P-ISSN: 2305-6622; E-ISSN: 2306-3599 International Journal of Agriculture and Biosciences www.ijagbio.com; [email protected] Review Article

Problems and Prospects of Giant Sensitive ( invisa Mart.) in Agro- Ecosystems in Nigeria: A Review

I Uko1, AC Amadioha2, H Okolie1 and NJ Okonkwo1

1Department of Crop Science and Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, P.M.B. 5025, Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria; 2Department of Plant Health Management, College of Crop and Soil Sciences, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Abia State, Nigeria *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Article History: Received: February 10, 2020 Revised: April 24, 2020 Accepted: May 05, 2020

ABSTRACT

Giant sensitive plant ( Mart - Family: ; sub Family: ) is an exotic, invasive and obnoxious weed introduced into Nigeria over two decades ago. It is a perennial, thorny and scrambling legume which hinders the regeneration, reproduction and growth of native species in all infested areas resulting in gradual loss of biodiversity. The weed thrives in a wide range of soil types and prefers open areas and human disturbed ecosystems including roadsides and farmlands where it produces large number of small tough seeds. These seeds remain viably dormant in the soil for a very long time. The Giant sensitive plant can cause severe losses of up to 60-90% yield reductions in cassava, maize, plantation and other arable crops. It can also cause fire hazards during the dry season in infested fields. It forms large swathes of impenetrable prickly thickets that are difficult to remove. Furthermore, being a shrubby, sprawling and scrambling climber, M. invisa smothers other weed species. Thus, it can be used to control soil erosion and restore fertility in marginal lands. Similarly, it can be used to control other obnoxious weeds including spear grass. Apart from its efficient land protection against erosion, it further serves as a protection hedge row against wild and domestic ruminants. Mimosa invisa also has ethno medicinal and ornamental values as . With Integrated weed management practices like such as burning, ploughing in before flowering (as green manure), the use of pre- and post-emergence herbicides as well as biological control, the benefits of this eccentric plant can be greatly appropriated in our farming systems especially as ground cover in some tree crop plantations.

Key words: Mimosa invisa, Invasive weed, Integrated weed management, Soil fertility.

INTRODUCTION habitats with negative consequences on ecosystem services and/or socio-economic and/or health (Noba et al., Giant sensitive plant (Mimosa invisa Mart. Fabaceae: 2017). Since then, it has spread to the southern part of the Mimosoideae) is a perennial, thorny, leguminous and country. It has become fast spreading in the southern part scrambly weed which produces large quantities of seeds at of Nigeria smothering other weed species resulting to an early age and has a persistent seed bank (Barneby, 1991; reduction in biodiversity (Mack et al., 2000; Rejmánek et Ekhator et al., 2013). In the , it is used to restore al., 2005). They colonize human disturbed areas such as soil fertility in farming systems of reduced or short fallow roadsides, farmlands, and forms dense, thorny, periods for establishment of seasonal fallows between impenetrable thickets. Dead or alive, M. invisa is harmful harvesting and planting seasons, but it has become an to , animals and humans (Noba et al., 2017). invasive and noxious weed that can take over native A number of researchers reported that the weed vegetation and form large swathes of dense prickly caused yield reduction up to 60-90% in cassava, maize normally difficult-to-remove stands (Burgers and William, and other arable crops (Aigbokhan et al., 2010; Hauser et 2000; MacLean et al., 2003). al., 2014). During the rainy season, many farmers tend to M. invisa Mart. was introduced into the country over avoid sites predominantly infested with M. invisa thus two decades (Ekhator et al., 2013). It is an exotic plant limiting farm size. In the dry season, the weed is prone or specie whose introduction, deliberate or accidental by has the potential to cause fire hazards (Aigbokhan et al., man, establishment and dissemination threaten ecosystems, 2010). M. invisa has been reported to be a serious problem

Cite This Article as: Uko I, AC Amadioha, H Okolie and NJ Okonkwo, 2020. Problems and Prospects of Giant Sensitive Plant (Mimosa invisa Mart.) in Agro-Ecosystems in Nigeria: A Review. Int J Agri Biosci, 9(2): 95-102. www.ijagbio.com (©2020 IJAB. All rights reserved)

