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FAÇADE-Integrated Sustainable Technologies for Tall Buildings: A discussion of the extent of adoption of such technologies in the most sustainable fifth generation tall buildings and the trends of the future
Marionne James M.Arch. Sustainable Tall Buildings University of Nottingham, UK
ABSTRACT CLIMATE change and energy depletion are two of the greatest risks facing humanity in the 21st century. Urbanisation is increasing the rate of energy depletion in many ways - demand for buildings, for transport,for more energy consumption and for higher living standards for a great number of people.Buildings account for about 1/3rd of the global greenhouse gas emissions and it is estimated that they account for 40% of global energy utilization,25%of global water usage and 40% of global resourcesutilization.Our buildings need to be more sustainable and energy efficient. In the classification of tall buildings, the term „fifth generation‟ is used to describe ones with high environmental and energy performance. The building façade is the main visible element of a building, acting as a boundary between the interior and the exterior, working as an interface between the living spaces and the external climate, influencing comfort and energy efficiency. Residential buildings have the advantages of balconies and active residents to operate blinds and windows. The more difficult design task is for the office building where occupants expect the building to be comfortable, but have almost no say in the control systems. If the façade fails to provide a habitable environment, mechanical and electrical systems (MEP) fill the gap. Sustainable environmental performancecan be attained only with the smart use of new efficient facade systemsthatreduce the MEP, and helps us design and build low energy buildings for a low carbon future. A new paradigm of facades has emerged which interact with the external environment by the integration of new technologies, some with intelligent controls. Some make use of long standing passive technologies such as solar shading and thermal mass. New areas of interest are active technologies such as control systems, whichcan respond to the environmental demands, energy generating surfaces, active shading layers, even the ideas of biomimeticfacades that are designed to perform responsively, like natural organisms. A detailed study of these technologies especially analysing the thermal behaviour of different façade systems and materials along with case studies will be carried out to learn how these approaches can be implementedand to what extent it can help in the approach to carbon neutrality. Sustainable futuristic façade technologies such as breathing facades, fabric facades, air filtering facades will also be covered in the study.
CHAPTER -1.INTRODUCTION demand for buildings, for transport, for more energy consumption and for higher living standards for a CLIMATE change and Energy depletion are two of great number of people. the greatest risks facing humanity in the 21st 1 century. The world‘s population is growing, but According to the UNEP-SBCI , buildings account there is also urbanisation - polarisation of the for about 1/3rd of the global greenhouse gas population location and lifestyle as people move from country to cities. Urbanisation is increasing 1 United Nations Environment Program-Sustainable Buildings and the rate of energy depletion in many ways –higher Climate Initiatives (UNEP-SBCI)
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emissions and it isestimated that they account for The number of tall buildings(above 200m) 40% of global energy utilization, 25% of global constructed in the last decadealoneexceeded the water usage and 40% of global resources utilization. number that was constructed in the entire previous This clearly indicates the growing need to make our architectural history. So the search for advanced buildings more sustainable and energy efficient. examples is focused on what are called ‗Fifth The building façade is the main element of a Generation‘ tall buildings. (This taxonomy of building, acting as a barrier between the interior and ‗Generations‘ was defined in CTBUH publications the exterior, working as an interface between the and papers in 2009 by Philip Oldfield and Dario living spaces and the external climate, influencing Trabuco. comfort and energy efficiency. If the façade fails to 1.3 Synopsis provide a habitable environment, mechanical and Chapter One: Discusses the general idea about this electrical systems (MEP) fill the gap. There is a cost dissertation, the main research question and the and technology battle between Façade and MEP methodology carried out. that designers must always address with the help of Chapter Two:Literature search and known engineers and good design. Sustainable discussion points about sustainability in regions, environmental performance can be attained only cities and buildings in general. with the smart use of new efficient facade systems that reduce the MEP, and helps us design and build Chapter Three: Literature search and details low energy buildings for a low carbon future. regarding carbon neutrality and the various targets and ways of achieving carbon neutrality. A new paradigm of facades has emerged which interact with the external environment by the Chapter Four: Discusses about