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China's Literacy Myth: Narratives and Practices, 1904

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China's Literacy Myth: Narratives and Practices, 1904 China’s Literacy Myth: Narratives and Practices, 1904-1949 DISSERTATION Presented in Partial FulFillment oF the Requirements For the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Di Luo Graduate Program in History The Ohio State University 2015 Dissertation Committee: Christopher A. Reed, Advisor Julia F. Andrews Harvey J. GraFF Copyright by Di Luo 2015 Abstract This dissertation examines literacy’s relationships to social, cultural, and political changes in the first half of 20th-century China. It explores the meaning oF literacy and its changes in both rhetorical and practical dimensions by examining the various literacy movements sponsored by competing political entities, namely the Qing court (ruled until 1911), the Republican government under the rule oF the Chinese Nationalist Party (1928-1949), and the Chinese Communists (est. 1921). Early 20th century Chinese social reFormers, state leaders, and revolutionaries all deFined literacy as a transFormative tool For grand goals, including China’s independence and modernity. Such mindsets Formed China’s literacy myth, which posits literacy in a direct, linear causal relationship to expected social changes. At the same, China’s literacy myth Fails to present the dynamics and nuances oF political actors’ uses oF literacy in practice to build a modern China according to their distinctive visions. This dissertation examines China’s literacy myth as an ideology and powerFul discourse that served various political entities’ quest For hegemony. It gloriFied mass education as a patriotic, nationalistic, and modernizing endeavor and thus legitimated its political sponsors as leaders oF the nation. While competing political entities tailored literacy education to cultivate popular loyalty to their own regime, it was the content and Forms oF literacy education, rather than the skills oF ii reading and writing themselves, that to a great extent determined literacy’s diversiFied social impact. The meanings and Functions oF literacy were also shaped through an interactive negotiation process between political authorities and ordinary people involved in literacy learning. Focusing on the process of how political elites taught ordinary people to read and write, this dissertation challenges social theorists’ dichotomized view of literacy as being either a controlling or a liberating variable. OFtentimes, Chinese elites used literacy to control as well as to liberate; meanwhile, non-elites oFten managed to extend their own interests while submitting to the prescribed order. iii Dedication This document is dedicated to the memory oF my Mom. iv Acknowledgments It is a pleasure to be able finally to acknowledge, with sincere appreciation, the many teachers, Friends, and colleagues who have been so generous with their help, encouragement, and time over the years. I am especially grateFul to Christopher Reed, my adviser, For suggesting the topic and guiding my research. His mentoring, unfailing support, and valuable critiques have been tremendously inFluential on my development as a scholar. I also owe a great intellectual debt to Harvey Graff, whose concept oF “literacy myth” and insightFul approach to literacy inspired my inquiry to this topic. His deep inFluence on my thinking about literacy is evident throughout this dissertation. I would also like to thank Julia Andrews For teaching me the methods oF visual analysis and enriching my knowledge oF Art history in 20th century China. I wish I had been able to incorporate more images in this dissertation. Much more remains to be done when I turn this dissertation into a book manuscript. My sincere gratitude goes to Philip Brown, a mentor and Friend, whose generous assistance and academic encouragement guided me through key moments oF my graduate school liFe and helped me tide over diFFicult times. I greatly appreciate James Bartholomew and Ying Zhang For broadening my understanding oF historical studies. v In the process oF completing this dissertation, I have received many invaluable comments and Forms oF support From my Friends. Special thanks are due to Chad Berry, Austin Dean, Kevin Fujitani, and John Knight. They all read parts oF my dissertation at varying stages to correct grammatical problems and clear editorial errors. Their efforts and help are greatly acknowledged. I am grateFul to Nora McCook, David Wandera, and Lisa Zevorich For their comments on my work on the Chinese Communist literacy movement during the Jiangxi period, which helped me sharpen my analysis. The research on this dissertation would have been impossible without the generous financial support I received over the years. The Mershon Center for International Security Studies at The Ohio State University provided me a travel grant to initiate preliminary archival research in Summer 2010. The OfFice oF International AFFairs, College oF Arts and Sciences, and Department oF History at OSU supported my extended archival work with various research Funds both in Summer 2010 and during the 2011-2012 academic year. Big thanks are due to the stafF oF several libraries and archives for their kind help with locating many precious documents. My thanks go out to the Chongqing Municipal Archive; the Jiangxi, Shaanxi, Shanxi, and Sichuan provincial archives; and the National Library of China. I greatly appreciate the staff of the Firestone Library and East Asian Library at Princeton University for access to their collections essential to complete this dissertation. vi For sharing their educational experiences with me, I greatly appreciate all the elderly inFormants whom I interviewed. Their personal stories enriched my understanding about actual practices and the social impacts oF literacy learning during the first half of the 20th century. Finally, I would like to express my gratitude For the countless happy hours oF companionship shared with Wenjuan Bi, Man He, Steven Hyland, Keshia Lai, FangFang Sun, Daniel Vandersommers, Yan Xu, Yang Wang, Yanfei (Effie) Yin, and Yanfei Zhu. Special appreciation also goes to Jeanette Barbieri, David Bello, Lynn Chin, Mike and Gloria Smitka, and Yanhong Zhu For their Friendship and moral support that encouraged me to Finish the Final stage oF writing while I was teaching at Washington and Lee University. I dedicate this dissertation to the memory oF my mother, Guihua Ba, who, with my Father Xianchen Luo, has given me unconditional love, inFinite support, and inestimable encouragement. My love and great appreciation goes to my daughter, Ashley, and husband, Hao, For their understanding and support that allowed me to concentrate on my writing and complete my journey through graduate school. vii Vita 2004 ............................................................................ B.A. History, Beijing Normal University 2007 ............................................................................ M.A. History, Beijing Normal University 2007 to 2014 ......................................................... Graduate Teaching Associate, Department of History, The Ohio State University 2014 to present ...................................................... Visiting Instructor, History Department, Washington and Lee University Fields of Study Major Field: History viii Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................... v Vita ................................................................................................................................... viii List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... xi List of Figures .................................................................................................................. xiii Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: China’s Literacy Myth .................................................................................... 26 Chapter 2: Training Imperial Loyalists ............................................................................. 71 Chapter 3: Maintaining the Morale of Literacy Myth in the Nationalist Republic of China ......................................................................................................................................... 120 Chapter 4: Reading the Three Principles of the People .................................................. 157 Chapter 5: Revolutionary Literacy .................................................................................. 194 Chapter 6: Constructing a Literacy in Rural Shanxi ....................................................... 235 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 279 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 297 ix Appendix A: Level of Literacy Exemplified by 23 Models of Cultural Learning (1944) ......................................................................................................................................... 335 x List
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