95 Int J Agri Biosci, 2020, 9(2): 95-102. in cassava fields and other plantation crops (Tongglum et range of soil conditions and has been reported to grow al., 1992; Howeler et al., 2013). Despite these problems best in tropical regions in wastelands, pastures, disturbed associated with the weed, it has some potentials which can forests, plantations, agricultural systems and along be taken advantage of to the benefit of farmers. roadsides and railway tracks at an altitude of 0 to 2,000 m above sea level. Thick growth and canopy formed by M. Origin, classification and of giant sensitive plant invisa hinders the regeneration, reproduction and growth Origin of Giant sensitive plant: The giant sensitive plant of native species in all infested areas and consequently (Mimosa invisa Mart.) is native to the Neo-tropics (CABI, results in gradual loss of biodiversity (Anonymous, 2007). 2019). It is commonly known as the giant sensitive plant Mimosa invisa is an important invasive weed species that (IUCN, 2016). Giant sensitive plant is native to , in is highly competitive, produces enormous seeds, difficult tropical (Vitelli et al., 2001, DAF, 2016). to control by hand and is an alternative host for nematodes (Galinato et al.; 1999, Chauhan and Johnson, Classification of Giant sensitive plant: M. invisa just 2008). According to Parsons and Cuthbertson (1992), a like M. diplotricha is classified under the Mimosa single M. invisa plant can produce up to 10, 000 seeds per in the subfamily Mimosoideae of the legume family, annum and the number of seeds in the soil seed bank Fabaceae (Tom, 2017a). The name M. invisa is still being range from 8000 to12,000 seeds/m2. The plant seems to mistakenly used by some authors for M. diplotricha prefer open areas and disturbed ecosystems such as forest (Rupert, 1987; Tom, 2017a). The name M. invisa is now fringes and roadsides with lots of sunlight. In Nigeria, M. accepted as the for M. rhodostachya (Tom, invisa has been reported to grow vigorously during the 2017a,b) which is synonymous to M. invisa Mart. wet season (between March and October), produces and fruits between September and November. The Botany of Giant sensitive plant (Mimosa invisa Mart): plant was observed to begin dehiscence of pods /shed Giant sensitive plant (M. invisa) grows as an erect mature seeds mainly in late December to early February strongly branched shrub and it is also a scrambling and then the plant continues to wither as the fruits ripen climber, reaching a height of about 3 m (9.8 ft) (APFISN, and dies in late January-February due to the dry weather. 2010). The green tinged stems which are 4 or 5 - angled in Immediately after rains, it re-establishes itself from seeds cross-section and covered with abundant recurved, sharp, in the soil. The ability of the plant to tolerate a wide range yellowish spines of about 3-6 mm long on the angles of of soil pH has also been documented in Nigeria (Ekhator the stems. This shrub with age is woody at the base with et al., 2008). the stems stretching to about 6 m long, forming low, tangled masses or climbing on other vegetation with the Prospects of Mimosa invisa aid of its spiny stems (CABI, 2019). Its leaves are a. Soil fertility management: Despite the harmful bipinnate, alternate, feathery and fern-like bright green in effects of M. invisa, some members of the genus Mimosa, colour, and are arranged alternately along the stems. Each they have been used to restore soil fertility in the leaf contains around twenty pairs of small sessile Philippines as reported by Burgers and William (2000) lanceolate leaflets arranged opposite each other and each and MacLean et al. (2003). Thus, it can also be used to leaflet measures around 6 to 12 mm (0.24 to 0.47 in) long restore soil fertility in areas with scarcity of agricultural and 1.5 mm. Like the related M. diplotricha and M. land in place of shifting cultivation. Doungsa-ard and pudica, the leaves are sensitive to touch, and will tend to Tawan (2016) reported that in Deli, Sumatra, the spiny slightly curl up if disturbed (Tom, 2017b; DAF, 2016; form of M. diplotricha used to be cultivated as a green APFISN, 2010). The flowers are pale pink and looks like manure, fallow crop and cover crop. However, it is now a clustered fluffy ball. They are around 12 mm (0.47 in) in considered a noxious weed because it aggressively diameter and arise from short stalks from the leaf joints. colonizes open spaces, the harmful effect of its spines, The corolla is fused (gamopetalous), and there are two produces large amounts of easily distributed seed and may stamens for every petal (Tom, 2017b). The flowers pose a fire hazard. Therefore the spineless form is still develop into clustered slightly curved seed pods. Each cultivated as it is an excellent soil improver, cover crop seed pod is more or less flat and covered with small and soil binder against erosion in humid areas, but is prickles. They are around 10 to 35 mm (0.39 to 1.38 in) somewhat less effective in smothering weeds than the long and 6 mm (0.24 in) wide. The seeds are oval-shaped spiny form. Also, in locations where grass weeds and and flat, each around 2 to 2.5 mm (0.079 to 0.098 in) long other weeds that indicate poor soils, Mimosa can also be and 0.6 to 1.4 mm (0.024 to 0.055 in) thick and are light planted or its vegetative parts threshed and mixed with ash brown (which look polished) in appearance. (Aigbokhan et al., 2010) to restore the land for agricultural production. Doungsa-ard and Tawan (2016) Characteristics of giant sensitive plant: Many also reported that rubber trees in Sri Lanka and coconut literatures have described giant sensitive plant as a palms in grew better with a cover crop of M. shrubby or sprawling annual although behaving as a diplotricha than with a natural cover. In replanting perennial vine in certain years (CABI, 2019). Its stem experiments in tea conducted in Tocklay (India), a soil branch, often scrambling over other plants, four-angled, cover of M. diplotricha for 2 years followed by sub- the angles usually with a line of sharp, hooked prickles. soiling resulted in much faster establishment and better The plant has the capacity to choke out cane, other growth of tea plants than direct planting or planting of tea crops/plant species and grassland, resulting to loss of crop after sub-soiling alone. Similar trend was also observed in and pasture production (DAF, 2016; Willson and Garcia, maize yields in when in a rotation with M. 1992; Alabi et al., 2004). The plant can tolerate a wide diplotricha and Lablab purpureus (L.) with moderate