tall buildings, integration of new technologies, some with functional and iconic tall, along with the various intelligent controls. Some make use of long energy generations of tall buildings. standing passive technologies such as solar shading Chapter Five: Discusses about the facades in and thermal mass. general and the different concepts of low energy New areas of interest are active technologies such façade design such as climate, orientation, day as control systems which can respond to the lighting, glare, etc. environmental demands, energy generating Chapter Six: Discusses about the different types of surfacesandactive shading layers. Designers are façade systems and materials available. even studying the ideas of biomimeticfacades which Chapter Seven: Discusses about the innovative and are designed to perform responsively, like natural advanced sustainable facades technologies such as organisms. energy generating smart facades to biomimetic 1.1 Research Question facades. A detailed study of passive and active technologies Chapter Eight: Explains about the case studies. especially analysing the thermal behaviour of Chapter Nine:Explains the conclusion of this different façade systems and materials along with complete study about sustainable integrated façade case studies will be carried out to learn how these technologies. approaches can be implemented and to what extent it can help in the approach to carbon neutrality. Sustainable futuristic façade technologies such as CHAPTER-2. SUSTAINABILITY IN breathing facades, fabric facades, air filtering REGIONS, CITIES AND IN BUILDINGS facades will also be covered in the study. 2.1 Sustainability – Definition 1.2 Methodology SUSTAINABILITY literally means the ability to be Different types of sustainable façade technologies, sustained …ie. To continue to have the same both currently used as well as futuristic approaches behaviour, quality of life, access to resources. will be studied in detail. Analysis of the thermal Merriam Webster.com defines ‗sustainable‘ as the behaviour of different façade systems and materials ability to be used without being completely used up along with case studies of façades from varying or destroyed. Towards the latter half of the 20th climatic zoneswill be carried out. century the word sustainability achieved prominence more in the context of the realisation
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about the environmental degradation that had NASA officials reported in July 2016 that from resulted from the economic and social development. January to June 2016, each month had been setting Thus the most definitive explanation of new temperature records and thus 2016 is on its sustainability, which is based on the concept of way to be the hottest year ever on record. sustainable development, first appeared in the Brundtland Report for the World Commission on Environment and Development (1987). The Report defined Sustainable development as:
Fig2 - Carbondioxidelevels(Source: NASA)
The warming of the atmosphere is largely the result of emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases from human activities like Fig1 - The three spheres of Sustainability (Source: University of Michigan Sustainability Assessment 2002) burning fossil fuels and changes in land use, such as agriculture and deforestation. Greenhouse gases are “…Development that meets the needs of the not harmful in themselves, but their effect is to trap present without compromising the ability of the solar thermal energy in the atmosphere, thus raising future generations to meet their own needs.” the temperature. Carbon dioxide concentrations in The Report stressed that true sustainability the atmosphere since pre-industrial times have requires a successful combination of Social, increased from 280 parts per million to around 400 Economic and Environmental strategies to meet parts per million. (Fig-2) targets in all these influences. IPCC has observedthat ―Scientific evidence for 2.2 Need for Environmental Sustainability warming of the climate system is unequivocal‖. Solid scientific evidence gathered through most IPCC‘s Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) and advanced and sophisticated instruments and NASA‘s observations, all point to human influence technologies have proved that the planet earth‘s as the most likely predominant cause for the earth‘s atmosphere is warming up faster than ever. Global warming for the last more than six decades.More temperatures have increased by about 1.33 degrees than half of the observed increase in temperature in Fahrenheit (0.74 degrees Celsius) during the last almost sixty years (1951-2010) is likely due to the one hundred years. But the alarming fact is that combined effect of the anthropogenic increase in more than half of this increase has happened after greenhouse gas concentration and other 1979. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change anthropogenic activities.2 (IPCC)‘s report points out that the ten warmest The amount of warming that occurs by the end of years since 1880 have all happened since 1998. this century will invariably depend on human Independent analysis by the National Oceanic and choices now. The lack of progression in curbing Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the US emissions could make the temperature of the planet and NASA have shown that in 2015 the surface rise between 4.7°F to 8.6°F (2.6°C to 4.8°C) by the temperatures of the Earth were the warmest since end of this century, compared to the average 1880 ie. the year when modern record keeping on temperature around the end (1986-2005) of the this subject began. 20thcentury. Warming in the United States
