UC Merced Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology

Title Fish Lake Valley in Great Basin Prehistory

Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2gz6b3jf

Journal Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology, 10(1)

ISSN 0191-3557

Author Rafferty, Kevin

Publication Date 1988-07-01

Peer reviewed

eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California Journal of Califomia and Great Basin Anthropology Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 88-99, (1988). Fish Lake Valley in Great Basin Prehistory

KEVIN RAFFERTY, Division of Anthropological Studies, Environmental Research Center, Univ. of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV 89154.

MJ ISH Lake Valley, situated in the western which provides the runoff for six permanent portion of the Great Basin (Fig. 1), is a streams that descend to the valley floor. region poorly known archaeologically, al­ Temperatures average 48.9° F. (9.4° C), though a fairly extensive ethnographic data with summer temperatures reaching 90-100° base is available (Steward 1933, 1938, 1941, F. (32-38° C), and winter temperatures often 1970). The paucity of archaeological detail below freezing (Eaken 1950; HaU 1982). became evident during several surveys in the Chiatovich Creek is the largest permanent valley, where 17 sites were recorded in a stream with the greatest annual runoff. Ad­ 240-acre area (Rafferty 1984a, 1984b). A ditional water resources include Fish Lake single cultural resource overview (Norwood Spring and Marsh in the eastern portion of et al. 1980) exists for comparative data, but the valley and a number of seeps and springs it is limited to the California portion of the in the nearby mountain ranges (Eaken 1950; valley. Site records and cultural resource Rush and Katzer 1973). management reports are on file at the Bu­ To an elevation of 6,500 ft. (981 m.), the reau of Land Management office in Tonopah, valley is dominated by a Desert Scrub or Nevada. Shadscale plant community (Billings 1951; This paper is an attempt to synthesize Lloyd and Mitchell 1973) consisting of big available data on the prehistory of Fish Lake sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), shadscale Valley in a coherent manner. The intent is (Artemisia confertifolia), rabbit brush (Chry- to create interest in an area containing sothamnus nauseosus), some salt grass (Dis- archaeological and ethnographic resources tichlis spicata), and rice grass (Oryzopsis that could yield valuable prehistoric settle­ hymenoides), the latter of which occurs in ment and subsistence data with potential for locally heavy stands. In the southern por­ comparison with those available in the tion of the valley, creosote bush (Larrea tri­ Owens Valley, to the west. dentata) and Joshua tree (Yucca brevifolia) are found; the latter was an important early NATURAL SETTING spring food resource (Steward 1938:64). Fish Lake Valley is typical of the basin- A Pinyon Woodland dominates elevations and-range province, consisting of a broad, between 6,500 and 9,500 feet (1,980-2,875 m.) deep, alluvial valley bordered on all sides by (Billings 1951; Lloyd and MitcheU 1973; HaU sharply rising, north-to-south-trending 1982). In addition to single-leaf pinyon mountain ranges (Fig. 2). This irregular (Pinus monophylla) and Utah juniper (Juni- crescent-shaped area is 45 miles (75 km.) perus osteosperma), big sagebrush forms a long and 1 to 5 miles (1.6-8.4 km.) wide large portion of this community. The muced (Eaken 1950). understory includes several exploitable food The valley receives less than five inches resources, including gooseberry (Ribes of rain a year. To the west, the White cereum), snowberry (Symphoricarpos parishii), Mountains receive nearly 10 inches of pre­ rice grass, wild rye (Efymus cinereus), cipitation in the form of rain and snow. wheatgrass (Agropyron smithii), squirreltail