96 Int J Agri Biosci, 2020, 9(2): 95-102. fertilizer applications, while fertilizer alone could not blood disorders (leafy twig). The leaves are used as maintain yields (Doungsa-ard and Tawan, 2016). medicine for menstrual cycle, pregnancy, ant iaborifacients, leprosy and in phytochemsitry as salt and b. Land protection / Hedges: As a plant with an substitutes. The roots used for as pain-killers, oral erect strongly branched shrub that creates swaths and an treatments, naso-pharyngeal affections, kidneys, diuretics, aggressive climber with thorns forming low, tangled genital stimulants/depressants, paralysis, epilepsy, masses or climbing on other vegetation with the aid of its convulsions, spasm, diarrhoea, dysentery, tumours, spiny stems, animals tend to avoid it since it harms them cancers tannins, astringents, antidotes (venomous stings, (APFISN, 2010; CABI, 2019). Doungsa-ard and Tawan bites, etc.) and in phytochemistry: uricant, alkaloids. (2016) reported that mature M. diplotricha C. Wright ex As a leguminous plant, its leaves when properly dried Sauvalle (=Mimosa invisa Mart. ex Colla), spiny plants or processed are used as part of animal feed ingredients. A discourage animals from grazing them, although buffaloes study carried out by a graduate student in Nnamdi are said to eat young shoots but pigs are reported to be Azikiwe University, Awka indicated that properly dried poisoned by ingesting large amounts, probably of the leaves of M. inivsa was found to be a very good spineless form. This attribute confers on Mimosa the supplement for feed formulation and broiler production capacity to serve as hedges while protecting or securing (Unpublished). the land against human and animal intruders. In addition, Doungsa-ard and Tawan (2016) reported Burkill (1985) reported M. pigra, a family member of in the Philippines the Italian honeybee, Apis mellifera, M. invisa is used in Agri-horticulture as hedges, markers, collects large amounts of pollen of M. diplotricha and M. control weeds, parasites, and the stems used as farming, pudica L. during the distinct "Mimosa pollen season" forestry, hunting and fishing apparatus. (October-March) and that at this time over 80% of the pollen collected originates from Mimosa species. C. Ornamental purposes and source of fuel: Some of the Mimosa species like M. pudica are used as f. Development of tools and protective ornamental plants, live mulch (M. inermis) and firewood materials: Since most local farmers compact the weed (M. pigra) (Burgers and William (2000). Doungsa-ard and with less protective and crude farm implements, its Tawan (2016) reported that in , and the harmfulness may lead to the development of tools and Philippines, it flowers and fruits throughout the year protective materials to help reduce its physical harmful which is why they use it as ornamental plant. Therefore, effect to man. Furthermore, most of our small scale M. invisa could be used for both ornamental purpose and farmers who lack the culture of wearing protective control of other weed species during the rainy while, clothing can learn to use it for Mimosa control as Mimosa during the dry season, the dried vegetative parts could be is harmless when fully protected. collected to help make fire in homes. This way, the long rainy season and prolonged dry seasons will help check Problems of giant sensitive plant in agrio-ecosystems and regulate the growth and development of this weed Mimosa has all-year round periodic dormancy naturally. breakage, germination and seedling emergence pattern under favourable moist, but not flooded, soil condition d. Biological weed control alternative: Mimosa with most germinations occurring at the start and end of invisa is an important invasive weed species that is highly the wet seasons, representing the critical periods of the competitive, produces enormous seeds and difficult to weed’s interference in crop fields (Parsons and control by hand (Galinato et al., 1999; Chauhan and Cuthbertson, 1992). The periodic seed dormancy breakage Johnson, 2008). Anonymous (2007) reported that thick /germination and seedling emergence pattern of the weed growth and canopy/swath formed by M. invisa hinders the makes long-term effective control measures on a long- growth, regeneration and reproduction of native species in cycle crop like cassava difficult. Consequently, it has all infested areas and consequently results in gradual loss become a major problem weed of economic importance in of biodiversity (IUCN, 2016). Also, the ability of M. most crop fields in Nigeria (Melifonwu, 1994b; Lebot, invisa to choke out other vegetation (DAF, 2016; Alabi et 2009; Alabi et al., 2001), and its infestation of cassava al., 2004), hinder the regeneration, reproduction and field has been found to reduce the root yield by 80% growth of native species in all infested areas have been (Alabi et al., 2001). reported (Anonymous, 2007; Waterhouse, 1994; Vasu, M. invisa was mistakenly introduced into the country 2003; Vattakkavan et al., 2004; Jayasree et al., 2006; and the weed has naturalized here due to the favourable Edeoga et al., 2008). Therefore, this weed could be used climatic conditions in the southern part of Nigeria. It has a to suppress or control other stubborn perennial grass hard or tough impermeable seed which allows some of its weeds as reported by Doungsa-ard and Tawan (2016) in seeds to remain viably dormant in the soil for a very long the control of Imperata cylindrica (Spear grass). time (Melifonwu, 1994b) and with this attribute colonize habitats where they are found via their climbing and e. Medicinal, food and feed supplement: In the formation of swaths which tend to choke out other weed health sector, Mimosa species such as M. pudica serve as species in such sites or locations (CABI, 2019). raw material in the production of drugs for several However, several weed control methods such as hand diseases (Doungsa-ard and Tawan (2016). Burkill (1985) weeding, mechanical weeding, use herbicides, cover reported that different parts of M. pigra which is another cropping and mixed cropping, burning of slashed family member of M. invisa has also been used for vegetation residue, mulching with plant residues, etc. generally healing, venereal diseases, eye treatments and individually and in combinations (integrated weed

