Social Science Asia, Volume 5 Number 4, p: 59 - 69
IS SOCIAL MEDIA A REFORM ADVOCATE?: AN ANALYSIS USING THE RIGHTS-BASED APPROACH
Marizel M. Go*
Abstract
The world is becoming increasingly connected through the power of the Internet. The creation of websites was an innovative advancement in technology that has afforded information and communication technologies (ICTs) special recognition as a means to improve people’s lives. Such technology has brought to life what are known as social networking services. These services, better known as social media, are increasingly attracting the attention of both the public and academic researchers intrigued by their utilization and reach. On 26 August 2013, the Filipino people made history by using social media to organize the “Million People March”, a protest calling for the abolition of the pork barrel government system and for the prosecution of those that abused it. The “Occupy Wall Street” movement of 2011, known for non-violent protest of the growing income disparity and economic inequality attributed to Wall Street’s corporate executives, was organized on social media and carried out in New York City. In the same year, the democratic uprising known as the “Arab Spring” highlighted the effective use of social media to organize, communicate, and raise awareness of State attempts at repression and Internet censorship. An increasing number of studies are examining these phenomena, however comparative studies of the results of these events remains limited. In an attempt to fill this gap, this study focuses on the success and the outcomes of these movements that made use of social media. This paper will shed light on the role of social media in advocating for governmental reforms.
Keywords: Social Media, Reform, ICT, Inequality, Protest
* Marizel Go is an Assistant Professor in University of the Philippines Visayas. Her research interest includes: public administration and governance, citizen participation, information and communication technology, rights based approach, fiscal systems and political transformations.
Received: 08/04/2019; Revised: 17/04/2019; Accepted: 24/04/2019
Official Journal of National Research Council of Thailand in conjunction with 59 Journal of Politics and Governance
Social Science Asia, Volume 5 Number 4, p: 59 - 69
1. INTRODUCTION A similar event in 2011 known as the “Arab Spring” demonstrated the Social media is defined as computer- effective use of social media to organize, mediated tools that allow people to communicate, and raise awareness of State create, share, or exchange information, attempts at repression and Internet ideas, and pictures/ videos in virtual censorship. By the end of February 2012, communities and networks (Kaplan, 2010). government leaders had been forced from In this paper, the term “social networking power in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, sites” and “social media” will have the same and Yemen; civil uprisings had erupted in meaning and may be used interchangeably. Bahrain and Syria; major protests had broken out in Algeria, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, When Facebook, in partnership with Morocco, and Sudan; and minor protests six other companies (Samsung, Ericsson, had occurred in Mauritania, Oman, Saudi MediaTek, Opera Software, Nokia and Arabia, Djibouti, Western Sahara, Qualcomm), launched “Internet.org” even and Palestine. the most remote parts of society gained access to the World Wide Web. This While an increasing number of studies demonstrates how technology has evolved examine the phenomena of “Occupy Wall to connect people with each other much Street” and the “Arab Spring”, the number easier than it was to do so ten or twenty of studies comparing the results of these years ago. events remains limited. In an attempt to fill this gap, this study focuses on the What is social media capable of? successes and failures of movements that made use of social media. On 26 August 2013, the Filipino people made history through the use of 2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE social media to organize a protest that shook the government, called the “Million The main question this research People March”. The demands to abolish seeks to address is: what is the role of the pork barrel system and prosecute those social media in advocating reforms? This guilty of corruption were acted upon study will compare and contrast the almost immediately by the government. “Million People March” in the Philippines with “Occupy Wall Street” in New York Prior to that, the “Occupy Wall City. The study will use the lens of Street” movement of 2011, known for non- development administration, applying the violent protest of the growing income rights-based approach (RBA). The analysis disparity and economic inequality of this study will be guided by the attributed to Wall Street’s corporate indicators adopted from the UNDP’s executives in , was organized on social “Indicators for Human Rights Based media and carried out in New York City. Approaches to Development in UNDP However, this protest did not succeed. Programming: A Users’ Guide” (2006).