[88] FISH LAKE VALLEY 89

Fig. 1. The Great Basin and Fish Lake Valley. 90 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Fig. 2. Sites referred to in the text. Fish Lake Valley and environs. (Sitanion hystrix), June grass (Koeleria food sources and limber pine nuts may also cristatd), and needlegrass (Stipa comata, S. have been used as food (Steward 1938:21-32). thurberiana) (cf. Steward 1938:21-32). Alpine Tundra dominates elevations Between 9,500 and 11,500 feet (2,895- above 11,500 feet (3,505 m.) to the summit 3,505 m.), the Subalpine Forest dominates of the White Mountains at 14,246 feet (4,342 (Lloyd and Mitchell 1973; Hall 1982). It is m.). This treeless area contains varieties of characterized by bristlecone pine (Pinus Ion- clover (Trifolium monoense), fleabane (Eri- gaeva) and Umber pine (Pinus flexilis). Other geron pygmaeus), buckwheat, squirreltail, and species include big sagebrush, Indian tea other grasses and forbs (Lloyd and MitcheU (Ephedra viridis), wild buckwheat (Eriogonum 1973). Steward (1938) believed this to be an ovalifolium), June grass, timberline bluegrass economicaUy unimportant area to the abori- (Poa mpicola), needlegrass, prickly phlox gind inhabitants except as a hunting area. (Leptodactylon pungens), and fleabane (Eri- Faunal species on the vaUey floor include geron clokeyi). Many of these plants were jackrabbits (Lepus califomicus), pocket go­ used by ethnographicaUy known peoples as phers (Thomomys spp.), and a variety of liz- nSH LAKE VALLEY 91 ards, snakes, and other reptUes. Pronghorn or 0.52%, of the Nevada portion of the val­ (Antilocapra americana) were traditionaUy ley has been inventoried in the last decade. hunted on the plains at the western base of The Nevada Department of Transporta­ the SUver Peak Range (Steward 1938). In tion has surveyed the rights-of-way for the woodlands, cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus three state highways (Brooks 1974; Bunch nuttalli), a variety of smaU rodents, avifau­ 1980; Bunch 1982) and a material pit (WaUof na, carnivores, Inyo mule deer (Odocoileus 1978). These studies resulted in the re­ hemionus inyoensis), and mountain sheep cording of 19 sites, most of which were iso­ (Ovis canadensis) were present. All were lated artifacts and smaU lithic scatters pursued in aboriginal times and Ukely were containing obsidian and chert. A survey of important components of prehistoric subsis­ an access route leading into the vaUey from tence systems (Steward 1938; HaU 1982). the Palmetto Mountains to the east resulted Additional important resources included in the recording of five lithic scatters, four obsidian, avaUable in the vaUey in the form isolated artifacts, one campsite, three rock- of smaU weathered nodules (Strong 1971). shelters, and one large petroglyph panel Andesite, basalt, vesicular basalt, and other (Bunch 1981). This road paraUels a major volcanics were also locaUy available due to prehistoric route through the mountains and the regional volcanic activity in recent geo­ provided access for the exploitation of logical times. This spectrum of avaUable resources there (Steward 1938). resources combined to make Fish Lake Val­ In the last decade, the Bureau of Land ley attractive to prehistoric populations. Management, Las Vegas District, conducted 18 surveys in the vaUey; aU were connected PREVIOUS RESEARCH with various land actions (Foley 1974; Wirtz Little formal archaeological research has 1975; Hatoff 1976; SaUani 1977, 1978; Lieb- been conducted in the study area. The re­ hauser 1979, 1981a, 1981b, 1981c; Rafferty sults of the overview (Norwood et al. 1980) 1980a, 1980b, 1981a, 1981b, 1981c, 1981d, were based on sample surveys that included 1982; Jamrog 1981; ChUdress and Rafferty the southern portion of the vaUey but not 1983). Twelve sites, including a large lithic the northern (Nevada) portion. The sites scatter containing Pinto and Rose Spring recorded in the sample survey were not de­ series projectUe points (Hatoff 1976) and a fined by type or area so it cannot be deter­ rockshelter in the SUver Peak Range (Raf­ mined how many sites are known in the ferty 1980b), were recorded. Isolated arti­ southern part of Fish Lake VaUey. Thus, facts, two smaU lithic scatters, a grinding those data are of little utiUty in the present stone locus, a roasting ring, a rock ring/ work. Uthic scatter association, a "fire pit" with The majority of the work conducted in associated prehistoric and historic artifacts, the vaUey consists of cultural resource sur­ and historic ranch buUdings were recorded veys conducted by the Bureau of Land Man­ during other surveys (MUler 1981; Reno agement or executed by other organizations 1983a, 1983b). satisfying environmental impact study re­ Academic research in the vaUey has been quirements. These agencies include the Ne­ conducted at only two sites, both located on vada Department of Transportation, the Des­ large washes in the northern part of the ert Research Institute, and the Division of vaUey. Both Steward (1929) and Heizer and Anthropological Studies of the University of Baumhoff (1962) recorded petroglyph panels, Nevada, Las Vegas. A total of 3,228 acres. bedrock mortars, and lithics at 26ES114, and 92 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