97 Int J Agri Biosci, 2020, 9(2): 95-102. management) methods have been used to compact this control of M. invisa is difficult as a result of its thorns. weed (Chikoye et al., 1999; Chikoye, 2000; Melifonwu et According to Schatz (2001), cutting the weed at 15 cm al. 2000; Ekeleme, 2013; Dan, 2015). Yet, the weed kept above ground level resulted in re-sprouting thus resulting multiplying and colonizing more crop fields in Nigeria to to ineffective control of the weed. While burning and the extent that many farmers tend to avoid fertile arable flaming during the dry season followed by ploughing at lands suitable for crop production that are infested with the wet season gave better result than flaming at the dry M. invisa (Alabi et al., 2004; Anonymous, 2007; Ekhator season alone. The soil solarisation studies conducted by et al., 2008; Aigbokhan et al. 2010). Also, the increasing Jayasree (2005) also showed that 30 days solarisation cost and difficulty associated with M. invisa control significantly reduced the germination of M. invisa seeds makes it necessary to adopt or evolve sustainable while 40 days solarization prevented germination in the management strategies that can reduce the labour soil. requirement required to manage the weed (Ekeleme et al., 2003). b. Chemical control: Chemical weed control is another method used in the control of M. invisa. Lew Management of giant sensitive plant in the field (1993) reported that using 2,4-D and dinitrobutylphenol M. invisa has been reported to be a serious problem in (Dinoseb) to control M. invisa was not very successful in any crop environment where they are found (Alabi, et al., Brazil. Trials conducted at Kerala Agricultural University 1999; Aigbokhan et al., 2010). It emerges faster (India), also showed that, 2,4-D at very high dose of 3 kg immediately after land preparation, aggressively compete a.i./ha at any stage of application could not control M. for nutrients, space, water and sunlight, and easily invisa effectively. While paraquat temporally controlled colonize the natural surroundings, plants and forests the weed as regrowth occurred soon. However, the trial because they emerge, establish, grow and reproduce very showed that glyphosate, even at 0.2 – 0.4 kg a.i./ha gave quickly than other crops (Alabi et al., 1999; Jayasree, very good control of the weed (KAU, 2003). Jayasree 2005; Mulatu, 2011; Ekhator et al., 2013). Different weed (2005), reported that pre-emergence herbicides such as management and control practices which are in use for atrazine, Metolachlor, diuron, pendimethalin and control of M. invisa as well as other weeds include: flupchloralin effectively controlled M. invisa germination physical / mechanical methods, hand weeding (slashing while alachlor, oxyfluorfen, pretilachlor and butachlor did and pulling), hand hoeing, burning, flaming, chemical not control the weed. (herbicides), biological control and other indigenous However, with regards to weed management of M. practices (Klingman et al.; 1982, Robert; 1982, Anderson, invisa specifically in cassava farms, Melifonwu et al. 1983; Chikoye et al., 1999; Jayasree, 2005; Ekhator et al., (2012) recommended that xtrazine and primextra at 2.0 2013; Rana and Rana, 2016). and 2.5 kg a.i./ha followed by supplementary hand weeding at 12 WAP could provide alternative weed a. Physical and mechanical control: Physical management option to hoe-weeding; for high yield and methods of controlling M. invisa include: burning, economic returns in cassava in the humid rainforest zone flaming, soil solarisation, sickle weeding, digging and of Nigeria. Korieocha (2015) recommend lower rates of removing (Jayasree, 2005) while mechanical methods these herbicides for light soils, while higher rates are include: hand removal, slashing, and hoeing (Ekhator et recommended for heavy soils and that most post- al., 2013). According to Agahiu et al. (2011; 2012), the emergence herbicides are nonselective and therefore must average Nigerian farmer uses traditional tools in crop be directed to the weed only. Similarly, Ekeleme (2013) production and for contending with weed problems reported that adoption of chemical weed control is the annually. Ogunwolu (2004) earlier reported that the major most effective method of controlling weeds in cassava factor limiting the acreage of land under cultivation in producing higher yields and income as well as saving traditional farming systems in developing countries like human labour/ or labour cost. Nigeria is the problem of land clearing and weed control using traditional tools. c. Biological control: Biological control has been According to Ekhator et al. (2013), mechanical reported to provide sustainable weed control as it is safe control of Mimosa is effective but difficult. The use of to man and the environment (Ekhator et al., 2013). In physical/mechanical methods to control M. invisa is faced and several Pacific Islands, biological control with a lot of challenges because this method is reported to has been used to control M. diplotricha with some level of be full of drudgery, slow, laborious, not practical in large success as the conventional control methods (Waterhouse, scale farming, and only provides short-term control 1994; Kuniata, 2009). (Akobundu, 1987; Ekhator et al., 2013). In India, Ethiopia More than 70 insect species and 2 fungal species have and Nigeria for example, burning dried vegetative parts of been identified in Brazil as potential bio-agents for the M. invisa during the dry season as a way of controlling the control of M. invisa (Waterhouse, 1994; Ekhator et al., weed has been reported to promote the breaking of seed 2013). Ekhator et al. (2013) reported that only 3 insect dormancy and germination of seeds few days after species out of over 70 insect species identified proved to burning thus increasing its seedling population (Sanchez be promising biological control agents. Ablin (1992) et al., 2003; Jayasree, 2005).Burning can be effectively reported that Heteropsylla spinulosa which is a followed by ploughing in the first and second mimosa Hemipteran psyllid, in Brazil, have been found to be seeds flush and then the use of pre-emergency herbicide. effective bio-agent for M. invisa control. The adults of this Alabi et al. (2004) and Sankaram (2001) reported that insect were reported to reduce M. invisa plants to masses manual weeding by hand weeding and hoeing for the of bare stems with shortened growing tips. Ablin (1993a)