Official Journal of National Research Council of Thailand in conjunction with 60 Journal of Politics and Governance
Social Science Asia, Volume 5 Number 4, p: 59 - 69
This study takes readers on a journey time to stay in the encampment. They through the highlights of the two events, claimed to represent the 99 percent of the explaining how social media brought them population who are victims of the to life. It will include the works of Gitlin government’s failure to curb America’s (2012), and Clark (2012) to provide details corporate greed. The reforms demanded by of “Occupy Wall Street”. Additionally, the movement were: participatory society; secondary data in the form of reports on restoring the Glass-Steagall Act, a law the “Million People March” will be passed after the Great Depression in the utilized to develop the readers’ 1930s which prevented different financial understanding of the event. institutions from merging their services; taxing Wall Street transactions; and ending With the discussion of each event’s Federal and public funding of election principles, elements, and its evolution, this campaigns. The movement was inspired study adopts the RBA to Development by the Arab Spring protests that had framework. The author will examine the recently swept almost the entire North dynamics of the RBA, as well as the African region and led to the end of their results of the two events. authoritarian regimes.
3. LITERATURE REVIEW Sociologist Alex Vitale characterized
the Occupy movement as having a defiant 3.1 The Occupy Wall Street style of non-violence. Their defiance was Movement shown in exercising their right to occupy a Since men are not angels, then public place to peacefully assemble. The government is necessary to keep movement was led by radicals who are society from falling into lawlessness deeply analytical, anti-capitalist, and non- (James Madison, 1788). Todd Gitlin, in violent. They were seeking a world run not his book “Occupy Nation–The Roots, The by exclusive committees, but by Spirit, and the Promise of Occupy Wall assemblies of people. Unlike other protest Street”, examines the ideology and the movements, the Occupy movement did not future of the Occupy Movement, which have a visible organization that claimed has spawned similar non-violent primary responsibility for pushing these demonstrations worldwide. reforms. The participants and organizers
instead reiterated that their group drew On 17 September 2011 a number of strength from the leaderless coordination Americans gathered in Zuccotti Park, of their movement. They prefer a located in New York City’s Wall Street participatory, horizontal, working-group financial district, to begin their non-violent style of organization because for them, protest against the growing income vertical organization is representative of disparity and economic inequality attributed colonialism. However, Todd Gitlin further to Wall Street’s corporate executives. The stressed that even if the movement refused so-called “Occupiers”, catalyzed by the to designate a leader, leadership was not call to protest on social media, were necessarily absent altogether. mostly young and unemployed, as they were the ones that could allocate the most
Official Journal of National Research Council of Thailand in conjunction with 61 Journal of Politics and Governance
Social Science Asia, Volume 5 Number 4, p: 59 - 69
Gitlin further states that the main the relationship between these two factors. problem of leaderless coordination of the There is certainly a shift occurring from movement is that it rejects the formalities the earlier dominance of traditional media and informalities of accountability, which outlets to more modern media outlets, could lead to uncontrollably deviant including social media, though this is not behavior in some members. This could yet a complete transformation by any explain the riot amongst the protesters in means. Oakland and the harassment of women in Clark added that traditional media some of the encampments. sources were not the first to pick up on The author believes that the social movements, nor did they believe Occupiers and other supporters of the that Occupy Wall Street had the ability to movement will continue to communicate turn into the phenomenon that it did in their advocacy on social media and remain Zucotti Park, New York City between actively involved in discussions addressing September and November 2011. He issues on income inequality and corporate explains that the coverage of this social influence on government policies. The movement by traditional media newsrooms movement will retain its leaderless serves as a lesson on understanding the coordination because the core of the position that social media has taken in movement is based on equal access to modern information dissemination. freedom of expression, regardless of Furthermore, it would not make sense to position. It will continue to abstain from further distance traditional media from a electoral politics because Occupiers do not public sphere that is increasingly reliant on want their advocacy to be misused by social media platforms for the majority of politicians seeking to further their own their news. As social media platforms agenda. As pressure from this movement is continue to become more embedded in our ongoing, one of the demanded reforms that daily life, the ways in which they provide may be achieved is the re-establishment of coverage of our world, and the the Glass-Steagall Act, or a law similar to accompanying technology that caters to it. these platforms, will remain dominant. 