2 IPCC AR5, Working Group 1, Summary for Policy Makers, p.17 3 Marionne James
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isconsidered to be generally higher than the global agricultural production and increasing human health average. Warming across the country problems. averagedbetween 5°F to 10°F, assuming that Very heavy rains and more devastating emissions rates continue. floodsare becoming more frequent in many parts of Although we have the opportunity to avoid some of the globe. this warming, we are still likely to face a number of Effects on the Ecosystem- Increasing considerable secondary impacts arising from temperatures and acute droughts are affecting climate change in the decades ahead. human, animal and plant life and resulting in their Reports of the IPCC, NASA and National Oceanic migration. and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) all Oceans are becoming more acidic due to clearly documents the effects of climatic change the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and this is that have started manifesting. Gavin Schmidt, threatening the marine ecosystem. director of NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Spread of agricultural pests– Agricultural Studies in New York City in his ―Earth in the pests and pathogenic microorganisms are spreading Balance: 7 Crucial Tipping Points‖ says: ―Sustained to newer geographical areas due to the milder above-average temperatures, as the planet has seen winters that facilitate their growth. This is causing so far this century, can affect the ice sheet, global immense damage and problems to livestock and sea levels, ecosystems and more.‖ These effects agriculture. influence all the components of the earth from These impacts pose challenges to infrastructure, bacteria to volcanoes.The most important among businesses, and communities, particularly in such effects are: countries already struggling to meet the basic need Shrinking of Arctic Ice- The extent of of food, water, shelter, and security of their citizens. Arctic sea-ice is shrinking due to global warming If the trends of the earlier decades continue, the and according to NASA, now during the peak of impacts will be severe.The Earth will continue summer it covers 40 per cent less area than it did in without us, but if we want a habitable planet for our the late 1970s. During the first half of 2016, arctic descendants, there is an urgent need to reduce sea ice extent had hit record low levels. It is feared greenhouse gasemissions and to equip ourselves to that some time in this century during summer meet the climate impacts. As the timescale for response of the ecosystem is slow, this becomes months Arctic will be ice-free. It is also observed 4 that with warming climate the frozen tundra very important. landscape has changed into a green, new The concept of sustainability, or ecological design, ecosystem.The rate of melting of ice sheets is is to ensure that our actions and decisions today do increasing in Antarctica and Greenland also.3 not inhibit the opportunities of generations to Rise in Sea level – The melting polar ice is come.Energy efficiency over the entire life span of resulting in the rise of the sea level. IPCC has a building is ofutmostimportance. Different passive reported that the sea level has risen about 8 inches and active techniques are used by the architects to in the last 100 years. This is causing increased reduce the energy needs of buildings and increase levels of coastal erosion and heightening the their ability to capture or generate their own energy. devastation effects of coastal storms. Sea levels are One of the keys to successful sustainable design is estimated to rise to a range of 1-4 feet or higher and to exploit local environmental resources and many cities, even capital cities are under threat from influence energy-related factors such as daylight, the ill effects of such rise. solar heat gains and ventilationin the use of site Frequent Heat Waves–Increasing analysis. frequency and intensity of heat waves experienced 2.3 Urban Heat Island Effect by various regions of the planet are resulting in Urban areas usually experience higher temperatures water scarcity, increased energy demands, reduced when compared to their rural surroundings. Studies have explained that these urban conditions have
3 Charles Miller, deputy science lead for the Arctic Boreal Vulnerability Experiment (Above) at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, 4 California IPCC AR5, Working Group 1, Summary for Policy Makers, p.17 4 Marionne James