98 Int J Agri Biosci, 2020, 9(2): 95-102. also reported that this insect reduced seed production in crop for the intercropping of maize and cassava have been M. invisa by 80%. According to Waterhouse (1994), M. found to result in a greater economic return compared to invisa was reported to be host specific to H. spinulosa the individual use of an herbicide or a cover crop or the adults and nymphs which caused distortion of leaves, combinations of these two strategies. reduced flowering, also caused severe stunting of growing The control of M. inivsa in crop fields requires a tips of the weed. The use of this insect as bio-agent for M. combination of different weed control methods. This is invisa control has been reported in Western by because the weed has been reported to be more Wilson and Ablin (1991), by Ablin competitive than most crops. The weed also grows faster, (1993a; 1993b) and Pohnpei by Esguerra et al. (1997). rapidly, vigorously and can completely shade cassava The insects include Psygida walker, a lepidopteran from sunlight (Akobundu, 1987; Alabi et al., 1999). M. moth, is another possible bio-agent for the control of M. invisa, when mature, particularly is difficult to remove by invisa. Garcia (1983) reported that the larvae of this moth hoeing or hand weeding because its sharp thorns scratch feed voraciously on leaves, tender stem and seed pods, and cause serious wounds to the farmer. Therefore, the and buds thus preventing flower and seed best method to effectively and efficiently control this production in M. invisa. Garcia (1984) and Wild (1986; weed is through integrated weed management approach. 1987), reported that the nymphs and adults of the coried Okeleye and Salawu (1999) and Nwagwu et al. (2000) bug (Scamurius sp.) were found to feed only on shoots of recommended the use of melon and cassava intercrop in Mimosa species, resulting to the inhibition of vegetative addition to hoeing and other agronomic practices such as growth and flowering. Waterhouse (1994) and Kuniata plant spacing, for effective control of mimosa and other and Korowi (2001) also reported that Scamurius sp. as weeds. Mulatu (2011), reported that farmers in Ethiopia well as Heteropsylla spinulosa effectively controlled M. combat mimosa through burning, mechanical, chemical invisa for many years in , Papua New Guinea, and biological methods with varying degree of success. Western Samoa and . Thus integrated weed management system has been Apart from insects, certain fungi have been reported suggested as the most effective for the control of mimosa to control M. invisa. They include: Corynespora casiicola, and other weed species (KAU, 2003; Ekeleme and Uredo mimosae-invisae, Fusarium pallidoroseum and Ekwenta, 2004; APFISN, 2010; Melifonwu et al., 2012). Cercospora canescens. Haseler (1984) reported that Corynespora casiicola, a stem spot fungus, was found to Conclusions kill M. invisa in Western Samoa, Queensland and Papua M. inivsa is a harmful weed to plants, animals and New Guinea. Wilson and Ablin (1991) and Ablin (1992) human which causes serious problem in crop production also reported that the fungus caused damage to M. invisa leading to yield reduction. These negative effects present by making the leaflets the weed to shed and the stems to the weed as eccentric plant in an agro-ecosystem. As we die back as lesions cover the weed. Additionally, therefore highlight the negative impacts of the weed on Mabbayad and Watson (2000), reported that Furasrium both human and the environment, there is need to limit pallidoroseum isolated from M. invisa in the Philippines these negative effects and see how the positive potentials excellently controlled M. invisa seedlings when applied as of this obnoxious weed could be exploited to the foliar spray of crude culture filtrate both in the laboratory advantage and benefit of mankind in Nigeria. and field trials. Waterhouse (1994) in another study reported that Cercospora canescens is also a bio-agent for REFERENCES M. invisa whose host specificity studies are yet to be conducted. Ablin, MP, 1992. Heteropsylla sp. Psyllidae successfully So far, none of these bio-agents have been studied in controls pasture infestations of Mimosa invisa within Nigeria although Ekhator et al. (2013) had suggested that three years of release in Australia. VIII International H. spinulosa and P. walker host specificity testing should Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds, 2-7 Feb. be conducted between Nigerian institutions in 1992. Lincoln University, New Zealand, Abstract: 54. collaboration with others in Brazil, Papua New Guinea or Ablin MP, 1993a. Insecticide exclusion with carbofuran Australia before releases are made in Nigeria especially in demonstrates the effectiveness of Heteropsylla southern Nigeria. spinulosa as a biological control agent for Mimosa invisa in Northern Queensland. XIV Asia Pacific d. Integrated weed management (IWM): Weed Science Society Coriference, September, 1993, Integrated weed management (IWM) can be said to be a Brisbane. Abstract: 14 process that combines both direct and indirect strategies Ablin, MP, 1993b. Successful establishment of for the control of weeds in crop fields. The direct control Heteropsylla spinulosa on Mimosa invisa in Papua strategies may include: cultural, and/or physical measures, New Guinea. Queensland Department of Lands, chemical, biological methods used for the control of Memorandum, p.l weeds while indirect control involve agronomic practices Agahiu, AE, Baiyeri KP, Ogbuji RO and Udensi, UE such as the choice of cultivar, sowing period, crop 2012. Assessment of status, perception of weed rotation, and nutrient management, among other factors, infestation and methods of weed control adopted by and are designed to promote the competitive ability of cassava farmers in Kogi state, Nigeria. Journal of crops over the weeds (Sanyal et al., 2008; Ronald et al., Animal and Plant Sciences, 133: 1823-1830. 2011). http://www.m.elewa.org/JAPS According to Olorunmaiye (2011), the use of Agahiu, AE, Udensi UE, Tarawali G, Okoye BC, Ogbuji herbicides combined with hoeing and a leguminous cover RO and Baiyeri, KP, 2011. Assessment of weed

