officer, the Battalion Officer, the Deputy Commandant of Midshipmen, and the Commandant of Midshipmen. In the event a midshipman leaves the Academy before graduating, he must relinquish his ring, and the company chosen to ^According to Ensign Steve Debus of the Naval Recruiting Office of Newark, Delaware, and an alumni of the Naval Academy, the Academy designated approximately $400-500 towards the ring's purchase in the late 1980s. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 55 make the rings is under contractual obligation to repurchase it. The institutional pressure placed on each student to receive a ring demonstrates the significance of the object It indicates how deeply the ring is valued by the leaders of the institution and by the students. The legend for the 1935 class ring exhibit at the Naval Academy Museum underscored this significance by stating the ring’s symbolic importance: A Naval Academy graduate regards his class ring as one of his most prized possessions. To' him it supplements his diploma and in many respects equals it in importance. What his diploma officially documents in somewhat impersonal terms, his class ring symbolizes, in some ways no less officially, but in any case more intimately, the memory of years that he would not forget if he could and his own personal drama of final achievement49 The designs of the Naval Academy rings themselves reflect this significance by their use of symbolic decoration. Ever since class rings were first established in 1869, they have taken the standard form of a signet (see Figure 26). The chaton consists of a gemstone, oftentimes cut with an intaglio of a student's family crest. The nineteenth-century rings tend to use a bloodstone for this setting, a stone said to symboGze "courage, and presence of mind."50 The choice of this stone may or may not have been intentional, but it is an interesting coincidence for a defense academy ring. In the early 1920s, the tradition of writing out the full name, "United States Naval Academy," on the bezel surrounding the gemstone became common practice and has continued to the present. The primary decoration of this signet fies on the two shoulders. Before 1907, the decoration usually consisted of the class crest portrayed on one of the shoulders. Either "USNA" or "United States Naval Academy” was written out on the other shoulder. The year of 49 Lieutenant Wade DeWeese, "The Ninetieth Anniversary Class Ring Collection," United States Naval Institute Proceedings, vol. 62, no. 4, whole no. 398, April 1936, pp. 514-519. The only persona! possession astronaut Alan Shepard took along on his first flight in space was his Naval Academy class ring. 50Edwards, History and Poetry, p. 57. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 56 graduation might also be on one of the shoulders, or designed into the class crest. In 1901 the official Naval Academy Seal was adopted and by 1907 it became the established design on one shoulder (see Figure 27). The Seal has been embellished in various ways over the years. The class crest since 1907 has been consistently located on the opposite shoulder. While the class crest alters yearly, as do decorative embellishment? to the Seal, the motifs used are commonly nautical symbols. On twentieth-century rings, many of these symbols are of a violent nature, as the torpedo in Figure 27. Other images include military weapons, guns, cannons, and atomic symbols representing nuclear weapons. This is reminder that these students wearing the rings have been trained to battle against future enemies of the United States by using such weapons. Other nautical motifs include: a ship's propeller or wheel; a ship itself; water; an anchor; the Naval and Marine swords; rope or chains; dolphins; Neptune and his trident, or the trident alone. Another motif found on most rings is the American eagle in entirety or represented by his wings. The American eagle was adopted as the nation's symbol in 1788. The eagle symbolizes the nation's association with the Academy (see Figure 28). Architectural imagery is another motif designed on some rings (see Figure 29a and b). On the 1914 ring, the shoulder with the official Seal also displays the campus chapel building and the dock tower of Mahan HalMhe Iforary at that time. Below the Seal is the Okanowa Lewchew, a Japanese bell from the fifteenth century, given to Commodore Matthew C. Perry as a diplomatic gift in 1854. By tradition, this be! is rung when Navy beats Army in football. The different symbols portrayed on the ring remind the midshipmen of Ms various affiliations. The official USNA seal associates him w ih the Academy. The class crest affifiates him with his particular class and year of graduation. The additional symbols, such as the representations of architecture or nautical motifs, allude to events experienced during the students' stay at Annapolis. The use of the eagle symbolizes the midshipman's commitment to Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 57 the defense of the United States, and may suggest the years of sen/ice he owes his country following graduation. Personal identification is occasionally found on the exterior of the ring, such as the family crest intaglio in the stone. Sometimes the stone decoration is used to indicate affiliations besides one's family, such as fraternal membership. The class ring of 1962 shows the Masonic square, compasses and G encrusted into the stone (see Figure 30a, b and c). The presence of the Masonic symbol reiterates the earlier claim that there may exist a historic connection between the Naval Academy and the Masonic fraternity. The Naval Academy has a "Class Crest and Ring Committee” consisting of student members who decide upon a particular design of crest and ring. The ring is received by the midshipman during the spring his junior year when he is a Midshipman Second Class.^1 As mentioned earlier, the bestowal of the ring is celebrated at a ring dance. At the Naval Academy, this dance requires several years of preparation. During this time, midshipmen request ship officers around the world to send water samples from their location to the Academy. The intention is to obtain water from the seven seas to fin a basin in which each ring is baptized before it is placed on the midshipman's left ring finger. Traditionally, midshipmen were required to bring a date to the Ring Dance, and she wore the ring on a r&bon about her neck. During the dance, the couple passes through a massive replica of the ring, to the basin on the other side .52 The young woman then removed the ring from the ribbon, baptized it in the basin, placed it on the midshipman's hand, and kissed him. At the U.S. Coast Guard Academy, this event also was used as a means to announce the formal engagement of the couple. Since the 51 Other military academies have different traditions. Cadets at West Point receive their ring in the fa i of their senior year. Cadets at the U.S. Coast Guard Academy receive a miniature class ring at the end of their second year, and the full-sized ring at the end of their third year. 52According to Jerold P. Girard of the U.S. Coast Guard Academy, the ring replica used at their Ring Dances, large enough for the couple to pass through, would currently cost approximately $40,000 to replace. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 58 early twentieth century, miniature rings replicating the design of the student's class ring, have been made to be used as engagement rings. A ring of this sort symbolized a young woman's engagement to her fiance, as well as her commitment to her future husband's naval career (see Figure 31). Naval Academy class rings distinguish those midshipmen who are First Classmen. This title implies that they can demand special treatment from lower classmen, especially plebes (freshmen). The meaning of the class ring for one student was recorded in the Naval Academy yearbook, the USNA Lucky Bag (1987): It marked the beginning of their year. It has been said that the only ranks worth having were Fleet Admiral and Midshipman First Class. As each Midshipman received his ring from his date, it was a sort of coronation. As “kings" of the Academy for a year, the Class... could now begin reaping the benefits of 3 hard years.53 Upon graduation from the Naval Academy, the ring distinguishes those officers who have attended the Academy. The title “Ring-knocker” is given to those individuals who can rap their ringed knuckle on a table or door to attract the attention of others when necessary. The class ring provides a form of identification for the wearer. Its signet form enables the display of the Academy Seai, the year of graduation and the official class crest. Not all universities, colleges and high schools follow the same tradition practiced by the Naval Academy or the other defense academies. Ceremonies or special dances at which class rings are received appear to be a choice of the particular institution. Lire the Naval Academy, some schools have official exclusive designs. More commonly however, class rings are purchased through catalogues. Jewelry stores, or ring company sales representatives. In this event, the student chooses which design he or she I9 likely to all share a common ring design. ^Luckv Bag 1987. United States Naval Academy, United States Naval Academy Museum, Annapolis, MO. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 59 Sports Rinos The bestowal of sports rings continues a tradition of awarding successful athletes with some form of trophy. In ancient times, athletes performing in sacred "crown games" were awarded wreaths made from the branches of olive or pine trees, or leaves of bay or parsley.54 Over the centuries athletic events have evolved from religious observances to professional competitions. However, the award of a physical trophy to the victor in recognition of achievement has endured. In ancient Greece, the Olympics award was a crown wreath of olive branches worn on the head; in modem Olympics, the award is a medal of gold, silver or brass worn around the neck on a ribbon. In twentieth-century America a ring is awarded to the winners of the nation's major team sports competitions: the Super Bowl (football), the World Series (baseball), the Stanley Cup (hockey) and the National Basketball Association Championship. The team receives a trophy, but the players receive rings, usually individualized with the player's name, jersey number and team position. Rings are received following professional sports’ play-offs, major competitions, and All-Star team competitions; rings are received by amateurs for division or league competitions. The rings received at the highest levels, however, are the most prized, because they are the most difficult to win. They are awarded following a greeting season of professionalized games and play-offs. Rings are also received by those individuals inducted into the different sports Hall of Fames following an exemplary professional career. My discussion of rings will focus on Super Bowl rings because they are so well-known. The Super Bowl rings wffi be studied for their value to the wearer as a wearable trophy, and a 54 Allen Guttmann. From Ritual to Record: The Nature of Modem Snorts fNew York: Columbia University Press, 1978), p. 22. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 60 reminder of a past accomplishment, a professional success. They are also important because they represent current cultural attitudes towards professional sports. Professional athletic events are a relatively recent development in this country. According to Harvey Green in Fit For America - Health. Fitness and Soort (1986) during the nineteenth century, the United States experienced a growth in the interest of physical health, exercise and athletic activities.66 Widespread involvement in sports occurred at the college level in the nineteenth century. But by the end of the century, controversies arose concerning whether the students, drawn away from their academic studies, participated in sports for health reasons, or for the winning of the competition. In the books, From Ritual to Record by Allen Guttman and Soort. Culture, and Personality (1987) by Donald W. Calhoun, both authors claim that the development of professional teams in the late nineteenth century has eliminated much of the "game" philosophy of earlier athletic competitions.66 In professional sports, winning is of great economic importance. Coaches and players need to win to keep their jobs. Teams need to win to keep the fans happy and buying tickets for the next game. The importance of winning is not merely a self-fulfilling interest, but also a determinant of economic and professional success. The trophy is a physical manifestation of that success. In professional sports, financial rewards are reaped by the winning players, but the physical tokens are valued because they endure long after the money has been spent The rings are valued for their representation of the team’s trophy on an individual scale. ^H arvey Green, Fit for America: Health. Fitness. Soort and American Society (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986). 56Guttman, Ritual to Record, and Donald W. Calhoun, Soort. Culture and Personality (Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc., 1987). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 61 Rings were not always awarded to individuals for team victories. A late nineteenth century trade catalogue lists athletic badges and pins which could be engraved and personalized for individual honor. Badges are shown bearing images of activities such as rowing (crew), soccer (or rugby), yachting and baseball.57 Exhibited in the Pro Football Hall of Fame (Canton, Ohio) is a football shaped watch charm that was awarded to the team members of the Canton Bulldogs for winning the 1923 "World Championship" competition for professional football. A similar charm is pictured in the Twentieth Anniversary Catalogue of the Eagle Regalia Company.55 The catalogue displays gold watch charms, each the shape of a different sport ball which could be individually engraved (see Figure 32). The winners in baseball's World Series, which began in 1906, may have been the first to receive the gold watch charms. Pocket watches, wrist watches, tie dips or pendants were also awarded to players for winning the World Series in the earty years of the competition. They were tokens of the team owner’s regard. In 1922, the first sports rings were awarded for winning the World Series and League Championships. By 1931, awarding a ring to the winning team players and coaches was a yearly tradition in baseball This pradice was subsequently adopted by the other major sports' competitions. When the pocket watch was replaced by the wrist watch in the early twentieth century, watch charms fell out of use. Athletic badges, medals or pins additionally used as award tokens may have been considered too ostentatious for common everyday wear unlke the more subtle watch charm. The ring, replacing the watch charm, also imitated the now popular traditions of fraternal rings and class rings in the twentieth century. The existence of these other rings influenced the shape and designs of the early sports rings. 57lrons, Emblems. Pins, and Charms, pp. 139-140. 58Eagle Regalia Co.. Twentieth Anniversary p.53. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 62 Professional sports teams appealed to established jeweliy companies making class and fraternal jewelry to make the first sports rings. Ken Westerlund, the chief designer for Josten's Inc., designed the first Super Bowl ring (see Figure 33).59 The Green Bay Packers' coach Vince Lombardi and the team captains contributed to the d esig n ." The Super Bowl rings differ greatly in design from the World Series rings. Many of the early baseball rings have the same appearance from year to year regardless of the different winning team: a miniature embossed baseball diamond on the ring's chaton, with a diamond set into the pitcher's mound. The designs of Super Bowl rings have deliberately changed from year to year. A tendency for players to request larger and more diamond encrusted rings for each subsequent victory caused team owners in the 1970s to form a Super Bowl Ring Committee to establish restrictions regarding the ring's design and cost The National Football League now pays for the rings out of the proceeds of the Super Bowl game.61 In the earlier years, the cost of the rings was covered by both the league and the team owner. The first Super Bowl rings for the Green Bay Packers in 1967 cost $1900 each, and were paid tor by the Football League. In subsequent years owners contributed to the cost of the ring. Eventually the owners' 59The concept of a Super Bowl competition arose during the 1966 season when the National Football League joined with the American Football League under the umbrella name of the National Football League (NFL). The two franchises were consequently renamed the National Football Conference (NFC) and the American Football Conference (AFC). The union was formed to resolve the fierce competition for recruiting and drafting players that occurred throughout the 1960s, after the American League formed in 1959. The two franchises have separate seasons, and the Super Bowl, first played following the 1966 season, in January 1967, is the World Championship Game competition between the rival leagues. "W inning team owners, coaches and players usually contribute suggestions for the ring's design. 61The league provides a maximum of 90 rings. In addition to the 48 team players who each receive one, rings are given to coaches, owners, trainers and front office staff members. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 63 contributions to the cost of the rings doubled the league's contribution. Consequently a limit was set to curb the growing extravagance of the designs. In 1985 the limit was set at $3000 per ring; it was paid by the League.62 If the cost of the rings exceeds the limit, the team owners must pay for the entire expense. A limitation was also placed on the total volume of diamonds incorporated in the decoration of the ring. The Super Bowl Ring Committee restricted first time champions to a total diamond volume of one hundred twenty points (approximately one and one-fifth carats). Designs of rings for additional Super Bowl victories within a ten-year span could increase the total diamond volume by twenty points for each win. Super Bowl rings are a substantial form of jewelry. Weighing approximately twenty-five to thirty pennyweights each, or about one and a half ounces, these rings are four times the size of the average male high school class ring. They consist primarily of ten or fourteen karat gold, diamonds and enamel. The signet form of the ring provides ample space for engraving and embossing information, as well as for setting precious gems. As one player put it, one should be able to recognize a Super Bowl ring from across a barroom. On one shoulder the rings are personalized for each player, displaying the player's name, jersey number, and often the position played. Also commonly found on this shoulder is the team’s symbol, or a miniature helmet with the team logo depicted on it The coach's nam e- "ParcelTs" for the New York Giants' ring of 1986-or favorite motto-*Commitment to Excellence" for the Los Angeles Raiders' ring in 1983-is often found on the shoulder as weH (see Figure 34). In addition, geographic images, either of the team's hometown, or the skyline of the city where the game was played, are also depicted. The Dallas Cowboys'1977 ring has an outline of Texas and of the Louisiana Superdome where Dallas beat the Denver Broncos. The Pittsburgh 62This limit is subject to increases in the price of gold. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 64 Steelers' 1978 ring has a skyline of Miami portrayed with an image of the Orange Bowl Stadium, where the Steelers narrowly defeated Dallas 35-31. Other rings have architectural references. The 1982 Washington Redskins ring has an image of the United States Capitol building, and the two San Francisco 49'ers'rings of 1981 and 1984 have a raised image of the San Francisco Golden Gate Bridge (see Figure 35). The other shoulder has the score of the Super Bowl game, the names of the playing teams, and occasionally play-off game scores. The National or American Conference symbols, along with the National Football League trademark are also engraved or embossed into the decoration. An image of the Vince Lombardi trophy is usually engraved, embossed or raised on one of the ring's shoulders, or it may appear in the chaton decoration. Following the first Super Bowl competition in 1967, Oscar Riedener of Tiffany and Co. designed the Vince Lombardi Trophy. It was named after the coach of the Green Bay Packers, who victoriously led his team into five NFL championships and the first two Super B o w ls .63 The trophy, seven pounds of sterling silver, is designed in the shape of an elongated football tee with three concave sides holding a regulation sized silver football. It has been subsequently awarded each year to the winning team of the Super Bowl, engraved with fire team names and score of the game, along with year of the competition. By evoking the Lombardi trophy, the ring recalls the team accomplishment involved in winning the Super Bowl. The ring permits the symbolic sharing of the trophy with all of the team members. ^Museum of Fine Arts. Houston, Marks of Achievement - Four Centuries of American Presentation Silver (New York: Harry N. Abrams. Inc., 1987), p. 162. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 65 Many winning teams have had the trophy outlined on the shoulder of the ring, or studded with diamonds on the chaton. The latter case is found on the New York Giants' ring of 1986 (see Figure 34). Still other teams use the form of the Vince Lombardi Trophy to symbolize the number of Super Bowl victories the team has amassed. The San Francisco 49'ers use two and three trophy shapes on the chaton of their rings of 1984 and 1988 to symbolize their second and third Super Bowl victories (see Figure 35). The depiction of victories through the use of trophies or large diamonds, is the predominant feature of chaton decoration. Usually one carat in size, and often set off with smaller diamonds, the diamond symbolizes the win. Teams which have won more than one Super Bowl have a large diamond representing each win. The Pittsburgh Steelers, the first team to win four Super Bowls, demonstrate this practice. The first ring, for their Super Bowl IX victory in 1974, has a one carat diamond set in onyx. The second ring, received the following year, has two half carat diamonds, set in palladium, flanking a miniature, two dimensional Vince Lombardi trophy. For their third win in 1978, the Steelers had the team emblem-three black hypercydoids-each set with half carat diamonds, and surrounded by thirty smaller diamonds. The fourth ring, Super Bowl XIV in 1979, is simply set with four half carat diamonds on a black background (see Figures 36 and 37). Some teams use different sized diamonds to depict the team’s entire season. For winning Super Bowl VII in January 1973, as well as all their other games in the 1972 season, the Miami Dolphins had a one carat diamond, representing the Super Bowl win, surrounded by sixteen smaller diamonds representing the other wins of the season. These were set in an aquamarine background, the team's official color. The ring of the Oakland Raiders for their Victory of Super Bowl XV (1980 season) is even more complex. Two large center diamonds represent the two Super Bowl victories of the Raiders. These are surrounded by nineteen Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 66 smaller diamonds, in the shape of a football, representing the games played in the season. The Oakland Raiders were the first team to win the Super Bowl as a wild card team, which means that they entered the play-offs for the Super Bowl as a second place team from the conference finals, and had to win each play-off game to reach the Super Bowl. These successes (three play offs plus the Super Bowl, or four post-season games) are represented by the four diamonds set into the four comers of the central face of the chaton. The left and right edges of the chaton are each set with five diamonds and said to symbolize the team’s participation in the play-offs for ten successive years (see Figure 38). Other rings, like the Pittsburgh Steelers’ 1978 Super Bowl XIII ring with the three hypercycloids in Figure 36. have the official team logo portrayed on the face of the chaton. The Baltimore Colts, for their victory in Super Bowl V in 1970, have a white gold horseshoe surrounding a one carat diamond (see Figure 39). The horseshoe is set with seven sapphires and six diamonds, in a blue spinel background. Blue is the Colt's official team color. A football shape, either the form of the ring's overall chaton, or set inside the collet and filled with diamonds, is the other most commonly found image in the chaton. The collet which surrounds the center display of diamonds is usually engraved, or embossed with the team's name and the words "World Champions.’ The term "World Champions" has been in use long before rings were introduced. The term was originally engraved on watch charms and pocket watches, and demonstrates the self-congratulatory nature of American sportsmen. Despite compering with teams only within the nation, (or Canada), both football and baseball adopt this term "World Champions" to emphasize the players’ belief in the greatness of their achievement The public's support of this belief is indicated by the amount of money expended on the American sports industry, and reflected by the vast use of precious gems to decorate the tops of the rings. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 67 For the individual, the rings have multiple levels of significance. As described above, diamonds, symbols, words, and geographic images are used to represent the game, the season's victories, the team, the coach, and the stadium at which the games were piayed. Looking at a ring immediately evokes a host of memories for the player. As one player commented, "It’s like a flashback, like looking at old films. The memories pop right into focus when you look at the ring. You don't try, it just happens."64 Athletes have a limited time during their lives in which they can participate in such strenuous physical competition on a professional level. The ring is a physical representation of a moment in time when the individual was performing at peak athletic capability, and symbolically captures that event. Few careers have definitive moments that can be defined as the peak achievement, unless perhaps at the reception of a Nobel or similar prize. Rather, career success is usually rewarded by salary increases. Companies honor employees, but sports victories demonstrate a team effort in winning; individual players are recognized as successful on both a team and a personal level as represented by the images on the rings. The events that lead to the reception of the ring are broadcast to the public every Sunday afternoon and Monday night. This achievement is something recognized, envied, and enjoyed vicariously by millions of Americans. A player's self esteem is enhanced by wearing a Super Bowl ring. He knows that for one evening, he was profoundly successful in the eyes of the football watching nation. In a 1969 French study involving 1,634 athletes representing individual and team sports, Michel Bouet found that sports participation provided a means of "feeling that one exists; discovering oneself; realizing oneself; finding an expression of the self; knowing oneself; communicating nonlinguistically; obtaining recognition from others; dominating others; and ^ T .R . Reinman, "They wear well, but, oh, the price one pays." The Tribune. 1987. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 68 offers a man a chance to prove his existence to others in an authentic manner."65 The study demonstrates the psychological significance of sports participation. These feelings increase if one is playing on a winning team. One's participation and success documented by a ring further prolongs this positive experience. This may have been the reason why the ring was preferred as a personal token for the individual players instead of a medal, or badge. The ring can be worn daily and acts as a continual reminder of past glory. As Ed Charles, a baseball player for the Mets in 1969 commented: After the years have passed, the ring is the one lasting memory that lingers on. Every time I look at it, or a fan sees it and starts asking about it, I say, 'Hey, we won it all that year and this is a symbol of that championship.' It is something they can't take away from you... it is something I can pass on to my son and keep in the family for years. It is the utmost accomplishment.66 ^From "Les Motivations des sport'ifs," cited in Guttman, Ritual to Record, p. 77. 66 Bill Madden,The 'Ring': Baseball's Coveted Jewel." 1978 World Series Official Program. Art Burke, ed. (n.p.: Cardinal Publishing Co., 1978), p. 9. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Chapter 3 COMPARATIVE INTERPRETATIONS OF RINGS The previous chapters were intended to provide a general historical and cultural background for five kinds of rings: wedding and related engagement or friendship rings, mourning rings, fraternal rings, class rings and sports rings. In each section I alluded to different meanings of the rings. Specific means for interpreting rings will be defined in further detail, as I compare the different rings to each other. The following discussion of the "public" and "personal" meaning of rings is based upon Edward T. Hairs work on dynamic space, The Hidden Dimension(1969). By focusing on the extent to which the social meaning of rings can be interpreted within a public setting, one can determine the limitations of nonverbal communication through rings. Conversely, that determination will also clarify the personal meaning of rings for the wearer. Specific features of rings will be considered for the application of pubfic and personal interpretations of rings: (1) form, whether the ring shape is a plan band or a signet; (2) inscriptions; (3) symbols; and (4) materials. Public and Personal Meanings of Rings In his book, The Hidden Dimension. Hall defines four distance zones for human interaction. His study is based upon predominantly professional, middle-class adults living in New England. The zones are labeled public, social, personal and intimate. Hall defines the 69 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 70 distances for each zone within the qualifiers of far and dose, and provides distance measurements for each in feet and inches.1 Hall indicates that the distances proposed are approximations, and only truly representative of the New England group investigated. This must be remembered in adapting Hall's theories to the interpretation of rings. The changes in the cultural norms of behavior across time and space must be considered. The rings studied in this thesis range in date from 1693, the earliest mourning ring, to the present. Any attempt at comparative interpretation across such a large time span is filled with pitfalls. However, certain generalizations appear to be constant, and may be interpreted as an approach to understanding the nonverbal communication of rings from the viewer’s standpoint. The symbolic significance for the wearer can also be understood. The adaptation of Hairs dynamic space theory is useful in interpreting rings. It corporates the differing appearance of the rings at different distances, and it qualifies the relationship between the viewer and the wearer of the ring. In interpreting Hall, I propose that as the distance between two interacting individuals decreases, the level of intimacy not only on a physical level, but also on a communicative level, increases.2 An increase in the level of intimate communication increases the possibility that the viewer of the ring is aware of the contextual meaning of the ring for the wearer.2 For example, if the viewer knows an individual who is 1 Edward T. Hall. The Hidden Dimension (Garden City. NY: Anchor Books, Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1969), pp. 114-125. interaction is defined on the basis of mutual recognition. This discussion does not include situations of decreased distance due to crowding between individuals who try to minimize interaction (i.e., eye-contact, physical contact) where-ever possible. 3The relative level of communicative intimacy in a relationship is defined by the level of personal disclosure between individuals. For example, superficially communicative relationships contain only those conversations that are non-threatening to the participants, as in a discussion about the weather. Levels of increasing intimacy will include discussions of thoughts, feelings and beliefs. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 71 wearing a ring is a Mason, the viewer is more likely to identify the ring as a Masonic ring. This implies some recognition of symbols associated with the Masonic fraternity. It can also be implied that at higher levels of communicative intimacy, the viewer is permitted, with respect to cultural laws of etiquette and politeness, to ask the wearer about a ring he may be wearing, if the contextual information is not known. The defining distances for these communication levels are highly variable. They depend on the personalities of the individuals involved in the interaction (i.e., gregarious and open, or shy and reserved) which in turn effect the amount of information requested or offered. However, Hall's distance zones provide a guide to the levels of interaction at different distances. The far public cfistance is defined as a cfistance in excess of twenty-five fe e t It is unlikely at this distance that a ring would be noticed by the general public. Between twelve and twenty- five feet however, the dose phase of public distance, it is likely that one would recognize the shape of a ring on a person's hand. It is also possible within this distance to recognize large symbols on the chatons of signets, such as the Lombardi trophy portrayed on the Super Bowl rings, or an urn on a nineteenth-century mourning ring.4 More importantly however, at this distance the ring shape, whether a plain band or a signet, is recognizable. Therefore, within the close phase of public distance (twelve to twenty-five feet), it is possible for one to discern the plain wedding band form. Over the years this form has been a wedding band, a mourning ring, and a degree ring of the Masonic fraternity. At the distance of twelve to twenty-five feet, it is unlikely that the contextual information (which would include the social and cultural background of the wearer), would be known. Therefore, the "public meaning" of the ring, because of its 4In the seventeenth through nineteenth, and even early twentieth centuries, gloves were worn by many pofite people in public. This should be remembered in this discussion as a limitation to seeing rings in certain settings. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 72 plain band form and placement on the fourth finger of the left hand, entails the relationship of the wearer to some other significant individual. The details of that relationship however, are unknown.6 It is also unlikely at this distance, that one can identify the materials making up the form and decoration of a ring. However, in the social distance, spanning four to seven feet in the close phase, and seven to twelve feet in the far phase, the identification or recognition of these materials is increasingly possible.6 Recognition of precious gems and jewels on rings provides information to :ra viewer regarding the wearer's socio-economic status. Their presence may also indicate the wearer's aesthetic values. At this distance, a plain band is easily distinguishable from a signet, and details on a signet are varyingly discemable, especially at the four to seven feet distance. Variables affecting visibility in this distance depend upon the viewer's visual acuity, the size of the ring, and the size of the depicted inscriptions or emblems. The ability to distinguish the colors of materials, to identify gems, jewels and the use of enameling, or to recognize the use of hair or classical images on mourning rings, is possible within the four to seven feet distance. Also within the close phase of this distance, symbol recognition will Ifcely identify a ring belonging to one of the three kinds of groups rings-the fraternal, class and sports rings. However, inscriptions in this distance may not yet be dearly readable for positive identification. 