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been identified and defined as‗UrbanHeat Island‘ environments. This in turn helps reduce the carbon (UHI) phenomenon. Numerically it is the maximum footprint of these communities. difference between urban and surrounding areas‘ Networking of cities is an incentive to upgrade temperatures, but in actuality it is a more complex infrastructure and new development in corridors of malaise for the urban dweller. Buildings, roads, and development connecting existing nodes, such as other constructions in urban areas absorb heat Britain‘s ‗Northern Powerhouse‘ (Liverpool, during the day and re-emit it after sunset, creating Manchester, Leeds, Sheffield, Newcastle), or high temperature differences between urban and China‘s Beijing-Tianjin, Guangzhou- Shenzhen- rural areas. Hong Kong networked city groups. Many factors bring higher temperatures in the These new cities and city regions are being urbanized environment, such as anthropogenic heat, designed to be highly sustainable, taking advantage excess of heat stored by construction materials, of mass construction techniques, planning principles decreased long-wave radiation losses from urban that take advantages of wind, solar and geothermal areas, lack of vegetation and reduced evapo- energy sources, also minimizing the site specific transpiration processes, reduction of wind speed and elements on the buildings. Although there is a consequent reduced convective heat removal from danger of these satellites starting life as ‗Ghost urban surfaces to the atmosphere.The energy Cities‘, it takes time for the population to move performance of buildings located in densely built until other corroborating factors such as transport, areas can be affected by urban heat islands.The shopping, education and employment catch up with syndrome is made worse by dust levels from the residential building.7 burning of coal and diesel, from concrete and rubber dust and thelack of breeze.5 2.5 Sustainable Architecture 2.4 Sustainability in Cities It could be interpreted as architecture that does not consume large amounts of energy just to be Over the last few years, in developing economies habitable; should not require expensive such as India, China, Saudi Arabia and Dubai the maintenance, or be subject to massive heat-loss or concept of satellite and networking of cities have gain through poor insulation or too much glazing. emerged as solutions to the rapid population Such buildings are also called Environmentally growth. Some of these are still concepts, but there Responsible or Green Architecture. are increasing number of examples. These proposed new communities are planned as city-sized high- Sustainable architecturecould also be defined as density developments where people will live, work, architecturewhich uses materials, energy, recreate, learn and shop, all within walking development space and the ecosystem at large moderately and seeks to minimize the negative distances from each other, occupying only a small 8 area of land. These satellite cities are to be placed environmental impact of buildings by efficiency. on the edge of major cities that have reached their (Curl, 2000) peak at its center. They will be connected by rapid Concepts of ‗Sustainable Architecture‘ or ‗Environ- transit systems which connects to the existing city mentally Responsible Architecture‘ or ‗Green transit systems at some point. 6 Architecture‘ developed in response to mounting One primary factor of success of these cities are worries about ecological and environmental matters intended to be the hope that they will be more from the 1960s, and involved experiments with pedestrian friendly with minimum number of buildings constructed with natural materials (e.g. parking available leading to minimum ownership of timber or earth), which are energy efficient (i.e. are private cars. This will reduce the need for costly well insulated, and draw on solar and wind-powered parking structures and allows more car-free sources of energy), and which respect the site.
5MAGLI,S.,LODI,C.,LOMBROSO,L. et al. Int J Energy Environ Eng (2015) WWW page at :
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TheInternational Modernist architecture that has Fig 6: Fig 7: Deutsche Post Fig 8: Editt Tower, Commerzbank, DHL, Bonn, 2002 by Singapore by Ken been adopted for tall buildings since 1950 to the Frankfurt, 1997 by Murphy/Jahn Yeang. Unbuilt turn of the century was anything but Norman Foster Architects project. environmentally responsible, devoured energy, (Source: Wikipedia) (Source:ctbuh) leaked energy, and was subject to extremes of Unlike the Modern Movement, environmentally temperature because of solar-heat gain. The bronze responsible architecture considers ways of glass monolith (Seagram, New York) spawned harnessing natural environmental resources of uncountable imitators around the World. ventilation, daylight and sunlight, appropriate to the Architecture struggled to find new expression with climate of the site, to enable buildings to achieve Post-Modernism (Sony Tower) and High-Tech comfort with reduced dependency on mechanical Expressionism (HSBC Building) in the 1980s and and electrical systems. It also considers the early 1990s. (See figures below) embodied energy in existing buildings, and the There was a paradigm change at the end of the social investment in them. 1990s with three buildings, Commerzbank A scheme in which landscape and architecture (Frankfurt, 1997, Norman Foster) and Deutsche coalesce and buildings are designed with energy Post (Bonn, 2002, Murphy/Jahn Architects), and the saving and pollution-reduction intent and buildings unbuilt Editt Tower (Singapore, 1988,Ken Yeang), in which formal and picturesque gardens form a which showed another way, a bioclimatic way close part of it are some of the aspects of Green forward for tall buildings. Architecture.