99 Int J Agri Biosci, 2020, 9(2): 95-102.

management strategies and intercrop combinations on Dan, DQ, Joseph, SA, Abdul, RC and Abdul, RT 2016. cassava yield in the middle belt of Nigeria. African Assessment of Weed Management Strategies on Journal of Agricultural Research, 626: 5729 - 5735. Growth and Yield of Cassava Manihot esculenta Aigbokhan, EI, Osazuwa-Peters, OL and Ilubon, KO Crantz in Ghana. International Journal of Sciences: 2010. Range and distribution of Basic and Applied Research IJSBAR; 252: 245-255. in Nigeria and effects of fire on seed germination. Doungsa-ard, C and Tawan, CS 2016 Mimosa diplotricha Nigerian Journal of Botany, 241: 141-151. PROSEA 2016, April 29. PlantUse English. Akobundu IO, 1987. Weed Science in the Tropics: Retrieved 11:11, September 13, 2019 from Principles and Practice. John Wiley and Sons, p. 522. https://uses.plantnet-project.org/e/index.php?title= Alabi, B S, Ayeni, A O and Agboola, A A 1999. Effect of Mimosa_diplotricha_PROSEA&oldid=221336. Selected Herbicides on the Control of Thorny Edeoga, HO, Omosun, G, Osuagwu, GGE and Emezue, Mimosa in Cassava. Nigerian Journal of Weeds OO 2008. Micromorphology of the leaf cuticle in Science, 12: 51-57. Mimosa species leguminosae – Mimosoideae. Asian Alabi BS, Ayeni, AO, Agboola, AA and Majek, BA 2004. Journal of Plant Sciences, 74: 424 - 426. Manual control of thorny mimosa Mimosa invisa in Ekeleme, F 2013. A Report on Weeds of Cassava and cassava Manihot esculenta. Weed Technol., 18: 77- Management Choices for Smallholders in . In: 82. Leonard Gianessi 2013. Herbicide Adoption Could Alabi BS, Ayeni, AO, Agboola, AA and Majek, BA 2001. Greatly Increase Cassava Production in Africa. Giant sensitive plant interference in cassava. Weed International Pesticide Benefits Case Study No. 86, Science, 492: 171 - 176. August 2013. Anonymous 2007. Giant sensitive plant Mimosa invisa; Ekeleme, F and Ekwenta, C I 2004. Effect of tillage and Declared Class 2, Land protection invasive plants and soil-applied herbicides on Mimosa invisa Mart animals. Department of Primary Industries and control in a humid tropical environment. Nigerian Fisheries. The State of Queensland. Agricultural Journal, 35: 68-75. APFISN Asia - Pacific Forest Invasive Species Network Ekeleme, F, Akobundu, IO, Fadayomi, RO, Chikoye, D 2010. Invasive Pest Fact Sheet: Giant sensitive plant and Abayomi, YA 2003 Characterization of Legume Mimosa diplotricha. http://www.fao.org/forestry/ cover crops for weed suppression in the moist 13377-1-0.pdf accessed on 14/12/2017 at 9:00. savanna of Nigeria. Weed Technology, 17: 1 – 13. Baker FWG and Tery PJ, 1991. Tropical Grassy Weeds. Ekhator, F, Akinyemiju, OA and Utulu, SN 2008. Factors Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau, Wallingford, Affecting Giant Sensitive Plant Mimosa invisa Mart UK p 267. Seed Germination and Emergence. Nigerian Journal Barneby RC, 1991. Sensitivae censitae. A description of of Weed Science, Vol. 21, pp. 38-49. the genus Mimosa Linnaeus Mimosaceae in the New Ekhator, F, Osariyekemwen, OU, Celestine EI and World. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, Celestina OO 2013. The Distribution and Problems of 65: 200-203. the Invasive Alien Plant, Mimosa diplotricha C. Burgers, P and William, D 2000. Indigenous strategies; options for sustainable agriculture in the forest Wright ex Sauvalle Mimosaceae in Nigeria. margins. ILEIA. Newsletter. Vol. 16 No. 3. Farming American Journal of Plant Sciences, 4: 866 – 877. in the forest September, 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2013.44107. Burkill, HM 1985. The useful plants of west tropical http://www.scirp.org/journal/ajps Africa, Vol 3. In: JOSTOR: Global Plants. Available Esguerra, NM, William, JD, Samuel, RP and Diopulos, at https://plants.jstor.org/stable/10.5555/al.ap.upwta. KJ 1997. Biological control of weed Mimosa invisa 3_331 Accessed: 9/12/219. Von Martius on Pohnpei and Yap Micronesica, 302: CABI CAB International 2019. Mimosa diplotricha 421-427 creeping sensitive plant. In: Invasive Species Galinato, MI, Moody, K and Piggin, CM 1999. Upland Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. rice weeds of south and . Makati City, www.cabi.org/isc. Accessed 9/13/2019 Available at Philippines: International Rice Research Institute, p. https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/34196 156. Chauhan BS and Johnson, DE 2008. Seed Germination Garcia, CA 1983. Preliminary host specificity testing of and Seedling Emergence of Giant Sensitive plant Psilopsygida walkeri for the biological control of Mimosa Invisa. Weed Science, 562: 244-248. Mimosa invisa. Queensland Department of Lands Chikoye, D 2000. Weed management in small scale Report. p.ll production systems in Nigeria. In: Akoroda, M.O. Ed. Garcia, CA 1984. A preliminary report on the host Agronomy in Nigeria. pp. 153-156. specificity of Scamurius sp., a potential agent for the Chikoye, D, Ekeleme, F and Ambe, JT 1999. Survey of biological control of Mimosa invisa. Queensland distribution and farmer perceptions of speargrass Department of Lands Report. p.l0 Imperata cylindrical in cassava based cropping Haseler, W H 1984. The Alan Fletcher Research Station systems in West Africa. International Journal of Pest Annual Report 1983-84. Queensland Department of Management, 45: 305 – 312. Lands. pp.15. DAF Department of Agriculture and Fisheries 2016. Giant Hauser, S, Wairegi, L, Asadu, CLA, Asawalam, DO, sensitive plant: Mimosa diplotricha =Mimosa invisa. Jokthan, G and Ugbe, U 2014. Cassava system Fact sheet, The State of Queensland, pp. 1–16. cropping guide. Africa Soil Health Consortium, www.biosecurity.qld.gov.au Nairobi. 64.