3.2 Social Media and Social Social media can now be considered as Movement people’s primary media source. In his work on Occupy Wall Street, Eric Clark (2012) noted that social media 3.3 The Million People March can certainly be used as a catalyst for A protest movement similar to change and to influence public opinion in Occupy Wall Street happened in the the context of social movements. Today’s Philippines on 26 August 2013. It was prominent social media platforms, such as called the Million People March and was Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter, have the the first in a series of protests calling for ability to generate awareness and publicity the total abolition of the pork barrel fund. for causes and their messages. Clark’s This leaderless rally of indignation was focal point is on further analysis of the role also initiated by the call of one concerned that social media has inherited in the citizen on her Facebook page. Triggered world’s mediated societal movements and by public anger over a scam, the protest
Official Journal of National Research Council of Thailand in conjunction with 62 Journal of Politics and Governance
Social Science Asia, Volume 5 Number 4, p: 59 - 69
was organized at Luneta Park in Manila, as “What we need is a MILLION PEOPLE well as other cities nationwide and even MARCH by struggling Filipino taxpayers. overseas. Some media commentators A day of protest by the silent majority that considered this as “the first ever massive would demand all politicians and rally in the Philippines called and government officials (whatever the organized mostly through social media political stripes, color they may carry) to channels”. stop pocketing our taxes borne out from our hard work by means of these pork The Priority Development Assistance barrel scams and other creative criminal Fund (PDAF, popularly known as pork acts.” barrel) Scam, involving the alleged misuse of such funds by several members of Peachy Rallonza - Bretaña, an the Philippines Senate and Congress, was advertising executive and friend of the cause for protest. The issue sparked Rapadas, reposted it as a call to action with serious discussion threads that began the addition of a date and location: Luneta trending online. PDAF is a lump-sum Park, August 26 (National Heroes’ Day). discretionary fund granted to each member Ms. Rallonza-Bretaña, one of the of Congress for spending on priority coordinators, explained that there is no development projects of the Philippine main group that leads the protest and government. It is estimated that the described it as “snowballing at great Philippine government was defrauded of speed”. On the eve of the protests, people some ₱10 billion throughout the course of from various groups had already arrived the scam from 2003 to 2013. To carry out in Luneta Park. Although people were an anomaly of this magnitude, a network asked to dress in white, they were also of accomplices were involved including encouraged to wear any color they wanted legislators, national government agency to in an effort to reflect the protest's officials, local executives, and the private inclusive, non-partisan, and decentralized sector. The scam provoked public outrage nature. On the day of the protest itself, the demanding for the abolition of the PDAF. hashtags used by the coordinating group, The call to protest was facilitated through #Million People March and #Scrap Pork, social media, organized peacefully with were reportedly trending in first place in citizen participation, and eventually the Philippines, demonstrating widespread resulted in the abolition of PDAF. support for the cause through both online
and in-person participation. 3.4 How The Event Was Organized through Social Media? The protest directed clear demands A Facebook page entitled “Abolish at the government including the abolition Pork Barrel” was created by Arnold of the pork barrel system, accountability Pedrigal and Bernardo Bernardo of the for all misused funds, and the prosecution
“Power ng Pinoy” Facebook page inviting of those guilty of corruption. The leaderless participants to the protests (Presse, 2013). protest only lasted for a day but sparked a This call originated from Ito Rapadas’ series of demonstrations nationwide. The original Facebook status post about government acted almost immediately on protesting the pork barrel scam, stating:
Official Journal of National Research Council of Thailand in conjunction with 63 Journal of Politics and Governance
Social Science Asia, Volume 5 Number 4, p: 59 - 69
their demands, leading to the abolition of (1) Direct links to human rights: The the pork barrel fund. goal of RBA is to use human rights standards as the foundation for all 4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY development work in all sectors and in all phases of programming, from planning to 4.1 Theoretical Framework: The implementation, with the intention of Rights-Based Approach (RBA) to promoting human rights and human Development dignity for all. The rights-based approach (RBA) (2) Participation: RBA creates is a framework that equates development channels for the participation of a broad to the realization of all human rights for all spectrum of stakeholders, including poor (EQUITAS, 2014). It is based on and disadvantaged people, minorities, international human rights standards and indigenous peoples, women, children, and operationally directed to the promotion youth. RBA