a vUlage at 26ES393 (Fig. 2). diagnostic artifacts for this period are Pinto The research that prompted this paper and Elko series projectUe points. Pinto was the survey of four areas of potential points have a general use span of approxi­ agricultural land that was to be sold by the mately 3000 B.C. to 700 B.C. (5,000-2,700 Bureau of Land Management (Rafferty 1984a, B.P.) (Heizer and Hester 1978). The dating 1984b). Seventeen sites, mostly isolates or of the Elko series is subject to debate, loci of fire-cracked rock, were recorded. however. Both Bettinger and Taylor (1974) One exception was a possible campsite, and Thomas (1981) estimated that the series 26ES715, 16.5 acres in size, located on the dated between 1300 B.C. and A.D. 600, whUe southern terrace of Chiatovich Creek. Chert Heizer and Hester (1978) accepted a range of and obsidian artifacts, including at least one 2000 B.C. to A.D. 1080 (4,000-870 B.P.). Eastgate projectUe point, were noted at the Aikens (1970) reported dates ranging be­ site (Rafferty 1984a). This may be an eth- tween 6400 B.C. and A.D. 1350 (8,400-600 nohistoric site recorded by Steward (1938). B.P.) from Hogup Cave, Utah, which greatly A total of 45 sites have been recorded in confuses the issue. These data may suggest the study area, but no excavations and no that the Elko series had an early origin in systematic survey programs have been con­ the eastern Great Basin, and thus makes the ducted in the vaUey. Because it is adjacent Elko series useless as time markers. to Owens VaUey, and has a good ethno­ Two sites in Fish Lake VaUey can be graphic baseline data set, Fish Lake VaUey assigned to this period based on the artifact is a potential source of synchronic and dia- data. An isolated Elko point was recorded chronic data concerning settlement and sub­ in the vaUey by the Nevada Department of sistence patterns and cultural processes in Transportation (Bunch 1982). The second the western Great Basin. This paper is an site, 26ES301 (Fig. 2) is a large (20+ acres) attempt to organize the existing data into a low-density Uthic scatter in a dune field rough chronological and cultural framework, south of Chiatovich Creek. Hatoff (1976) a necessary step for further research. noted that the site is in an area where rab­ bits and grasses could be obtained. Fish CULTURE HISTORY Lake marsh is only a few mUes to the east A simplified chronology has been adapted of 26ES301 and would have provided a wide from Hall (1982), which was a synthesis of spectrum of resources in the past. Elston research conducted in the Owens VaUey and (1982) saw this period in the western Great other areas adjacent to Fish Lake VaUey. Basin as a time of increased winter rainfaU, This is a tentative construct that wiU a drop in annual temperatures, and an over- probably be greatly modified with the incor­ aU improvement in resource abundance. poration of new data from the study area. Mountain sheep may have been more abun­ Despite paleoclimatic evidence that a dant in the western Great Basin (Pippin Pleistocene lake may have existed in the 1979) and the increased precipitation may vaUey as late as 12,000 B.P. (Mehringer 1977; have resulted in increased runoff in the Norwood et al. 1980) there is no known evi­ local creeks and in the size of the marsh in dence of a Paleoindian occupation in Fish the vaUey. Lake VaUey. The first confirmed evidence Possible use of the pinyon-juniper wood­ of human occupation of the vaUey dates to land in the region is suggested by the pres­ the Middle and Late Archaic period (ca. ence of two sites in the Pabnetto Mountains 5,000-1,400 B.P.). The generaUy accepted (Bunch 198il) that contained Humboldt points FISH LAKE VALLEY 93 that may be coeval in time with the Pinto him to propose a shift in use of alpine areas