100 Int J Agri Biosci, 2020, 9(2): 95-102.

Howeler, R, Lutaladio, N and Thomas, G 2013. Save and Melifonwu, A, James, B, Aïhou, K, Weise, S, Awah, E Grow: Cassava. A guide to sustainable production and Gbaguidi, B 2000. Weed control in cassava intensification. Food and Agriculture Organization of farms: IPM Field Guide for Extension Agents. IITA the United Nations, Rome, 142. 2000. Wordsmithes Printers, Lagos, 23. IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature Mulatu, W J 2011. An invasive allien weed giant sensitive 2016. Global Invasive Species Database. "Mimosa plant Mimosa diplotricha Sauvalle invading diplotricha". International Union for Conservation of Southwestern Ethiopia. African Journal of Nature IUCN. Retrieved 16 November, 2016. agricultural research, 61: 127-131. Jayasree, PK 2005. Biology and management of Mimosa Noba, K, Bassene, C, Ngom, A, Gueye, M, Camara, AA, invisa Mart. in Kerala. PhD THESIS, Kerala Kane, M, Ndoye, F, Dieng, B, Rmballo, R, Ba, N, Agricultural University, India. Pp. 212. Bodian, M Y, Sane, S, Diop, D, Gueye, M, Konta, IS, Jayasree, PK, Abraham, CT and Thomas, CG 2006. Kane, A, Mbaye, MS and Ba, AT 2017. Invasive Adverse effects of Mimosa invisa Mart. Infestation Plants of West Africa: Concepts, Overviews and on the floral Biodiversity. Eco-chronicle, 13: 113 – Sustainable Management. Adv Recycling Waste 116. Manag, 2:121. DOI: 10.4172/2475-7675.1000121 KAU Kerala Agricultural University 2003. Annual Nwagwu, F A, Tijani- Eniola H and Chia M H 2000. Report-AICRP on Weed Control, Kerala Agricultural Influence of tillage and cover crops on weed control University, Trichur, p.63. in Cocoyam field at Ibadan, South-Western Nigeria. Korieocha, DS 2015. Review: Weed Control in National Nigerian Journal of Weed Science. 13: 39-44. Root Crops Research Institute Umudike and its Ogunwolu, EO 2004. Weed problems in Nigerian Recommendation. Research Journal of Agriculture Agriculture and the environment. Key note address, and Environmental Management, 41: 001-004. Nigerian Journal of Weed Science, 17: 75. Available: http://www.apexjournal.org Okeleye, KA and Salawu RA 1999. Use of low growing Kuniata, LS 2009. Mimosa diplotricha C. Wright ex Sau- crops as an alternative weed control measure in valle Mimosaceae,” In: R. Muniappan, G. V. P. Cassava - based cropping system in Southern Nigeria. Reddy and A. Raman, Eds., Biological Control of Nigeria Journal of Weed Science. 12: 17-22. Olorunmaiye, PM 2011. Economic viability of integrated Tropical Weeds Using Arthropods, Cambridge weed management in maize/cassava intercrop in University Press, Cambridge, pp. 247-255. Guinea savanna ecology of Nigeria. Agriculture & doi:10.1017/CBO9780511576348.013 Biology Journal of , 2: 522-525. Kuniata, LS and Korowi, KT 2001. Biological control of http://dx.doi.org/10.5251/abjna.2011.2.3.522.528 giant sensitive plant with Heteropsylla spinulosa Parsons, W T and Cuthbertson, E G 1992. Noxious Weeds Hom: Psyllidae in Papua New Guinea. Technical of Australia. Melbourne, Australia: Inkata Press, 692 Bulletin No. 288, Dept. of Primary industry and pp. fisheries, Northern Territory of Australia. pp.145- Rejmánek, M, Richardson, DM, Higgins, SI, Pit-cairn, M 151. and Grotkopp, E 2005. Ecology of Invasive Plants: Lebot, V 2009. Tropical Root and Tuber Crops: Cassava, State of the Art. In: Mooney, H A, McNeely, J A, Sweet Potato, Yams and Aroids. CAB International, Neville, L, Schei, P J and Waage, J Eds, Invasive USA, 56. Alien Species: A New Synthesis, Island Press, Lew, A 1993. Alien plants. PANS. 2: 28-31. Washington DC, pp. 104-162. Mack, RN, Simberloff, D, Lonsdale, MW, Evans, H, Ronald, M, Peter, J, Charles, K and Tibugari, H 2011. Clout M and Bazzaz, FA 2000. Biotic Invasions: Integrated weed management in Zimbabwe's Causes, Epi-demiology, Global Consequences, and smallholder sector, where are we?: a review. Modern Control. Eco-logical Applications, 103: 689-710. Applied Science, 5: 111-117. http://dx.doi. doi:10.1890/1051-07612000010 [0689:BICEGC] 2.0. org/10.5539/mas.v5n5p111 CO;2 Rupert C Barneby 1987. A note on Mimosa invisa C. MacLean, RH, Litsinger, JA, Moody, K, Watson, AK and Martius ex Colla and M. Invisa C. Martius Libetario, E M 2003. Impact of Gliricidia sepium and Mimosaceae. Brittonia, 39: 49. doi:10.2307/2806973. Cassia spectabilis hedgerows on weeds and insect Sanchez, JA, Munoz, B, Reino, J and Montejo, L 2003. pests of upland rice. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Combined effects of scarification and partial Environment, 943: 275 - 288. hydration on the germination of aged legume seeds. Melifonwu, AA 1994a. “Control of Mimosa inivisa in Pastos For-rages Spanish 261: 27-33. Maize Zea mays with Atrazine and Its Mixtures with Sankaran, KV 2001. Mimosa invisa: A Growing Menace Alachlor and Metolachlor”, Nigerian Journal of Weed in South India. Biocontrol News and Information, 22: Science, 7: 9 - 14. 4 -5. Melifonwu, AA 1994b. Weed and their control in cassava. Sanyal, D, Bhowmik, C, Anderson, RL and Shrestha, A African Crop Science Journal, 24: 519-530. 2008. Revisiting the perspective and progress of Melifonwu, AA, Korieocha, MC, Ogbonna, MC and integrated weed management. Weed Science, 56: Balogun, RB 2012. Effect of Selected Herbicides and 161-167. http://dx.doi.org/10.1614/WS-07- 108.1 Integrated Weed Management on the Control of Schatz, Tl 2001. The effect of cutting on the survival of Mimosa invisa Mart in Cassava Manihot esculenta Mimosa pigra and its application to the use of blade Crantz. International Journal of Applied Research and ploughing as a control method. Pl. Prot. Q.162: 50- Technology, 12: 187 – 196. 54.