promotes active, meaningful, and protection of human rights. It views and continuous voluntary participation; development from a human and socio- further stressing that the development of economic focused perspective, prioritizing capacities for participation is an important the rights and dignity of the most result in itself. marginalized populations, aiming to (3) Accountability: RBA demands catalyze a fundamental shift in the power that duty-bearers be identified and held relationship between duty-bearers and accountable for the violation or neglect of rights - holders. The RBA further human rights. In this sense, one of the emphasizes that the process, not just the fundamental contributions of RBA is the result, matters. Assumed in this approach emphasis it places on challenging the is the fact that every human being is power imbalance between duty - bearers inherently a rights-holder who should and rights - holders. enjoy guaranteed, universal human rights. (4) Non-discrimination and equality: Through ratification of the different United RBA pays particular attention to non- Nations human rights treaties, States discrimination and equality for marginalized automatically assume the principal role of groups (which may include women, guaranteeing these rights (i.e. to respect, minorities, indigenous peoples, prisoners, protect, and fulfill), or, according to the and the poor). An RBA requires that the HRBA language, States become the question of who is marginalized be principal duty-bearers. There are also answered locally. From this perspective, other non-State entities, such as civil people are not seen as beneficiaries, but as society organizations, that have the rights-holders. obligation to respect, protect, and fulfill (5) Empowerment: RBA aims to the rights of people. give rights-holders the capacity and the power to claim their human rights and hold RBA upholds the following principles: duty-bearers accountable. (UNDP, 2005) direct links to human rights, participation, accountability, non-discrimination and The overall responsibility for equality, and empowerment. meeting human rights obligations rests with the State. This responsibility includes
Official Journal of National Research Council of Thailand in conjunction with 64 Journal of Politics and Governance
Social Science Asia, Volume 5 Number 4, p: 59 - 69
all State departments such as parliaments, 4.2 Indicators: The Lens of the ministries, local authorities, judges and RBA to Development justice authorities, police, and teachers. All There are three types of indicators of these State representatives are legal presented by the UNDP (2006). These are duty-bearers. rights in principle, rights in practice, and official statistics. Every rights-holder has the responsibility to respect the rights of (1) Human Rights in Principle, others. At the same time, a rights-holder is UNDP (2006) entitled to claim their rights and to hold In many ways, the indicators for the duty-bearer accountable. In this sense, human rights in principle are the simplest it can be said that every individual or forms of measurement since the sources of institution that has the power to affect the data are well known, publicly available, lives of rights–holders is a moral duty- relatively easy to code, and are, arguably, bearer – the greater the power, the larger the most objective. Indicators that measure the obligation to fulfill, especially in the human rights in principle are suitable for respect and protection of others’ human providing background information on the rights. Therefore, private companies, local formal commitments that countries have leaders, civil society organizations, made to the protection of human rights. international organizations, heads of This includes the policies and laws set by households, parents, and, in principle, the State’s governing body. every individual can be considered as (2) Human Rights in Practice, moral duty-bearers. It should be UNDP (2006) emphasized that the State as a legal duty- Human rights in practice are those bearer also has a duty to regulate the rights actually enjoyed and exercised by actions of moral duty-bearers – e.g. groups and individuals regardless of the parents, companies, etc. – to ensure formal commitment made by a government. that they are respecting human rights The increased awareness of human rights (Danish Institute of Human Rights, 2007). as a social issue, combined with organizations
dedicated to documenting human rights Human rights include both the violations, has led to a greater availability freedom of action and entitlement to of comprehensive information on States’ goods, services, institutions, and resources actual practices and the conditions under necessary for a life of dignity. Entitlements which individuals live. are implicit in human rights and better (3) Official Statistics, UNDP (2006) identified through the normative elements Official statistics are those that of each human right. Generally speaking, official agencies collect at national and normative elements include: availability, sub-national levels based on standardized physical accessibility, economic accessibility, (international or national) definitions and information accessibility, quality, safety, methodologies. In some cases, governments and cultural acceptability. It is important to collect information following standardized note that entitlements vary depending upon methodologies that are directly relevant for the normative content of the right. human rights assessments.