2.6 Sustainable technologies in buildings For the adaptation to a sustainable green or a carbon-neutral construction, the buildingshould not just be totally energy efficient but it should also be able to produce sufficient energy to meet its own needs. Solar and Wind power along with a large number of other new and innovative technologies help in doing so. City governments are always interested in clean cities and can encourage
Fig3:Seagram Building, Fig 4:Sony Tower, Fig5: HSBC Building, developers with the bonus of improved FSI for New York,1958 by New York, 1984 by Hong Kong ,1985 by incorporating renewable energy. Mies Van der Philip Johnson Foster and Partners Rohe(Source:http://ww (Source: Alan Schein (Source: Wikipedia) New mixed use buildings are coming into trend w.375parkavenue.com/ Photography) History) which incorporates different functions such as residential, hospitality, office, retail, etc. all in a single tower. The advantages of such buildings are The 1990s was a period when the Green Party were that they can reduce the transportation demands and in coalition in Germany and could promote and share resources amongst them. For example, the enforce such concepts. At the same time, architect heat generated from the office spaces can be Ken Yeang was achieving great acclaim as a writer harnessed to heat the water required for the on vertical urbanism, ‗re-inventing the skyscraper‘ residential and hospitality sectors.9 with the Editt project as a visual inspiration, backed up by a stream of essays and books. 2.7 Indoor Working Environments 2.7.1Sick Building Syndrome According to Britain‘s National Health Service ((NHS), theSick building syndrome (SBS) is used to describe situations in which the building occupants experience a range of symptoms that appear to be
9 (Sustainability and Energy Considerations by Rick Cook, Bill Bowning and Chris Garwin - CTBUH paper)
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linked to time spent in a building, but no specific The built environment used to consume large illness or cause can be identified.Headaches, amounts of energy and emit huge quantities of nausea, fatigue, shortness of breath, skin irritation carbon dioxide and other GHGs. With the stress on are some of the symptoms associated with the sick environmental sustainability, the need for building syndrome.It is generally caused by flaws in Sustainable Architecture arose. This has led to the heating, ventilation (HVAC) systems or due to evolution of various sustainable technologies and contaminants produced practices, which are finding wide acceptance among by certainbuildingmaterials, volatile organic architects, planners and builders. compounds(VOC), moulds, light industrial chemicals used or the lack of ventilation.10 CHAPTER- 3. CARBON NEUTRALITY AND In workplace buildings, this is a particular NET-ZERO ENERGY CONSTRUCTION disadvantage, as a widespread syndrome affecting 3.1 Carbon Neutrality - Definition many of the workers will reduce the economic productivity of the whole organisation in the Concernsabout the impact of climate change on the building, even leading to demands to find a future of life on the planet has been compelling different building. A good example of one such governments and organizations to rush ahead with building designed to avoid Sick Building appropriate actions. In this scenario the term Syndrome, and reduce energy consumption is the ‗carbon neutrality‘ has become a most common Deutsche Post Tower (Bonn, 2002,Murphy/Jahn attribute which everybody is targeting to achieve. Architects), in Germany with its façade no further Carbon neutrality in effect refers to measuring, than 8 meters from the corridor, enabling working reducing and offsetting carbon energy used by in natural daylight and fresh air. either a building or an organization as a whole. It is notable that the most prominent eco-towers As per dictionary.com,a building can be said to be such as Deutsche Post are owner occupied, not Carbon Neutral when it has achieved such a state at speculative. Commerzbank (Frankfurt), HSBC which the net amount of carbon dioxide or other (HK), Bahrain World Trade Centre, the Council carbon compounds emitted into the atmosphere is House 2 (Melbourne), Hearst (New York) are reduced to zero as a result of the balancing actions to reduce or nullify those example of the employer sacrificing floorplate 11 efficiency to achieve improved well being for the emissions .According to Vangie Beal, freelance employees or to achieve better energy rating for author on technology and environment,Carbon their city. neutrality can be describedas the action of organizations, businesses and individuals taking 2.8 Conclusion part in the action of removing as Sustainability refers to ―the ability to beused much carbon dioxide from the atmosphere as each without being completely used up or destroyed‖. puts into it. The overall goal of carbon neutrality is Sustainable development is one ―that meets the to achieve a zero carbon footprint. She states that needs of the present without compromising the carbon neutrality can be widened further to apply to ability of the future generations to meet their own more than just buildings. needs.‖ The threat caused to the environment by According to the Report ―Towards Carbon Neutral the unrestrained development practices and the Buildings in BC: Framework for High-Rise Multi- resulting climate change has alerted the global Unit Residential Buildings‖ (2012), a carbon neutral community to think about environmental building is defined as one with significantly reduced sustainability. The rise in carbon dioxide and other consumption of energy coupled with the increased Green House Gas emissions and the resultant global use of sources with low carbon generation to meet warming and climate change has compelled them to the demand. American Society of Heating, act. Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) maintain that this must be verifiable through metering of inputs and outputs, and