101 Int J Agri Biosci, 2020, 9(2): 95-102.

Tom, R 2017a. Wikipedia: Mimosa diplotricha. Retrieved Vattakkavan, J, Vasu, NK, Varma, SK, Gureja, N and from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/ index.php? Aiyadurai, A 2004. Study on alien invasive weed title=Mimosa_diplotricha&oldid=803372783". Mimosa and its effect on habitat of megaherbivores in "Mimosa diplotricha giant sensitive plant". Centre for Kaziranga National Park, Project Report, WTI, New Agriculture and Bioscience International. Retrieved Delhi, 24. 16 November 2016. Vitelli, MP; Garcia, C; Lockett, CJ; West, GM and Tom, R 2017b. Wikipedia: Mimosa diplotricha. Retrieved Willson, BW 2001. Host Specificity and Biology of from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/ index.php? the Moth Psigida walkeri Lepidoptera: Citheroniidae, title=Mimosa_diplotricha&oldid=803372783". Asia- a potential biological control agent for Mimosa Pacific Forest Invasive Species Network. Mimosa diplotricha in Australia and the South Pacific. Biol. diplotricha PDF. Invasive Pest Fact Sheet. Food and Control, 22: 1 - 8. Agricultural Organization of the United Nations Waterhouse, DF 1994. Biological Control of Weeds: FAO. Retrieved 14 December 2017. South East Asian Prospects, ACIAR, Canberra, Tongglum, A, Vichukit, V, Jantawat, S, Sittibusaya, C, p.302. Tiraporn, C, Sinthuprama, S and Howeler, RH 1992. Waterhouse DF and Norris, KR 1987. Biological Recent progress in cassava agronomy research in Control—Pacific Prospects. Inkata Press, Melbourne. Thailand. In RH Howeler, ed. Cassava breeding, Willson, B W and Garcia, C A 1992. Host specificity and agronomy and utilization research in Asia. Proc. 3rd biology of Heteropsylla spinulosa [Hom: Psyllidae] regional workshop, held in Malang, Indonesia. Oct. introduced into Australia and Western Samoa for the 22-27, 1990. pp. 199-223. biological control of Mimosa invisa. Entomophaga, Vasu, NK 2003. Management of Invasive species at 37: 293-299. Kaziranga National Park. National Seminar on Alien Wilson BW and Ablin, MP 1991. Biological control of M invasive weeds in India, April 27 - 29, AAU, Jorhat, invisa in Western Samoa. Progress Report 1991, Assam, Abstract: 10. ACIAR Project 8801. p.7.

102