Official Journal of National Research Council of Thailand in conjunction with 65 Journal of Politics and Governance
Social Science Asia, Volume 5 Number 4, p: 59 - 69
Having outlined the foundations of From an RBA perspective, the duty- RBA above, this study will start with bearer failed to observe its obligation to analysis of the context by identifying respect, protect, and fulfill the rights of the which rights were violated and which rights-holders. When the duty-bearers, rights were exercised in the two events. those who have the greater power, fail to The identification of the rights-holders and perform their responsibility, the rights of duty - bearers will follow. Next is a the rights-holders will never be realized. discussion of the capacity of rights-holders Thus, development is not possible. When and duty-bearers utilizing the indicators the rights-holders cannot claim their rights, provided by the UNDP (2006). This will they won’t be able to perform their role in be followed by the conclusion. society. Occupy Wall Street argued that the State has been captured by the 5. RESULTS OF THE STUDY: THE economic elite, curbing the ability of the COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS duty-bearers to provide for the rights- holders. 5.1 Context Analysis While the motivations behind On the other hand, the Million Occupy Wall Street movement are People March made clear demands of the numerous, one that stands out is that government t- the abolition of the pork citizens had become fed up with social and barrel system, accountability for all economic inequality attributed to Wall misused funds, and the prosecution of Street’s corporate executives, and the those guilty of corruption. growing income disparity as a result. 5.1.2 Million People March: Which 5.1.1. Occupy Wall Street: Which rights were violated? rights were violated? The causes of the movement that The causes of the movement were were violations in themselves included the violations in themselves, including the rights to transparency and equal access to rights to social justice, non-discrimination, justice. equal protection of the law, participation in On the day of the protest there were government, an adequate standard of no violation of rights. Rather, people were living, freedom from hunger, and access to free to exercise their rights to freedom of public service. opinion and expression, and freedom of assembly. On the day of the protest basic human rights were also violated. Protesters Looking at this event from the RBA were dragged out of their locations as a perspective, the duty-bearer here also measure of dispersal employed by the failed to observe its obligation to respect, local police. The rights that were violated protect, and fulfill the rights of the rights- include, but are not limited to: liberty and holders. This also includes the failure to security of the person, freedom of opinion protect public funds from misuse by public and expression, and freedom of assembly. officials, further depriving the rights- holders of funds intended for public goods and services. Development by the people
Official Journal of National Research Council of Thailand in conjunction with 66 Journal of Politics and Governance
Social Science Asia, Volume 5 Number 4, p: 59 - 69
is then hampered as rights-holders cannot In the case of Occupy Wall Street, perform their role in society when public the duty-bearers, the government and the goods and services are not adequate. elites, are aware that they have the greater power. They have the greater obligation to 5.1.3 Identifying The Rights-Holders fulfill, respect, and protect the human And The Duty-Bearers rights of others. Additionally, they have The rights-holders in the Occupy the capacity to promote development by Wall Street and Million People March fulfilling their obligation. Yet they fail to movements are mostly the same, the do so as greed overcomes duty-bearers’ majority being middle class citizens. This commitments, further impacting the rights- is because they are the ones who pay the holders’ ability to participate in society. bulk of the taxes in order for the This causes social and economic inequality government to function in the fulfillment and income disparity to arise. of citizens’ human rights. In the Million People March, the The duty-bearers of the Occupy Wall duty-bearers are the government and the Street movement are the government and public officials. As they maintain the the corporate executives of Wall Street, greater power, they are under the while the duty-bearers of the Million obligation to fulfill, respect, and protect People March movement are the government the human rights of others. However, they and the public officials. failed to utilize public funds transparently and responsibly, instead giving way to 5.2 Capacity Analysis corruption. When the scandal was For both events, the rights-holders, publicized, rights-holders reacted with being mostly the middle class, are aware great dissatisfaction. of their rights, the laws, and relevant standards. They have the capacity to 6. CONCLUSION access information via social media in The two events, both lacking a order to organize and facilitate such designated leader, made use of social events. They also have the capacity to media to organize a protest on a grand advocate and mobilize for their rights. scale, yet resulting in different outcomes. These rights-holders consider themselves The Million People March, unlike Occupy greatly affected by the failure of duty- Wall Street, was a success in terms of bearers to perform their obligations achieving the demand to abolish the pork because they are vigilant of what is going barrel system, as the government on around them. Through the use of social responded almost immediately. On the media, rights-holders were able to have other hand, while the Occupy Wall Street conversations and debate online, leading to movement continues to spark hope among a phenomenal historical moment in the most cities in the United States (U.S.), the history of each of the two countries (USA government remains apathetic to the and the Philippines). It is in this context demands of the Occupy Wall Street that communication and organization were movement, leading to the continuation of immensely strengthened by social media rallies and protests. (Clark, 2012).