varieties (Heizer and Hester 1978). One site after A.D. 1000. Prior to that time, alpine yielded a single projectUe point whUe the zones were used primarUy for the procure­ other was a smaU Uthic scatter where spe­ ment of bighorn sheep, as indicated by cialized resource procurement activities could hunting loci, blinds, and other remains as­ be pursued. Deer and pine nuts could have sociated with an early hunting complex. been exploited in these mountains. Evidence Alta Toquima represents a shift to more in­ from elsewhere in the western Great Basin tensive exploitation of floral resources in indicates that pinyon-juniper woodlands were alpine zones, at least in the central Great exploited at this time (Elston 1982; HaU Basin. 1982). Bettinger (1976) originaUy suggested Thomas (1982) noted that Steward re­ that this did not occur in the Owens VaUey corded the presence of house ruins and untU after 1,400 B.P., a contention that has stone rings in the White Mountains between been supported by data from elsewhere in 10,000 feet (3,050 m.) and 13,000 feet (3,960 the region (Pippin 1980). However, Bettinger m.) in elevation (Steward 1941:233, 334-335). (Bettinger and Raven 1986) has recently Bettinger (1985) has conducted research in stated that this pattern may have actuaUy the areas of the White Mountains discussed originated earUer (ca. A.D. 1) and became by Steward and has recorded ten viUages archaeologicaUy conspicuous at a later time. simUar to Alta Toquima. One of these has Elston (1982) believed that a change in been intensively excavated, test excavations the regional settlement/subsistence patterns have been conducted at other of these sites, in the early phase of the Late Prehistoric and surface coUections of artifacts were Period (1,400-700 B.P.) was partly a result of conducted at these sites. Lichen dating of technological change and partly a result of these sites places the majority of them be­ environmental changes. The bow and arrow tween A.D. 1275 and A.D. 1585, aUbough apparently replaced the atlatl at this time, there are some dates from some sites that as indicated by the use of smaUer Rose are earUer and later in time than this span. Spring and Eastgate points in the region. These data may represent a pattern shift in Additional technological changes include the the Owens Valley region simUar to that in use of the mortar and huUer, emphasis on central Nevada. An important topic for fu­ the production of bifaces, and the increased ture research in the Fish Lake Valley region use of simple flake tools. Elston (1982) would be to continue to search high altitude attributed this change to an increase in the areas on the east slope of the White Moun­ intensity and diversity of exploited ecozones tains for additional manifestations simUar to and resources with a concurrent decrease in those already reported. The occurrence of big game hunting. This change cannot be such sites in alpine settings and dating after documented for Fish Lake VaUey with the A.D. 1000 in the Fish Lake VaUey region current data base but should be seen as an may support the argument for a Great Basin- area of research for future work. wide shift in exploitation patterns and may Other researchers have postulated the lend support to the Numic invasion hypo­ probabiUty of even more radical changes in thesis (ci. Bettinger and Baumhoff 1982; regional subsistence/settlement systems. Bettinger 1985). Thomas' (1982) work at Alta Toquima, a Based on the artifactual evidence, three vUlage site situated above 11,000 feet (3,350 sites from the Fish Lake VaUey can be dated m.) elevation in the central Great Basin, led to the Late Prehistoric period (Fig. 2): 94 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNL\ AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