6 It is not known at this time which finger or fingers mourning rings were worn on. For widows and widowers it is possible that the mourning ring was worn on the fourth finger of the left hand. ^Unequivocal identification of materials, such as distinguishing 14 karat gold from gold-plate, or diamonds from zirconia, necessarily requires a very dose distance, possibly magnification, and is "-ot considered in this discussion. Instead, it seems significant to interpret what the individual is attempting to disclose about himself by the conscious display of valuable gems and jewels, whether real or imitation. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 73 Hail claims that formal business and social discourse occur in the social distance phase. In the far distance (seven to twelve feet), the viewer may not feel it is socially permissible to ask the wearer about the contextual meaning of a given ring. It would be an interesting study to determine if a particular kind of ring engenders more irrepressible curiosity than others, or if it is more permissible to ask about certain kinds of rings than others. Formality of the interaction would be an influence, so too would the overall context of the situation. Newly engaged young women are likely to display a diamond engagement ring in a bridal boutique for dose examination by all salesclerks and other customers. They are not likely to act in the same manner with a potential employer at a job interview. Personal distance, defined as two and a half to four feet in the far phase, and one and a half to two and a half feet in the near phase, would predictably permit the exchange of contextual information about rings. Visually, the viewer is able to detect symbolic and written details on the chaton, and also on the shoulders of the rings. In the intimate distance, zero to six inches for the close phase, and six to eighteen inches in the far phase, the viewer is permitted access to all visual details of the ring, including interior inscriptions, if the ring is removed. This close proximity implies intimate communication, and therefore the contextual information regarding the ring is also known, defining the "personal meaning" of the ring. The public meanings of rings occurs at distances of seven to twelve feet and greater. The ring's meaning is derived from information which can be gleaned from the ring shape itself, without the benefit of knowledge of or communication with the wearer. As previously mentioned, recognition of a plain band implies the wearer has a significant relationship with another individual. Signet rings have been used since the pre-Christian era as a form of individual identification by pressing the objects into wax seals on documents. However, since the nineteenth century in the United States, signet rings have been used to identify Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 74 membership in a group. The form of the signet, its broad shoulders and wide chaton, enable the embossing or engraving of symbols commonly recognized by members of the given group. Therefore, nautical motifs are portrayed on Naval Academy class rings, stonemason implements on Masonic rings, or footballs on Super Sow! rings. Sp-. aiized symbols may identify various members more specifically. The degree of emblem specialization depends upon the values of the group. From year to year, Naval Academy class rings are quite similar. Since the 1920s the rings have shared a common chaton decoration, a stone surrounded by the words "United States Naval Academy” raised on the bezel. Since 1907, the academy's official seal has been portrayed on one shoulder of the ring. These features along with the portrayal of the American eagle identify the wearer with the larger group, the Naval Academy, as a national institution. The specialized design of the class crest and year of graduation, located on the shoulder opposite the Academy Seal, identifies the wearer to his particular graduating class. it has been shown that the use of varying numbers of diamonds or symbolic images of the Vince Lombardi trophy distinguishes the number of victories a football team has earned in the Super Bowl. Super Bowl rings also commonly dsplay a team's official logo which identifies specific teams. The Masonic fraternal rings do not display written information to the degree that class rings or sports rings have school or team names embossed on the bezel around the chaton. However, the Fraternity does utilize specific symbols to identify members of different lodges, members with different leadership positions, or member possessing different levels of degree attainment. In the decoration and form of these signet rings, it appears that aesthetic values are of secondary importance to the portrayal of symbolic emblems. Most of these rings are extremely large. The text included at the bottom of Figure 15 is worth noting: T h e sturdy, massive Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 75 boldness of these rings gives them a particularly fine masculine appearance.*7 The signet ring is worn predominantly by men. The traditions discussed in Chapter 2 explored the formation of the ring tradition in organized groups of mgn. Women do wear signet rings. One ring for women of the Eastern Star auxiliary fraternity is displayed in Figure 15, number 1544, and is much smaller than the other rings pictured. Recent Jostens and AitCarved class ring catalogues show a number of class ring designs for women that deviate from the traditional signet form (see Figure 40). More research needs to be done in this area, but it appears that for women wearing rings, aesthetic values are of greater importance than the portrayal of symbolic emblems. Engagement, friendship, and mourning rings evolved into decorative forms between the eighteenth century and the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. By the nineteenth century, most of these rings were intended primarily for women's wear. At this point I am not able to pursue gender issues of aesthetics beyond these speculations-men wearing symbol laden signets rings versus women preferring decorative rings-but these issues appear to indicate ground for future research. Another gender issue to consider is the reason why men developed different signet ring traditions in the nineteenth century. Reasons for the development of the tradition by the group in general was discussed for each of the previous sections on rings. But the importance of identity, the personal significance that an individual receives from being associated with a particular group or individual, is worthy of investigation. EersQnaLanfl-Social Identity TTirough Rings in social Identifications; A Social PsYd3Qtegy.QLIntergroup Relafons.and Group Processes (1988), Michael Hogg and Dominic Abrams define two aspects of self identity, or the 7Eagie Regalia Co., Anniversary Catalogue,p. 28. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 76 concept one has of one's self.8 Without going into a lengthy discussion of either, I offer a brief definition for each of their terms. The first, personal identity, is a description of oneself through one's individual attributes. The second, social identity, is a description of oneself through one's membership in different social groups. In an attempt to better understand the personal and public meanings of rings, these two definitions will be considered for the interpretation of rings. Among the many forms of descriptive attributes individuals use to describe themselves, two categories come to mind applicable to the interpretation of rings. One category is physical attributes, and therefore the contribution a ring makes to one's appearance. A brief survey of some quotes about the importance of appearance through dress and jewelry from the past one hundred fifty years suggests the significance a ring may play in one's physical identity and appearance. In Principles of Politeness (1800), Lord Chesterfield wrote a section on dress and appearance: Dress, as trifling as it may appear to a man of understanding, prepossesses on the first appearance, which is frequently decisive. And indeed, we may form some opinion of a man's sense and character from his dress. Any exceeding of the fashion, or any affectation in dress whatever, argues a weakness in understanding and nines times out of ten it will be found so.9 This quote may call to mind the opulent use of diamonds on the Super Bowl rings, and the implications of their "affectations." Almost forty years later, "A Gentleman'' remarked in The Laws of Etiquette or. Short rules and Reflections for Conduct in Society (1839): 8Michael A. Hogg and Dominic Abrams, Social Identifications: A Social Psychology of Interaroup Relations and Group Processes fNew Voik: Routledge, 1988), p. 25. 9Lord Chesterfield, Principles of Politeness (Philadelphia: Mathew Carey, 1800), p. 29. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 77 First impressions are apt to be permanent; it is therefore of importance that they should be favorable. The dress of an individual is that circumstance from which you first form your opinion of him. It is even more prominent than manner. It is indeed the only thing which is remarked in a casual encounter, or during the first interview. It, therefore, should be the first care.1** C.P. Huestis specifically comments on the appearance of rings in his chapter on "How a Man Should Dress" in The Art of Good Behavior 118481: "The est dressed men wear the least jewelry. Of all things avoid showy chains, large rings, and flas gewgaw pins and broaches."11 Over one hundred years later, Erving Goff man in The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1959) discussed why the dress, appearance and behavior of an individual are so significant to others and therefore should be considered important by oneself. Because it summarizes the overall ideas of this discussion, the following opening quote from Goffman's book is included in its entirety. When an individual enters the presence of others, they commonly seek to acquire information about him or to bring to play information about him already possessed. They will be interested in his general socio-economic status, his conception of self, his attitude toward them, his competence, his trustworthiness, etc. Although some of this information seems to be sought almost as an end in itself, there are usually quite practical reasons for acquiring it Information about the individual helps to define the situation, enabling others to know in advance what he will expect of them and what they may expect of him. Informed in these ways, the others will know how best to act in order to call forth a desired response from him. For those present, many sources of information become accessble, and many carriers (or "sign-vehicles") become available for conveying this information. If unacquainted with the individual, observers can glean dues from his conduct and appearance...12 The sign-vehicles may be rings. In the section on Masonic rings, I attempted to explain the significance of group membership and the identity of an individual. Here, Goff man indicates that 10A Gentleman, The Laws of Etiquette or. Short Rules and Reflections for Conduct in Society (Philadelphia; Carey, Lea and Blanchard, 1839), p. 52. 11 Huestis, Good Behavior, p. 15. 12=rvino Goff man. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Garden Citv. NY: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), p. 1. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 78 the way in which people behave tcwards each other is dependent upon the individual's projected identity, which may in part be indicated by the use of rings. Considered in conjunction with interpretation of Hall's dynamic space zones discussed earlier, the visual importance of rings to an individual's appearance will have a different impact at different distances. Rings are only one aspect of an individual's appearance, but their popularity in American culture, and therefore their importance as objects of personal decoration, cannot be overlooked. Individuals concerned with the impression their appearance makes on others consciously choose to wear or not to wear rings. Thus the ring becomes part of the individual's physical identity. The second aspect of personal identity attributes related to rings is significantly less tangible than physical appearance. This considers the manner in which rings physically document a significant event in an individual's life, such as marriage, a death, initiation into a fraternity, reception of a degree within that fraternity, graduation, or the winning of a Super Bowl game. The manner in which these events may effect an individual's identity or self-concept is too broad of a topic to be discussed here. But the fact that the majority of the rings discussed in the previous two chapters were inscribed with dates, that of a marriage ceremony, the death of a close friend, the reception of the Fourteenth or Thirty-third degree, the year of graduation, or the date of a sporting event certainly indicates the importance of the occasion. This significance may lie both in the mind of the individual giving the ring, and in the mind of the individual receiving the ring. The presence of the ring thus becomes a physical representation of an otherwise non-tangible occasion. It serves the individual as a reminder of the event's occurrence and importance. It may also serve to perpetuate the individual's personal values enhanced by a ceremony for the reception of the ring. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 79 An individual's social identity is also represented by the wearing of signet rings. Social identity was defined as the description of oneself through one's membership in different social groups. According to Hogg and Abrams: "Social identity [or membership within groups] is an important source of self-esteem."13 They explain: Groups have a profound impact on individuals' identity. That is, people's concepts of who they are, or what sort of people they are, and how they relate to others [whether members of the same group or members of other groups] is largely determined by the groups to which they feel they belong.14 In Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-cateoorization Theory (1987), John C. Turner describes the importance of group membership for the individual member's identity: They [each member] relate themselves subjectively [to other members] for social comparison, and the acquisition of norms and values... [of the group] that they privately accept membership in, and which influences their attitudes and behavior.15 Group membership, belonging to a fraternity, enrolling oneself in an academic institution, seeking and gaining employment in the realm of professional athletics, has an influence on the individual member's self-identity. Each group possesses specific values that the members, by wearing the group’s ring, choose to identify themselves with. In the same respect, wedding rings can identify their wearers to the larger group of married people, and the set of yalues commonly associated with that group of people.15 Mourning rings too associate their wearers with the broadly defined group of those in bereavement. In the nineteenth century this had strong implications for the activities of those in mourning. 13Hogg and Abrams, Social Identity, p. 74. 14m , p. 2. 15John C. Turner, Rediscovering the Social Group: A Satf-Cateqorization Theory (New York: Basil Blackwell, Inc., 1987), p. 1. 15Michael Kimmel, Professor of Sociology at the State University of New York at Stoneybrook, conversation with author, 16 November 1989. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 80 Conclusion Hairs dynamic distance zones indicate the limitations to which the information portrayed on a ring can be interpreted. Beyond the seven to twelve feet distance, the information conveyed by the ring’s symbolic design and shape is limited. However restricted though, rings serve as a form of verbal and nonverbal communication. In the American culture, two specific forms of rings communicate the wearer's personal and social identities. Plain band rings are recognized to represent a significant relationship between two individuals. Posy rings represent romantic attachment. The wedding band symbolizes the expression of the marriage vows. Early mourning rings in the form of a plain band may have served in the mind of the wearer to perpetuate the relationship with the deceased. Band form rings in the Masonic fraternity symbolize less a relationship between individuals than a commitment the member makes to living the ideals of the group and believing in a Supreme Being. The signet ring form serves as a vehicle for the display of symbolic emblems. Recognition of these emblems identifies the wearer with a particular group. Specialized symbols identify the wearer's specific identity to the group's members. Rings are also signif icant for the meanings they hold for the wearer. Each individual has his own "contextual background" for when, why and how he received a particular ring. The ring serves as a physical reminder of values, people and past events. Decorative ring forms do not fit within the defined categories. There exist a limited number of individuals who can interpret their significance. Most rings are decorative, serving as a means of wearing valuable metal, gems, or jewels. But some rings, in American culture, serve as a means of identity and communication. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. FIGURES Unless otherwise noted, the following figures are derived from photographs taken by the author. 81 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. / Figure 1 Signet Ring Designs, Josten’s 1989 College Ring Catalogue, p. 4 Courtesy, Josten's, Inc. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 83 Figure 2 Gold Wedding Ring, 1776 Engraved inside: PPM July27,1776 Stamped "ST" for Samuel Tingley of New York. Diameter 1" Width: 3/16" Yale University Art Gallery, 1954.33 The large diameter of this ring suggests that it was worn by a man. The ring shows extensive signs of wear. Early American wedding rings were commonly inscribed with initials or a name, and the date of the wedding. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Eigurg-3 Gold Gimmel Rings 1791,1795,1834 (Lower left) Inscribed with black enamel on one half: P.S. DUPONTDE NEMOURS and on other half FRANQOISE ROBIN V. POIVRE France, unknown maker, 1795. Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, 69.679 Pierre Samuel Ou Pont and Marie Frangoise Robin V. Poivre were married in France on September 26,1795. (Above) Inscribed on one half: Eleuthera Du Pont 1834 and on other half: Thos. Mackie Smith Septr. 18th. United States, unknown maker, 1834. Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, 65.524 Eleuthera Du Pont and Thomas Mackie Smith were married in the United States on September 18,1834. (Lower ringt) Inscribed on one half: SOPMADDALMAS and on the other half: ELE IRE DUPONT 26.9 BRE 1791 France, unknown maker, 1791. Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, 65.525 Sophie Madeline Dalmas and Eleuthere Irenee du Pont were married in France on November 26,1791. Each ring is approximately 3/4“ in diameter. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 4 Gold Posy Ring, ca 1785 Engraved inside: Love & Live Happy Stamped “BL" for Benjamin Lemaire of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Diameter: 3/4" Width: 1/16" Yale University Art Gallery, 1958.98.4 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 86 Figure 5 (Left) Gold Posy Ring, ca 1705-25 Engraved inside: Be. True. in. Heart. Stamped "ID" for John Dixweli of Massachusetts. Diameter 11/16" Width: 1/8" Yale University Art Gallery, 1947.193 (Right) Gold Mourning Ring, 1720 Engraved inside: I Dudley late govr. of NE Ob 2 Apr 1720 AE 73 Stamped "EW" for Edward Winslow of Massachusetts. Diameter 3/4" Width: 1/8" Yale University Art Gallery, 1935.245 The comparison of these two plain gold bands demonstrates their nearly identical appearance. Only the interior inscriptions differentiate the rings. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 6 Posy Ring, ca 1750-1800 Metal band with three faceted crystals, gold wire on red foil ground under center crystal. Engraved inside: Death only parts united hearts American, unknown maker. Diameter: 13/16" Width: 1/16" Yale University Art Gallery, 1936.171 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 88 Figure 7 (Left) Friendship Ring, ca 1780-1820 Gold, painted ivory, glass, hair. United States, unknown maker. Diameter (band): 3/4" Width (chaton): 5/8" Height (chaton): 15/16" Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, 81.130 This ring was originally a pin. L'AMFTIE (the friendship) is painted over the birds. (Right) Friendship Pin, ca 1785-1820 Gold, painted ivory, glass, blue and white enamel. United States, unknown maker. Width: 3/4" Height: 11/4" Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, 81.101 TO FRIENDSHIP is painted in the banner over the woman. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 8 Gold Mourning Ring, 1693 Engraved inside: lames LLoyd. Obyt 21 Augt 1693 Stamped "ID" for Jeremiah Dummer of Boston, Massachusetts. Diameter: 3/4" Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, 72.60 This is one of the oldest known American mourning rings. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 90 Figure 9 Gold Mourning Ring, 1766 Engraved inside: Madm. Debh. Prince: ob 1 June 1766AE 67 Stamped "Z+B* for Zachariah Brigdon of Boston, Massachusetts. Diameter: 3/4" Width: 5/32" Yale University Art Gallery, 1935.246 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 91 Figure 10 Mourning Ring, 1745 Gold band with black enameling, painted image of skeleton beneath coffin shaped crystal. Inscribed in raised gold letters in black background in the five scrolls: Mercy/ Warren/OB: 17 /Jan. 1745.6/ AET 40. American, unknown maker. Diameter: 7/8" Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, 61.236 The large diameter of this ring suggests that it may have been worn by a man. It is unknown why the years 1745.6 are inscribed upon this ring. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 92 Figure 11 Gold Mourning Ring, 1740 Inscription: Bizh/Winslow/Ob. 16/Sep: 1740/AE 71 Diameter: 11/16" Width: 1/8" Yale University Art Gallery, 1939.673 This ring is attributed to silversmith Edward Winslow, the husband of Elizabeth, of Boston, Massachusetts. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 12 Mourning Rings, ca 1780 (Left)Gold ring with glass crystal covering an urn on a plinth (inscribed "Souvenir) made of hair, ivory and composite materials, on a plaited hair background. Engraved on underside of chaton: Mary Lepine / Ob. 1 Dec. /1 7 8 3 /AEt 30 American (?), unknown maker, 1783. Height (chaton): 1 1/4" Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, 81.124 (Center) Gold ring with white enamel band; faceted rhinestones surround a crystal over an um made of composite materials on a white background of ivory or pearl. Inscribed in raised gold letters in white background around outside of band: HENRYCOMRIN. LLOYD. OB:13. JULY. 1779. AE. 6Y American, unknown maker, 1779. Height (chaton): 13/16' Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, 72.68 White enamel was used to indicate the death of a child or unmarried young woman. (Right) Gold ring with crystal covering a painted scene of a woman in classical dress reaching to an um on a pedestal under a willow. Engraved foliage on the shoulders of the band. Engraved under chaton: Jane /Atkinson / Died 12 June /1 7 8 7 /Aged 89 / Years American (?), unknown maker, 1787. Height (chaton): 1 1/4“ Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, 81.125 The decorative motifs of these rings closely resemble those used in the friendship rings, illustrated in Figure 7. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 13 Mourning Rings, early nineteenth century (Left) Silver band with gold wash, and three rows of plaited hair. Engraved on outside tablet: LVB Engraved on the inside: ANB and SLIF American, unknown maker, 1819. Diameter: 13/16" Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, 72.72 The provenance of this ring indicates that Sarah Lloyd Foster, wife of Charles Chauncey Foster, died in September 1819. Charles Foster was the doctor of L.V. Borland, but it is unknown whether the external initials, LVB, indicate the death of Borland. The initials ANB are as yet unidentified. (Center) Gold ring with glass protecting plaited hair. Engraved on outside of band: Sarah Lloyd died Novr. 30th 1797. AE 62 Years Massachusetts, unknown maker, 1797. Height (chaton): 7/8" Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, 72.69 The band of this ring has two adjustable sizes. (Right) Gold ring with broad plaited band of hair. Engraved on tablet: JLB English, unknown maker, 1825. Diameter: 3/4" Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, 72.74 This ring, compared to 72.72 on the left, demonstrates the similarity between nineteenth-century English and American mourning rings. This particular ring was intended to commemorate the death of John Lindall Borland, a colonel in the British Army who died in London on November 16,1825. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 95 Figure 14 Mourning Ring, 1328 and Mourning Pin, 1834 Ring has gold band with split shoulders attached to chaton, faceted jet beads surround a glass crystal over plaited hair. Engraved under chaton: SMDP Nov. 27- 1828 Probably Philadelphia, unknown maker. Diameter: 11/16" Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, 59.568 Sophie Madeline du Pont, wife of Eleuthere Irenee du Pont, died on Novermber 27, 1828. Pin consists of fifteen graduated, faceted jet beads in a gold bezel surrounding plaited hair under glass. Engraved on back: EldP Probably Philadelphia, unknown maker. Diameter: 5/8" Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, 59.569 This pin was made after the death of Eleuthere irenee du Pont on October 31, 1834. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 96 EAGLE REGALIA COM P A_N Y FRATERNAL EMBLEM RINGS Ok S b *«H *n O k 3m d D eere*.' 14k W hite 'Gold Green mud Wh 11 e White Gold. White Gold I’letivdm . ..120.00 317.95 112.25 G"iaCombJ10.fH> Mmon M6«onleriok W h ite Gold Green and White 310.00 G*»M Comb $10.90 h % Matonfc. 10k .'•10k L»r. Odd Fellows. 10k W h ite Gold W h ite Gold 70k White Cold Green and W hite $9.3m IMft Gold ...... $9.25 OOdJKDoira.lok Eastern Star. lied Gold $5.72 tiiitciOaflk Green lumbtiar 10k l<»k Green gold niid White Odd Green and White $V40 Gold ....‘..SlO.v* „ s KDc. tflk S G re en Kagles. 10k and W h ite Gold :.nd ‘Wh ite Gold «*»M“i&Wt 13.25 Wtilt** Gold $10.50 $10.5n $V23 R h st illustrated oa this page can be ordered in any desired quantity. Tbe sturdy, massive boldnot of these ring* gives them a particularly tine masculine appearance. All emblems are exquisitely enameled in rids brilliant colors. Emblems stand out in bigh bold relief. Any emblem desired can be mounted on any ring without any change in price. We make a large of emblem pins and lapel buttons for all fraternal organisations. Ej stim ate oq any quantity sent upon request. Efflure 15 Fraternal rings, Eagle Regalia Co., Twentieth Anniversary Catalogue 1923 , p. 28 Courtesy, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Printed Book and Periodical Collection TTie two upper left rings, design #1850 and #1902, are found in the collection of rings at the Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of Pennsylvania. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 97 Figure 16 Masonic Blue Lodge Ring, ca 1930 10k gold with blue enameling and diamond. American, unknown maker. Diameter: 1" Height (chaton): 3/4" Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of Pennsylvania, 12040 The "square, compasses and G" is the most common of the Masonic symbols. Portrayed on the visible shoulder is a trowel; portrayed on the other shoulder is a slipper. The ring belonged to Ernest S. Lamb of St Alban's Lodge, Pennsylvania. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 98 THE MASONIC FAMILY A >C* JA? v» GrandP o n t i f f C? 6 m t.,d S,lc«H«*Ur 11 VV — frttowviiifr •» Kni^hl ofthf Ro)« Croir ([y —— Dr I OTHER MASONIC ORDERS EASTERN STAR Shnnr-AAOrr M S DeMOLAY WHITE SHRINE Gfoilj-MovrCR. JOOS* DAUGHTERS AMARANTH KiJCiotl of Camlonlinr *<5J| O'Jti ol ‘ .MilniJ RAINOOW FOR GIRLS Figure 17 Progression of Masonic Orders The Scottish Rite Masonic order with thirty-three degrees is pictured on the left half of the circle. The York Rite Masonic order is piciured on the right. Courtesy, Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of Pennsylvania Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 99 Figure 18 Masonic Fourteenth Degree Ring, ca 1930 14k gold. Stamped inside: VIRTUS JUNXITMORS NON SEPARABIT American, unknown maker. Diameter: 3/4" Width: 5/6" Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of Pennsylvania, 13462 The ring belonged to Lee S. White of Braddock's Reid Lodge #510, Pennsylvania. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 19 Masonic Thirty-third Degree Ring, 1915 Gold. Engraved inside: HaroldN. Rust. Wilke-Barre, Pa. /Sept 21st., 1915 "Deus Meumque Jus." American, unknown maker. Diameter: 7/8" Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of Pennsylvania, 8660 This ring is worn on the Mason's fourth finger of his left hand. It is pictured with its guard ring, worn between the Thirty-third degree ring and a wedding band. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 101 Figure 20 Masonic Thirty-second Degree Ring, 1904 Gold, diamond, enamel. Engraved inside: George W. Lendenslager/San Fransisco. Cat. 1904 Presented by Kadosh / Phila eta. Const'y S.P.R.S. Bequeathed to Wm. G. Nebig. American, possibly Macoy Masonic Publishing and Supply Co., Inc., New York. Diameter: 15/16" Width: 3/8" Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of Pennsylvania, 8554 The eagle has a large diamond in its chest. On one shoulder is a Thirty-second degree symbol, a "32" in a triangle. On the other shoulder is a red enameled cross twined with a white rose on a green vine. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 102 Figure 21 Masonic Thirty-second Degree Ring, 1874 Gold, diamond, enamel. Engraved inside: Samuel Davis 32° / "Virtus junxit mors non separator Sept. 18, 1874. American, Macoy Publiching and Masonic Supply Co., Inc., New York. Diameter: 1" Width: 5/16" Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of Pennsylvania, 6654 The Latin inscription on this ring is associated with the Fourteenth degree. In addition to the symbols pictured, the band is set with symbols of the Malta Cross, a lion, a bull, a cross with a rose, a triangle with a diamond in its center, a cross, and a scale. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 103 Figure 22 Knight's Templar Commandery Ring, 1948 Gold, silver, diamonds, rubies, enamel. Engraved inside: Clara E. Casselbaerry/April27, 1948/PENNA. AUXILIARY#70 K.T. A.J. Schmitt, Watchmaker and Jeweler, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Height (chaton): 5/8- Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of Pennsylvania, 14389 This woman's ring was made for a member of the female auxiliary of the Knight's Templar. The silver crown is set with four diamonds, and the cross is set with five rubies. The ring is gold. Commandery shields are enameled on the shoulders. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 104 \T - Figure 23 Masonic Jewel, ca 1775-1790 Silver. William Orr, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Height: 2 1/8" Width: 1 3/4" Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, 56.38.20 The reverse is also engraved with symbols, and the maker's name, "William Orr." Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 24 Masonic Mourning Ring, nineteenth century Gold, jet or black tortoiseshell, white quartz (?). Engraved under chaton: Mother American, unknown maker. Diameter (ring): 3/4" Height (chaton): 13/16" Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of Pennsylvania, 3523 The unusual use of black in the chaton decoration of this ring, combined with the inscription "Mother" suggests that this ring was created for mourning use in the nineteenth century. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 106 1 1 5 NASSAU STREET, NEW Y OR K ~.«c: ;jr .SaI? ZZS-rf* ,* MK^lO.nO m e— 11.50 Onyx 237 [ liSr-’iS ¥ 2 3 9 rioic—^.30 . . . J10K—*<00 9>ia.00 " 5' { 1« K - j».00 240 ! IUC— o.ao 241 { U K — 7.00 ‘‘"si??*"' I 10K—31 i44241 if ItiC105v—38. - 0.50 Onyx Here are heavy. well proportioned rin** particularly appropriate where massive ria*s ire ucnrei. Any school insignia or letters can be inscribe! on these rin**. Can be muJe ud .n rrd. or *rwn geli. or isc^rAuutwo. of ,:,v t«o *,U. *.Thoa« " i“c Letters or numbers on shun** ate genuine hand carve 1 . Figure 25 Class Rings, Eagle Regalia Co., Twentieth Anniversary Catalogue 1923 , p. 19 Courtesy, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Printed Book and Penodical Collection Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 107 Figure 26 Naval Academy Class Ring, 1869 Gold, bloodstone. Above: Neptune with two tridents. Below: Eagle clutching an anchor. Black, Starr & Frost, New York. Height (chaton): 7/8" United States Naval Academy Museum Neptune was the symbol for the British Navy in the nineteenth century. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 27 Naval Academy Class Ring, 1907 Gold, bloodstone. Above: First use of official seal of Naval Academy, pictured over image of Neptune. Below: Class crest, eagle clutching a torpedo. Below the torpedo, '07 indicates year of graduation Gorham Manufacturing Co., Providence, Rhode Island. Diameter: 1" Height (chaton): 3/4" United States Naval Academy Museum Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 109 Figure 28 Naval Academy Class Ring, 1933 1936 brass replica of 1933 ring. Above: Official Naval Academy Seal with academy motto: "Ex tridens scientia.” Over this are eagle's wings and a ship or plane propeller. Below: 1933 Class crest with eagle, naval ship, naval sword, marine sword, initials U.S.N. A. J.E. Caldwell, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Height (chaton): 7/8" United States Naval Academy Museum Note the words United States Naval Academy raised on the bezel around the gemstone. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 110 Figure 29a Naval Academy Class Ring, 1914 (detail) Gold, onyx. Detail of shoulder with the official Naval Academy Seal; to the left, the campus chapel; to the right, the library clock tower; below, the Okanowa Lewchew bell. Bailey, Banks and Biddle, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Height (chaton): 7/8" Courtesy, United States Naval Academy Museum This ring was originally owned by Commander Louis H. McDonald, United States Navy (USN). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 111 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 29b Naval Academy Class Ring, 1914 (detail) Detail of shoulder with class crest: Eagle perched on binnacle (housing the ship's compass). Worn from the surface of the binnacle: “ '14." Courtesy, United States Naval Academy Museum Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 113 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 114 Dieges & Clust, Providence, Rhode Island. Gold, onyx. Masonic "square,symbol compasses, and G" encrusted into onyx. Courtesy, United States Naval Academy Museum This wasring owned originally by Lieutenant Charles A. Knochel, USN. Figure 30aFigure Naval Academy Class Ring, 1962 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 115 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 30b Naval Academy Class Ring, 1962 (detail) Detail of official Seal. Courtesy, United States Naval Academy Museum Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 117 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 118 Figure 30c Naval Academy Class Ring, 1962 (detail) Detail of class crest. Courtesy, United States Naval Academy Museum Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 119 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 120 1 Figure 31 Naval Academy Miniature Class Ring, 1946 Gold, diamond. Engraved inside: Elizabeth Jean Dempsey Bailey, Banks and Biddle, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Height (chaton): 1/2" United States Naval Academy Museum Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 121 1 1 5 .NASSAU STREET, NEW YORK. ■*2*- fn j. f u l l r o u n d m i n i a t u r e BALL CHARMS j & *#44:tJ S a s e b J i! Baseball Football Football 1102 1102 L 1103 1104 Silver 3 *.75 Silver $.!.