Official Journal of National Research Council of Thailand in conjunction with 67 Journal of Politics and Governance
Social Science Asia, Volume 5 Number 4, p: 59 - 69
Social media played an important information dissemination, communication, role in the communication and organization and organization of the event. of these events – in advocating for reform. The outcomes of the two events were In the modern context, social media dependent on two primary factors: 1) the has become a platform for people to vent responsiveness of the duty-bearers to the their frustrations to the public. It also rights of the rights-holders, and 2) whether provides insight to events occurring the duty-bearers believe in the principles of around the world, wherever access is the rights-based approach to development. available. The Occupy Wall Street and the Million People March movements, with similar origins, both made a historical REFERENCES mark on the history of the USA and the Clark, E. (2012). Social Movement and Philippines, respectively. Originating as a Social Media: A Qualitative Study call to action on social media, the of Occupy Wall Street. Retrieved movements were further solidified by the from http://www.divaportal.org/ number of messages, conversations, and smash/get/diva2:539573/FULLTE debates surrounding each topic. These XT01.p. online interactions led people to gather without a leader and demonstrate their Danish Institute for Human Rights. (2007). demands in the streets. Applying a Rights-Based Approach: An Inspirational Guide Mark Zuckerberg, the founder and for Civil Society. Retrieved from CEO of Facebook, stated that http://www.acfid.asn.au/aid- “…connectivity is a human right”. issues/files/applying-a-rights- Without social media, it is hard to say based-approach-2013-an- whether these movements would have inspirational-guide-for-civil- happened on the scale that they did. society. Technological advancement has allowed for information to become readily EQUITAS - International Centre for available via social media, further Human Rights Education. (2014). facilitating the speed at which events like Elements of a Human Rights- these can be actualized in such a short Based Approach. Retrieved from amount of time. http://www.ccic.ca/_files/en/what_ we _do/2014_02_hrba_final. Social media hastens people’s demands for the right to development by Gitlin, Todd (2012). Occupy Nation- The empowering the rights-holders. The Roots, The Spirit, and the Promise financial burden of coordinating a protest of Occupy Wall Street. (Harper is not as high as it would be utilizing Collins Epub Edition). Retrieved traditional methods of communication and from http://www.harpercollins. organization. This allows the rights- com/ 9780062200921/occupy- holders to focus their resources on their nation. demands and the event itself, rather than the
Official Journal of National Research Council of Thailand in conjunction with 68 Journal of Politics and Governance
Social Science Asia, Volume 5 Number 4, p: 59 - 69
Kaplan, A.M. & Haenlein, M. (2010). Newman, Kira. (n.d.). How Change.org Is Users of the world, unite! The Changing the World challenges and opportunities of [INTERVIEW]. TECHCocktail social media. Business San Francisco. Retrieved from Horizons, 53(1). Retrieved from http://tech.co/change-org-2014-03. http://openmediart.com/log/pics/sd article.pdf. Presse, Agence F. (2013). Facebook Protest Sparks Call for Major Maier, C., Laumer, S., Eckhardt, A., & Philippine Rally. ABS-CBN News. Weitzel, T. (2014). Giving too Retrieved from http://www.abs- much social support: Social cbnnews.com/focus/08/25/13/faceb overload on social networking ook-protest-sparks-call-major- sites. European Journal of philippine-rally. Information Systems (EJIS). Retrieved from UNDP. (2006). Indicators for Human http://www.palgrave- Rights Based Approaches to journals.com/ejis/journal/vaop/ncur Development in UNDP rent/ full/ejis20143a.html. Programming: A User’s Guide. Retrieved from http://gaportal.org/ sites/default/files/HRBA%20indica tors%20guide.pdf.
Official Journal of National Research Council of Thailand in conjunction with 69 Journal of Politics and Governance