10 NHS. Sick Building Syndrome WWW page at:
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measurable over at least a year to overcome 3.3 The 2030 Challenge seasonal variations. In 2002, a non-profit initiative, named ‗Architecture Caruthers H. and Casavant T. (2013) describes the 2030‘,was established by Architect Edward Mazria, common approach for designing a carbon neutral which exhorted the international community of building as follows: architects and builders to resort to a series of steps Integrating passive design strategies to reduce the Green House Gas (GHG) emissions Designing a high performance building from new and renovation projects. Since the built envelope environment had a major share in the global consumption of energy and at the same time was the Specifying energy efficient HVAC systems, leading producer of Green House Gases (GHG), the lighting and appliances initiative sought to reduce the emissions in this Installing on-site renewable energy sector with a view to limiting the future global Offsetting 12 warming below one degree Celsius.Thus the primary objectives of Architecture 2030 were: 3.2 Targeting achievement of Carbon Neutrality reduction of global fossil fuel consumption As per IPCC Fourth Assessment Report : Climate and GHG emissions of the built environment by Change 2007, the emissions from the buildings changing the approach to planning, design and sector including through electricity use in 2004 construction of cities, communities, infrastructure, were about 8.6 GtCO , 0.1 GtCO -eq N O, 0.4 2 2 2 and buildings. GtCO -eq CH and 1.5 GtCO -eq halocarbons 2 4 2 the regional development of an adaptive, (including CFCs and HCFCs). resilient built environment that can manage the As per this Report, the emissions of CO2 from the impacts of climate change, preserve natural building sector in 2020 will be 11.1Gt. and in 2030 resources, and access low-cost, renewable energy it will be 14.3 Gt (including emissions from resources. electricity generation and not reckoning Built environment is the major consumer of energy halocarbons as it is planned to be phased out by and the dominant source of Green House Gas 2030). emissions. Reducing the rate of growth of GHG Reduction of GHG emissions from buildings can be emissions and then reversing it is considered to be achieved by adopting one or more of the following the most suitable approach to address the threats approaches. posed by climate change. Architecture 2030 aims at By reducing consumption of energy and making all new buildings, developments, and major embodied energy in buildings. renovations carbon-neutral by 2030. By using a higher share of renewable To accomplish this, Architecture 2030 issued ‘The energy and switching to low-carbon fuels. 2030 Challenge’ asking the global architecture and By controlling non-CO2 Green House Gas building community to adopt the following targets: emissions. All new buildings, developments and major Improvement of energy efficiency is a matter of renovations shall be designed to meet a fossil high priority as it is most cost-effective. fuel, GHG-emitting, energy consumption The IPCC Report furtherobserves that the use of performance standard of 70% below the regional (or mature technologies that already exist and that have country) average/median for that building type. been successfully used for energy efficiency, can At a minimum, an equal amount of existing help substantially reduce CO2 emissions from building area shall be renovated annually to meet a energy use in buildings. fossil fuel, GHG-emitting, energy consumption performance standard of 70% of the regional (or country) average/median for that building type. The fossil fuel reduction standard for all 12‖What is a ―Carbon Neutral ―Building?‖ by Helen Carruthers and new buildings and major renovations shall be Tracy Casavant, Lighthouse Sustainable Building centre Society, increased to: Vancouver, BC . www.lhsbc.com 80% in 2020 90% in 2025 8 Marionne James