•**> S ilv e r SjIv.t j.: gom • loM Fiii—i G»>M Filial 3.»m GcM Filt-d . l*'K t G o U 1.55 U K t 3.35 i-»Kt <;»m r».o*» i"Kt »;.'M ; U K t O -ld 3. *5 U K t G .*M U K t OoW 1 IK : G«.M * ¥ Basketball Te 1157 1106 1103 S 1108 S iliv r Sj.75 Sii\**r SiUvr 1-.T"* Silver 33.00 I Go!.I FiH rd «.•••» «lot.i Filial GoM Kill**.! g «»m F illed t“ K l G*»Ui i*'Kt X«»Kt G ..M I.V. t”Ki C..1.1 U K t G.-M U K t G..I.1 UKt G.»M 5.V, UKt G..M ♦; S occer Hockey B o w lin g 1109 1105 S ilv e r $«.•••» S ilv e r Silver 3 3 .ini GoM r-!!r.| 3.r» Odd Filled Gol«I F illed G..M Filled i**Kt g ..m M K t (So!.I :» MKt Ci.M l*»Kt G.'M :..10 l»Kt G..M S. 15 UKt GoUl »; U K t G..U! U K t G old »:.!»* z s s s & s s . Thc*e are the tinest ball charm* the market aftorJi at their price. Substantial, sturdy. heavywa Fiflurg-32 Athletic Watch Charms, Eagle Regalia Co., Twentieth Anniversary Catalogue, 1923, p. 53 Courtesy, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Printed Book and Periodical Collection Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 122 Figure 33 Super Bowl I Ring, 1967 10k gold, 1 carat diamond. Green Bay Packers, 1966 football season. Designer: Ken Westerlund, Josten's Inc., Owatonna, Minnesota. Courtesy, NFL Photos This is the first Super Bowl ring. The shoulder displays scores from the NFC Championship game and Super Bowl. Below that the NFL and AFL emblems are combined in a shield. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 123 r w A Figure 34 Super Bowl XXI Ring, 1987 18k white gold, 3/4 carat diamond, nine smaller diamonds, blue spinel. New York Giants, 1986 football season. Josten’s Inc., Owatonna, Minnesota. Courtesy, NFL Photos The ring depicts an image of the Vince Lombardi trophy with marquis cut diamond in place of a football, on a blue spinel background. The shoulder displays the head coach’s name: "Parcell's," below which is a football helmet with the Giants’ logo on it, and the player’s name (not visible). The other shoulder (not shown) displays the score of the Super Bowl, an image of Super Bowl XXI game emblem, an image of the Vince Lombadi trophy, and an image of the NFC Championship trophy. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 35 Super Bowl XIX Ring, 1985 Yellow gold, white gold (?), two marquis cut diamonds, thirty-four smaller diamonds. San Fransisco '49ers, 1984 football season. Josten's Inc., Owatonna, Minnesota. Courtesy, NFL Photos The two Vince Lombardi trophies are each engraved with the participating teams' names, NFL official logo, and scores of the first two Super Bowls won by the ’49ers (Super Bowl XVI was won in 1982, for the 1981 season). The footballs of each are set with a marquis cut diamond. Displayed on the shoulder is an image of the Golden Gate Bridge of San Fransisco. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 125 Figure 36 Super Bowl Xill Ring, 1979 Yellow gold, three 1/2 carat diamonds, thirty smaller diamonds. Pittsburgh Steelers, 1978 football season. Designer: Ken Westerlund, Josten's, Inc., Owatonna, Minnesota. Courtesy, NFL Photos The chaton displays the team’s logo, the three hypercycloids. Each is set with a 1/2 carat diamond. The shoulder has the year and score of the Super Bowl surrounding a Vince Lombardi trophy rising out of the Miami skyline (which includes the outline of the Orange Bowl Stadium, not visible here). The other shoulder (not shown) displays a helmet with the team logo, the player's name and jersey number. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 126 Figure 37 Super Sow! XIV Ring, 1980 Yellow gold, four 1/2 carat diamonds, onyx (?). Pittsburgh Steelers, 1979 football season. Designer: Ken Westerlund, Josten's Inc., Owatonna, Minnesota. Courtesy, NFL Photos The chaton is set with four diamonds representing the Steelers' four Super Bowl victories. The shoulder visible displays "Super Bowl XIV" and the game score. The other shoulder (not shown) displays a helmet with the team logo, the player's name and jersey number. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 127 Figure 38 Super Bowl XV Ring, 1981 White gold, two 3/4 carat diamonds, thirty-three 5 point diamonds. Oakland Raiders, 1980 football season. Lenox Awards, Inc., Charles, Illinois. Courtesy, NFL Photos The two 3/4 carat diamonds represent the Raiders’ two Super Bowl victories (Super Bowl XI was won in 1977, for the 1976 season). They are surrounded by nineteen diamonds, in the shape of a football, representing the games played in the 1980 season. The four comer diamonds represent victories in the 1980 post season games. The fwe diamonds along each side of the chaton represent the Raiders' participation in ten years of play-off games. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 128 Figure 39 Super Bowl V Ring, 1971 10k yellow gold, white gold, 1 carat diamond, seven sapphires, six smaller diamonds, blue spinel. Baltimore Colts, 1970 football season. Designer: Ken Westerlund, Josten’s Inc., Owatonna, Minnesota Courtesy, NFL Photos The Baltimore Colts' team logo, the horseshoe, is portrayed in white gold, and set with alternating sapphires and diamonds in a blue spinel background. A one carat diamond is set in the center of the horseshoe. The shoulder displays the Vince Lombardi trophy engraved with the participating team names, score of the Super Bowl, and the official NFL logo. The other shoulder (not shown) displays a helmet with the team logo, the player's name: team position., and jersey number. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SIENNA ' 4—3ft.Stones.i 12 Pis. load Wt SENNA Shamrock Spinel Btrthsfeaes CHRISTINA CHRISTINA 2—5 Pi Stones 2—3 ft. Stones BPlsTbUlWt Figure 40 Contemporary Class Ring Designs for Women, Josten’s 1989 College Rina Catalogue, p. 18 Courtesy, Josten's Inc. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. BIBLIOGRAPHY Adams, John S., ed. The Wedding Rina. Boston: J. Buffum, [ca. 1850]. Beinicke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University, New Haven, CT. The Ahiman Rezon or Book of the Constitution of the Rioht Worshipful Grand Lodge of the Most Ancient and Honorable Fraternity of Free and Accepted Masons of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: Grand Lodge F. & A.M. of Pennsylvania, 1989. Anderson, Dave. The Story of Football. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1985. Berger, Peter L., and Hansfried Kellner. Sociology Reinterpreted: An Essav on Method and Vocation. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1981. Boynton, Brevet-Major Edward C. History of West Point and its Military Importance Purina the American Revolution and the Origin and Progress of the United States Military Academy. New York: D. Van Nostrand, 1871. Buhler, Kathryn C., and Graham Hood. American Silver: Garvan and Other Collections in the Yale University Art Gallery, vols. 1 and 2. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1970. Buiy, Shirley. Jewellery Gallery Summary Catalogue. London: Victoria and Albert Museum, 1982. . An Introduction to Sentimental Jewellery. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1985. Calhoun, Donald W. Sport. Culture and Personality. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc., 1987. Campbell, Mark. The Art of Hair Work: Hair Braidino and Jewelry of Sentiment with Catalog of Hair Jewelry. 1875. Reprint, Berkeley, CA: Lacis Publications, 1989. Carnes, Mark C. Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989. Carpenter, William A. The Exemplar: A Guide to a Mason’s Actions. Philadelphia: Grand Lodge F. & A.M. of Pennsylvania, 1985. Champlin, Joseph M. Together for Life: A Preparation for Marriage and the Ceremony. Notre Dame: Ave Maria Press, [ca. 1970]. "The Changing School Ring Market” Jewelers' Circular-Kevstone. November 1984,102-110. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 131 Madame de Chatelain. Bridal Etiquette: A Sensible Guide to the Etiquette and Observances of the Marriage Ceremonies. New York: Dick & Fitzgerald, [ca. 1870]. Printed Book and Periodical Collection, Heniy Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE. Lord Chesterfield. Principles of Politeness. Philadelphia: Mathew Carey, 1800. Printed Book and Periodical Collection, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE. Clutton, Cecil, and George Daniels. Watches: A Complete History of the Technical and Decorative Development of the Watch. London: Sotheby Parke Bemet Publications, 1979. Coffin, Margaret M. Death in Earlv America: The History and Folklore of Customs and Superstitions of Early Medicine. Funerals. Burials, and Moumino. New York: Thomas Nelson Inc., 1976. Coil, Henry Wilson. Coirs Masonic Encyclopedia. New York: Macoy Publishing and Masonic Supply Company, Inc., 1961. Crompton, William. A Wedding Ring. London: Eliz Allde for Adward Blount, 1632. Beinicke Rare Book and Manuscript library, Yale University, New Haven, CT. Cropper, A.E. "Some Notes on Three Classes or Types of Rings." The Connoisseur. Vol. 19, 1907. Davey, Richard. A History of Mourning. London: McCorquodaie and Co., Ltd., [ca. 1890]. Day, Robert. "Posy Rinas." The Journal of the Roval Historical and Arehaetooical Association of Ireland. Vol. VI, No. 54. April 1883,61*64. Demorest Monthly Magazine. January - December 1865. Printed Book and Periodical Collection, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE. DeWeese, Lieutenant Wade. "The Ninetieth Anniversary Class Ring Collection." United States Naval Institute Proceedings. Vol. 62, no. 4, whole no. 398, April 1936,514-519. DuPont Genealogy Committee. Genealogy of the DuPont Family. Wilmington, Delaware: DuPont Genealogy Committee, 1974. Winterthur Archives, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE. Edwards, Charles. The History and Poetry of Finger Rings. New York: Redfteld, 1855. Evans, Joan. English Poesies and Posy Rings. London: Oxford University Press, 1931. Fales, Martha Gandy. "The Early American Way of Death." Essex Institute. April 1964,75-84. Fowler, Lydia N. Marriage: Its History and Ceremonies: with a Phrenological and Physiological Exposition of the Functions and Qualifications for Happy Marriages. New York: Fowlers and Wells, 1848. Printed Book and Periodical Collection, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 132 Fowler, O.S. Creative and Sexual Science, or Manhood. Womanhood and Their Mutual Interrelations: Love, its Laws. Power. Etc: Selection or Mutual Adaptation: Courtship. Married Life, and Perfect Children, etc. Philadelphia: The National Publishing Company, 1875. Franco, Barbara. Fraternally Yours: A Decade of Collecting, exhibition catalogue. Lexington, MA: Scottish Rite Masonic Museum of Our National Heritage, 1986. A Gentleman. The Laws of Etiquette or. Short Rules and Reflections for Conduct in Society. Philadelphia: Carey, Lea and Blanchard, 1839. Printed Book and Periodical Collection, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE. Gilligan, Carol. In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982. Goffman, Erving. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959. Green, Harvey. The Light of the Home: An Intimate View of the Lives of Women in Victorian America. New York: Pantheon Books, 1983. . Fit for America: Health. Frtness. Sport and American Society. New York: Pantheon Books, 1986. Guttmann, Allen. From Ritual to Record: The Nature of Modem Soorts. New York: Columbia University Press. 1978. Hall, Edward T. The Hidden Dimension. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1969. Hall, Florence Have. Social Customs. Boston: Estes and Lauriat, 1887. Printed Book and Periodical Collection, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE. Hogg, Michael A , and Dominic Abrams. Social Identifications: A Social Psychology of interoroup Relations and Group Processes. New York: Routledge, 1988. Home, Alex. Sources of Masonic Symbolism. Fulton, Missouri: The Missouri Lodge of Research, 1981. How to Woo and How to Win: Containing Rules for the Etiquette of Courtship: with Directions Showing How to Win the Favor of the Ladies: How to Beoin and End a Courtship: and How Love Letters Should be Written. New York: Dick & Fitzgerald, [ca. 1870]. Printed Book and Periodical Collection, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE. Huestis, C.P. The Art of Good Behavior, and Letter Writer on Love. Courtship and Marriaoe. New York: C.P. Huestis, 1848. Printed Book and Periodical Collection, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE. Huss, Wayne A. The Master Builders: A History of the Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of Pennsylvania. 3 vols. Philadelphia: Grand Lodge F. & A M . of Pennsylvania, 1986-88. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 133 Madame Johnson. Madame Johnson’s Present or. the best Instructions for Youno Women in Useful and Universal Knowledge with a summary of the late marriage Act. London: M. Cooper, 1754. Printed Book and Periodical Collection, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE. Jones, Bernard E. Freemasons' Guide and Compendium. Toronto: George G. Harrap and Company, Ltd., 1965. Jones, William. Finger-Ring Lore: Historical. Legendary. Anecdotal. London: Chatto and Windus, 1877. Kunz, George Frederick. Rings for the Finger. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1917. Levi, Karen, ed. The Power of Love: Six Centuries of Diamond Betrothal Rinas, exhibition catalogue. London: The Diamond Information Center, 1988. Luckv Bao 1987. United States Naval Academy, United States Naval Academy Museum, Annapolis, MD. Mackey, Albert G. An Encyclopedia of Freemasonry and its Kindred Sciences. New York: The Masonic History Company, 1925. Madden, Bill. T h e 'Ring': Baseball's Coveted Jewel.” Art Burke, ed. 1978 World Series Official Program, n.p.: Cardinai Publishing Co., 1978,5-7,65. Maskell, Joseph. The Wedding Rina: Its History. Literature, and the Superstitions Respecting it. a Lecture delivered in various places. London: William Freeman, 1868. Beinicke Rare Book and Manuscript Ubrary, Yale University, New Haven, CT. Mauss, Marcel. The Gift: Forms and Functions of Exchange in Archaic Societies. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1954. McCaffrey, Connie, ed. Josten’s Today. Vol. 13, no. 2, August 1987. McCarthy, James Remington. Rings Through the Ages - An Informal History. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1945. McKinstry, E. Richard. Trade Catalogues at Winterthur A Guide to the Literature of Merchandising 1750 -1980. New York: Garland Publishing Inc., 1984. Meserole, Mike, ed. The 1990 Information Please Soorts Almanac. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1989. "Mourning Glory" ■ An Exhibition on Nineteenth Century Customs and Attitudes Towards Death and Dving. exhibition catalogue, introduction by Mary Durham-Johnson. Wilmington, DE: Eleutherian Mins Research and Reference Department, n.d. Museum of F in e Arts. Houston. Marks of Achievement - Four Centuries of American Presentation Sliver. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1987. Newman, Harold. An Illustrated Dictionary of Jewelry. London: Thames and Hudson, 1981. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 134 The Official National Football League 1987 Record and Fact Book. New York: Workman Publishing Co., 1987. Oman, Charles. British Rinos 800 -1 9 1 4 . London: B.T. Batsford, Ltd., 1974. Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1933. Panofsky, Erwin. Tomb Sculpture: Its Chanoino Aspects from Ancient Egypt to Bernini. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1964. Pike, Martha V., and Janice Gray Armstrong. A Time to Mourn: Expressions of Grief in Nineteenth Century America, exhibition catalogue. Stoney Brook, NY: The Museum at Stoney Brook, 1980. Rainwater, Dorothy T. American Jewelry Manufacturers. West Chester, PA: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 1988. Romaine, Lawrence B. A Guide to American Trade Catalogues 1744 -1900. New York: R.R. Bowker Company, 1960. Schorsch, Anita. Mourning Becomes America: Mourning Art in the New Nation, exhibition catalogue. Clinton, NJ: The Main Street Press, 1976. Scottish Rite Masonic Museum of Our National Heritage. Masonic Symbols in American Decorative Arts, exhibition catalogue. Lexington, Mass.: Scottish Rite Masonic Museum and Library, inc., 1976. Secret of Success in Love. Courtship and Marriage, showing also How to Obtain and Retain Health and Wealth. Newark, NJ: Union Publishing Co., 1887. Printed Book and Periodical Collection, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE. Sewall, Samuel. "Excerpts from the Diary of Samuei Sewaii.” George McMichael, ed. Anthology of American Literature, vol. 1. New York: Macmillon Publishing Co., 1985,188-198. The Sovereign Grand Commander of the Supreme Council. Liturgy of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry for the Southern Jurisdiction of the United States, vols. 1*4. New York: Robert Macoy, 1878. Stmnard, David E. The Puritan Wav of Death: A Study in Religion. Culture and Social Change. New York: Oxford University Press, 1977. Turner, John C. Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-Cateoorization Theory. New York: Basil Blackwell, Inc.* 1987. Walowitz, Hedda. "Class Rings Build Future Sales.” Jewelers* Circular-Kevstone. April 1988, 122-124. Ward, Anne, John Cherry, Charlotte Gere, and Barbara Cartridge. Rinos Through the Ages. New York: RtzzoD, 1981. Ward, Edward. Female Policy Detected or the Arts of a Designing Woman Laid Ooen. New York: Glasgow, 1792. Printed Book and Periodical Collection, Henry Francis chi Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 135 Zucker, Benjamin. Gems and Jewels: A Connoisseurs Guide. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1984. Trade Catalogues. Newspaper Articles, and Unpublished Manuscripts ArtCarved Class Rings Order Catalogue. ArtCarved College Rings Division. Austin, TX, 1988. Possession of author. Auld & Co., D.L. Catalogue for 1908. Columbus, OH, 1908. Printed Book and Periodical Collection, Winterthur Library, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE. Bailey, Banks and Biddle Co. Bailev. Banks and Biddle Co. Philadelphia, PA, 1897. Printed Book and Periodical Collection, Winterthur Library, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE. Berry, Jack. "A man's best friend: Oh, how the players covet Super Bowl diamond rings." The Detriot News. January 1982. Super Bowl Rings folder, library, Pro Football Hall of Fame, Canton, OH. Boyajian, William, Gemologicai Institute of America, New York. "Marketplace reality”. Talk given at the "Romance of the Stone” symposium sponsored by the Jewelry Design Resource of the Fashion Institute of Technology, New York City, NY. 29 October 1989. "A Championship Ring.” 1981. Super Bowl Rings folder, library, Pro Football Hall of Fame, Canton, OH. Eagle Regalia Co. Twentieth Anniversary Catalogue - Rings. Pins. Medals. Tophies. Pennants. Banners. New York, 1923 Printed Book and Periodical Collection, Winterthur Library, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE. Feeley, W.J. Cataiocua of the W.J. Feeiev Co.. Jewelers and Silversmiths. Providence. Rl, 1896. Printed Book and Periodical Collection, Winterthur Library, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE. Garfinkel, Susan. "The James Uoyd Funeral Ring." Winterthur Museum Registrar Office, File #72.60, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE, 1986. "Giants relive Super victory." Cleveland Plain Dealer. 23 May 1987. Super Bowl Rings folder, library, Pro Football Hall of Fame, Carton, OH. Girard, Jerold P., Department of Public Affairs, United States Coast Guard, New London, CT. Letters to author. 12 October and 8 November 1989. Horrigan, Joseph, Curator, Pro Football Hall of Fame, Canton, OH. Conversation with author. 6 October 1989. Irons, Charles F. Solid Gold Emblems. Pins and Charms for All Societies. Providence. Rl, 1892. Printed Book and Periodical Collection, Winterthur Library, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 136 Jostens America's College Rina Order Catalogue. Jostens College Division. Owatonna, MN, 1988 and 1989. Possession of author. Keller-Conner, Patricia J. "Workmanship, Form and Cultural Identity: The Black-Unicom Paint- Decorated Chests of Berks County, Pennsylvania." Master's thesis, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, 1984. Kimmel, Michael, Professor of Sociology at the State University of New York at Stoneybrook. Conversation with author. 16 November 1989. King, Pam. "Winning has a nice ring to it." LA Herald Examiner. 20 January 1985, sec. D, p. 1,7. Super Bowi Rings folder, library, Pro Football Hall of Fame, Canton, OH. Lange, Randy. "A prize of diamonds and gold." The Giants' Newsweeklv. June 1987. Super Bowl Rings folder, library, Pro Football Hall of Fame, Canton, OH. Macoy Publishing & Masonic Supply Co., Inc. Macov. Richmond, VA, 1983 and 1988. Possession of author. McAfee, Michael J., Curator of Uniforms and Military History at the United States Military Academy Museum, West Point, New York. Letter to William W. Jeffries, United States Naval Academy Museum, Annapolis, MD. 12 January 1978. Mizell, Hubert. "Super Bowl Rings: Symbols of Victory." 1984. Super Bowl Rings folder, library, Pro Football Hall of Fame, Canton, OH. Olson, Susanne M., Assistant Curator, Monticello, Charlottesville, Virginia Letter to author. 26 February 1990. Pugliese, Nick. "Champs let fingers do the talking.” The Tamoa Tribune. 20 January 1984, sec. K, p. 1,13. Super Bowl Rings folder, library, Pro Football Hall of Fame, Canton, OH. Redding & Co. Catalogue of Masonic Works and Outfits. New York, c a 1895. Printed Book and Periodical Collection, Winterthur Library, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE. Reed & Barton. Illustrated Catalogue and Price List. New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1877. Printed Book and Periodical Collection, Winterthur Library, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE. Reed & Barton Co. Illustrated Catalogue of Sterling Silver. New York, NY, ca. 1910. Printed Book and Periodical Collection, Winterthur Lforary, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE. Reinman, T.R. "They wear well, but, oh, the price one pays." The Tribune. 1987. Super Bowl Rings folder, Ibrary, Pro Football Hall of Fame, Canton, OH. Schoenfield, Ed. "Lord of the Rings: NFL sets limits for diamond wearers." The Tribune. 17 January 1985, sec. D, p. 10. Super Bowl Rings folder, library. Pro FootbaB Hall of Fame, Canton, OH. Standard Silverware Co. The Standard Silver Ware Co. Boston, MA, 1894. Printed Book and Periodical Collection, Winterthur Library, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 137 Steele, T. and Son. What Shall! Buv for a Present? Cambridge: H.O. Houghton and Co., 1877. Printed Book and Periodical Collection, Winterthur Library, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, OE. "Symbols of Victory." Suoer Bowl XIX Game Program. 20 January 1985. Super Bowl Rings folder, library, Pro Football Hall of Fame, Canton, OH. "Symbols of Victory: Super Bowl Rings, the Vince Lombordi Trophy." Super Bowl Program XV. 59-61. Super Bowl Rings folder, library, Pro Football Hall of Fame, Canton, OH. Tiffany & Co. Catalogue ot Tiffany & Co's Exhibit. World Columbian Exposition. Chicago, 1893. Printed Book and Periodical Collection, Winterthur Library, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE. Tiffany & Co. Blue Book. New Series 1913, Vol. XX. New York, NY, 1913. Printed Book and Periodical Collection, Winterthur Library, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE. Williams, S. S. Family Mourning Store, broadside. Boston: S.S. Williams, [ca. 1850]. Printed Book and Periodical Collection, Winterthur Library, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, DE. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.