26ES301, which contained Rose Spring points the Unguistic prehistory of the Great Basin (Hatoff 1976); a campsite adjacent to Chiato­ is accepted as fact by a number of archaeo­ vich Creek (Rafferty 1984a); and a campsite logists (cf. Bettinger and Baumhoff 1982 for in the nearby Palmetto Mountains that con­ a summary of the problem). A number of tained at least one Rose Spring point and researchers have disagreed, arguing that other obsidian and chert Uthic debitage there is no linguistic or archaeological (Bunch 1981). Many of the Uthic scatters in evidence that this event ever occurred, or the vaUey may date to this period but more that it occurred in a manner different from data are required to examine this possibUity. that hypothesized by the expansionists. The Late Prehistoric and early Historic Many researchers suggest that proto-Numic periods (1,400-100 B.P.) are marked by the populations have resided in the Great Basin introduction of Desert Side-notched and Cot­ for at least the last 5,000 years (Goss 1977; tonwood Triangular projectUe points and Aikens and Witberspoon 1986). The recogni­ Owens VaUey Brown Ware ceramics into the tion, in the archaeological record, of the region. The settlement/subsistence pattern settlement/subsistence pattern that Steward remained simUar to the previous period, but (1938) claims was the haUmark of Shoshoni it has been suggested that the advent of residence in central Nevada has been cited irrigation agriculture employing wUd plants by archaeologists and others as evidence of may have had its beginning in this time in in situ development of Numic peoples in the the Owens VaUey, particularly after A.D. Great Basin (Thomas 1971, 1973; O'ConneU 1000. Bettinger (1975) suggested that the 1975; Bettinger 1978; HaU 1982; Rafferty and decline in big game hunting in the Owens Blair 1984). This controversy over the VaUey was a result of scheduling conflicts reaUty of the proposed movement of Numic created by the adoption of agriculture, and peoples into the Great Basin is destined to Bouey (1979) suggested that the impetus to continue as a focus of debate and research adopt agriculture was population pressure in in the Great Basin for many years to come. the Owens VaUey. It must be pointed out One anomaly in Fish Lake VaUey, and that these suggestions have no firm data to indeed in aU of Esmeralda County, Nevada, back them, and that the earUest starting is the nearly complete lack of ceramics on date for native agriculture in the Owens sites recorded in the region. Only one VaUey, based on historic records and ethno­ potsherd is known from Fish Lake VaUey, graphic evidence, is the 1820s (Lawton et al. although there is one other site in the 1976). Quite a bit more research is needed SUver Peak Range east of the vaUey that in this regard. Given the proximity of the supposedly contains ceramics, but this site Fish Lake and Owens vaUeys, and the ethno­ has not yet been officiaUy recorded. Con­ graphic evidence of some limited native agri­ sidering the nearby presence of the Owens culture in the Fish Lake VaUey (Steward VaUey and the fact that Steward (1933, 1938; Lawton et al. 1976), the resolution of 1941) reported that ceramics were both used the time depth problem may have implica­ and manufactured by ethnographicaUy known tions for future research into late settle­ groups in Fish Lake VaUey, their absence in ment/subsistence patterns in Fish Lake the archaeological record is a dUemma. The VaUey. absence of ceramics may be due to poor ear­ During the Late Prehistoric period the ly site records that did not report ceramics, so-caUed "Numic expansion" is hypothesized nonrecognition of this class of data by ar­ to have taken place; this presumed event in chaeologists, and/or the activity of vandals. FISH LAKE VALLEY 95