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Carbon-neutral in 2030 (using no fossil fuel 3.5 Conclusion GHG emitting energy to operate). Though there are varying definitions of carbon Implementation of innovative sustainable design neutrality, in simple terms it stands for balancing strategies, generation of on-site renewable power carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels and/or purchasing (20% maximum) renewable with renewable energy that creates a similar amount energy may help accomplish the set out targets. of useful energy or using only renewable energy 3.4 ASHRAE Vision 2020 that don‘t produce any carbon dioxide. The ultimate aim of carbon neutrality is achievement of zero The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating carbon footprint. The concept can be extended to and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) cover other Green House Gases (GHGs) which will declared their vision that the building community be measured by their carbon dioxide equivalence. will produce market viable net zero energy The impact of 2030 Challenge and the ASHRAE buildings by 2030.For achieving this ASHRAE Vision 2020 have slowly started manifesting in the aims to provide, by the year 2020, its members from built environment with governments and the building community with the tools necessary to organizations showing great initiative. Carbon design construct and operate Net Zero Energy neutrality (with no fossil fuel and GHG emitting Buildings. ASHRAE defines a net zero energy energy to operate) and Net Zero Energy Buildings building as one that produces as much energy as it (which will produce as much energy as they use) uses when measured at the site. This definition are the targets for 2030. enables easy assessment because it could be achieved through on-site metering. But it has some drawbacks in as much as it is not taking into CHAPTER- 4.TALL BUILDINGS AND account fuel types or the inefficiencies of the utility ICONIC/SUPER TALL BUILDINGS grid. Therefore, a net zero source energy building is 4.1 Tall Buildings defined as one which produces as much energy as it Whenwe see what is obviously a ‗skyscraper‘, we uses compared to the energy content at the energy know it is tall.However, in the millions of medium source on an annual basis. In such a case evaluation tall urban buildings, there is a range of sizes. can be done by using site-to-source conversions to Therefore, some system of classification is needed. account for source energy. According to the Council of Tall Buildings and The definition has two more variations based on Urban Habitat (CTBUH)14a tall building is one that two other metrics. They are Net zero energy cost exhibits some element of ‗tallness‘ in one or more 13 buildings and Net zero energy emission buildings. of the following categories: The European Energy Efficiency Plan 2011 (EEP) Height relative to Context: It is not the envisages all the buildings to be built after 2020 to specific height that matters but the context in which be effectively carbon-free and 3% of the existing it exists. For example, a 15 storey building is not buildings to be renovated every year until 2020. considered a tall building in a high rise city such as EEP‘s projections identifies the construction New York or Hong Kong. But in a suburban area or industry to make the largest energy and emission a provincial European city where the majority of the savings. buildings are low rise, this will be considered a tall Another instance of setting of such tight target is by building. the City of Melbourne, which is trying to reduce the energy consumption of commercial and office buildings in their city by 50% and achieve zero emissions for the city by 2020. Council House 2 (Design Inc, Melbourne,2006) is one such building Fig:9 – Buildings with height relative to context designed as a working example for this initiative. (Source-CTBUH)
14 13 The Carbon Neutral Design (CND) Project, Council on Tall Building and Urban Habitat. The CTBUH stands as
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Proportion: There are numerous buildings that are not particularly high, but are slender enough to give the appearance of a tall building, especially against low urban backgrounds. Conversely, there are numerous big/large footprint buildings that are quite tall but do not seem so, for example, the Fig 12- Worlds ten tallest buildings(Source: CTBUH)
Pompidou Centre, Paris, or the Chicago Mercantile The general view about tall buildings till recently Mart. was that they are anti-environmental and that they are mega-scale energy consumers with little regard for sustainability, conspicuous in their energy consumption, high embodied energy and high Fig:10 – Tall Buildings classified operation and maintenance costs. But that according to its proportion (Source- CTBUH) perception has undergone change because modern high-rise buildings are being designed with varied
aims like sustainability, energy conservation, Tall Building Technologies: A building carbon-neutrality, etc. in view.With the rapid will be classed as a ‗tall building‘ if a building increase in population, decreasing availability of contains technologies, which may be attributed as land and urbanization at an alarming rate, building being a product of ‗tall‘ (e.g., specific vertical tall is the only solution to the growing demand for transport technologies, structural wind bracing as a new buildings. product of height, etc). A new generation of high-rise buildings like Conde Nast Building in New York, Swiss Re Building in London and the MenaraMesiniaga Tower in Malaysia are famous examples of high-rise buildings with sustainable features. These buildings with smart building systems and powerful visual expression disregarded conventional building practices. Very efficient usage of resources and Fig:11–Tall buildings based on the technologies used (Source- urban space are seen in ‗Vertical garden cities‘. CTBUH) They are relatively more habitable and very user- In addition, the CTBUH stipulate additional criteria friendly. Sustainability requirements will for judgement, such as whether