The largest contributing factor may be the at the base of a ridge and adjacent to a lack of systematic survey and artifact col­ semipermanent stream or wash bed. This lection programs for this area. site includes nine rock rings each four to Basic ethnographic documentation for this five meters in diameter and associated with region was provided by Steward (1938). He ashy midden, Uthic flakes, artifacts, and stated that the Fish Lake VaUey Paiute dif­ other cultural debris. fered in only minor detaUs from the Owens Sites such as these have been used for VaUey groups. Their sociopoUtical organiza­ over 3,000 years in west-central Nevada tion was less complex than the Owens VaUey (Turner et al. 1984). They also fit Steward's groups, in that their basic social unit was (1938) criteria for the optimal location of the nuclear famUy, accompanied by one or winter camps: water, sufficient wood nearby two relatives. for house buUding and fuel, location in Steward reported that in 1870 the popula­ canyon mouths by the edge of the moun­ tion of the Fish Lake VaUey consisted of tains, and accessibiUty to pine nuts and 100 people, distributed among eight viUages, other seeds. These sites, given avaUable and that each of the vUlages had one to information, could have been occupied at any four associated satelUte camps. Six viUages time in the last 3,000 years. were situated on streams near their emer­ Four other sites may also date to this gence from the White Mountains, whUe two time period (Fig. 2). Two hunting stations were located near springs. As in the case located in the Palmetto Mountains have Cot­ with the Owens VaUey, each was more or tonwood Triangular points (26ES466 and 474; less permanently occupied except during the Bunch 1981), and a rocksheUer (26ES559) summer and faU seed and pine nut gathering. has Cottonwood Triangular and other "late" Steward (1938:Fig. 7) located these vU­ points (Rafferty 1980b). Another site on the lages in the vaUey. It has been suggested southern bank of Chiatovich Creek near the (Stewart 1941) that rock rings measuring center of the vaUey yielded at least one five or more meters in diameter were the Eastgate point and seems to be situated near base waUs for brush shelters in both the the spot in the vaUey where Steward (1938) ethnographic and archaeological records. claimed that a man grew irrigated crops. There are two, and perhaps three, locations The data from these sites fit into the in Fish Lake Valley that may correlate with fragmentary ethnographic pattern (Steward both Steward's and Stewart's data on viUage 1938) and the general archaeological pattern locations (Fig. 2). These sites (26ES114, of Great Basin hunter-gatherer Ufeways 26ES393, and 26ES445) are associated with (Thomas 1971, 1973). Winter vUlages, hunt­ Uthic debris, grinding stones, and bedrock ing stations, and crop manipulation and ir­ mortars. Two of these sites (26ES114 and rigation practices aU may be reflected in the 26ES393) also have petroglyph panels. Fish Lake VaUey data. As with the pre­ Site 26ES114 is along Rock Creek in a ceding periods, more data are required to weU-watered and protected area. One-half better understand late prebistoric/protohis- mUe south of that site is 26ES445, on the toric Ufeways. north bank of Chiatovich Creek near the Fish Lake VaUey was first settled by foot of the White Mountains. This site Anglo-American farmers in the late 1860s, includes several rock rings greater than and a borax works was buUt in the vaUey in three meters in diameter (MUler 1981). Site 1875 (Steward 1938). Agriculture has re­ 26ES393, north of the previous two, also is mained the mainstay of economic activity. 96 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY although some mining does occur. There are eds., pp. 7-20. University of Utah An­ remains of early ranching activities at the thropological Papers No. 110. base of the White Mountains (MUler 1981), Bettinger, Robert L. but the historic period in the vaUey is not 1975 The Surface Archaeology of Owens Val­ weU documented. ley, Eastern California: Prehistoric Man-Land Relationships in the Great CONCLUSIONS Basin. Ph.D. dissertation. University of California, Riverside. Adjacent to the better-known Owens Val­ 1976 The Development of Pinyon Exploitation ley, Fish Lake VaUey, which has seen far in Central Eastern California. The Jour­ less historic and modern land use modifica­ nal of California Anthropology 3(1):81- tions, could serve as a natural laboratory for 95. examining how related peoples (Numic) cre­ 1978 Alternative Adaptive Strategies in the ated simUar but variant adaptive strategies Prehistoric Great Basin. Journal of to deal with dissimUar environments. Anthropological Research 34(l):27-46. To further research in the vaUey the 1985 Lichen Dating of Alpine Villages in the foUowing procedures should be implemented: White Mountains, California. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology (1) a stratified random sampling survey 7:202-224. should be designed and executed to eUcit data concerning site variabiUty and distribu­ Bettinger, Robert L., and Martin A. Baumhoff 1982 The Numic Spread: Great Basin Cultures tion within and between environmental in Competition. American Antiquity zones; (2) existing records should be updated 47:485-503. for known sites ("viUages") not resurveyed in the recent sample surveys; (3) detaUed Bettinger, Robert L., and Christopher Raven 1986 The Great Basin in California: The surface coUections should be made at se­ Inyo-Mono and Surprise Valley-Honey lected sites to eUcit data on site types, Lake Regions. In: Current Status of functions, and chronology and; (4) test CRM Archaeology in the Great Basin, excavations should be undertaken at a sam­ C. Melvin Aikens, ed., pp. 67-96. Reno: Bureau of Land Management Cultural ple of sites to recover more detaUed data on Resource Management Series No. 9. settlement/subsistence patterns in both a synchronic and diachronic manner. Bettinger, Robert L., and R. E. Taylor 1974 Suggested Revisions in Archaeological Fish Lake VaUey has the potential to Sequences of the Great Basin in Inter­ reveal much concerning human adaptabiUty ior Southern California. Nevada Arche- in the Great Basin. It is hoped that this ological Survey Resesu'ch Papers No. 5: paper wiU encourage research in, and expand 1-26. our knowledge of, this important region. Billings, W. D. 1951 Vegetational Zonation in the Great REFERENCES Basin of Western North America. Union Internationale des Sciences Biologiques, Aikens, C. Melvin Series 139:101-122. 1970 Hogup Cave. University of Utah An­ thropological Papers No. 93. Bouey, Paul D. 1979 Population Pressure and Agriculture in Aikens, C. Melvin, and Y. T. Witherspoon Owens Valley. Journal of California 1986 Great Basin Numic Prehistory: Linguis­ and Great Basin Anthropology 1:162-170. tics, Archaeology and Environment. In: Anthropology of the Desert West, Es­ Brooks, Richard A. says in Honor of Jesse D. 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