the prime use of the necessitate future tall buildings to be more energy- building is for functional occupation, or whether efficient and multifunctional. one is considering the highest occupied floor, as opposed to the height of the spire or mast. Numerical heights are considered ‗tall‘ when the height exceeds 100m, and are classified in 100m, 200m, 300m scales up to and beyond the practical limit of 600m. Exceptionally, the BurjKhalifa, Dubai (SOM 2009) has exceeded 800m, and the Jeddah Tower (Smith Gill, TBC) will top 1000m.15 Fig13- Conceptual design Fig 14- Park Royale Hotel by WOHA in of a future green building Singapore(Source: Park Royal Hotel) by WOHA(Source: WOHA) Any sustainable tall building design should take into account the appurtenant urban infrastructure like water supply, waste management, energy 15 CTBUH Height Criteria. sources, heating and cooling systems and transit
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physical resources also needs to be considered. All mega-building concepts would have to keep in view the need to conform to the new building systems technology and meet the challenges of sustainable tall buildings of future. 4.2 The Five Energy Generations Philip Oldfield and Dario Trabucco in their CTBUH Research Paper “Five energy generation of Tall
Buildings: An Historical Analysis of Energy Fig 16-Home Insurance Fig 17- Equitable Building, New York,1915 Consumption in High Rise Buildings” published Building,Chicago,1885 in 2009 states that “the environmental history of tall (Source: Wikipedia) (Source: Wikipedia) buildings since 1884 can be interpreted as a series of responses to economic, legislative and 4.2.2 Second Energy Generation –From the technological and cost pressures”. The paper Zoning law (1916)to the development of glazed categorises high-rise buildings based on energy curtain wall (1951) consumption characteristics. The Fourth and Fifth generation of tall buildings are the ones that reflect the new environmentally conscious principles.
Fig 18-The comparison of the Fig-19-Empire Fig-20: Chrysler envelope surface area to State Building, Building by volume ratio of the first and New York,1931 William Van second generation buildings (Source: Alan in New (Source: Philip Oldfield) Wikipedia) York 1928 (Source: Wikipedia) The zoning laws were made to increase the airflow and light penetration as well as to avoid big bulky Fig 15- Summary of the fivegenerations of tall buildings, through an environmental interpretation (Oldfield, Trabucco, CTBUH 2009) structures overshadowing the surroundings. The 4.2.1 First Energy GenerationBirth of Tall ‗Setting back‘ required as per this law gave rise to Buildings (1885) to the Zoning law (1916) the next generation of tall buildings which dominated the skyline. (The Empire State Building, The first energy generation buildings were bulky, New York,1931) These tall buildings had smaller compact forms where floor area was maximized by floor plans but bigger envelope surface area stacking of large floor plates repetitively. They had compared to the previous generation (See figure a small envelop surface area but were of large below). Facades for tall buildings of this generation volumes with traditional style load bearing masonry typically occupied about 20-40% glazing (Chrysler construction and big windows occupying 20 - Building, New York,1930), often with stone facing 40%of the façade. (Equitable Building,New York, and punched hole windows. 1915). Heating and vertical transportation were the main consumers of energy in these buildings. 4.2.3 Third Energy Generation –From the glazed curtain wall (1951) to the Energy crisis (1973) The third generation were more prismatic in form, often employing a plaza or forecourt to meet the zoning laws of New York. They had a higher façade surface area to volume ratio of 50-75% (Seagram building and Lake Shore Drive Apartments, Mies van der Rohe, Chicago,1949).Glass buildings with single glazed curtain walls grew in popularityand
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became a new common style especially the black skyscrapers which followed the original design ideals of Mies. While achieving some perfection of architectural form, with smooth glass surfaces, they believed that solar gain could be met with darkened glass and turning up the air-conditioning. They suffered a reduced façade performance due to high heat losses in winter and excess heat gain during summers. The Fig 23-Bank of China by I.M.Pei in Fig 24- One Canada Square by Cesar darkened interiors needed constant artificial Hong Kong,1990(Source: Leslie E. Pelli in London,1991 lighting, which with the inefficient lighting Robertson Associates / CTBUH) (Credits: Steven Henry via CTBUH) technology of the 1950s, added to the heat gain Buildings of this generation have benefitted greatly problem, and led to high total energy consumption from improvements in façade performance. and maintenance costs. However, technological improvements in office work patterns such as large trading floors, computer servers, and 24-hour operations have increased the generation of heat inside the building and this in turn has resulted in higher energy consumption for cooling the interiors. Even in the 21st century majority of urban office buildings are of the ‗Fourth Generation‘ category. 4.2.5 Fifth Energy Generation –From 1997(rise
Fig-21-Seagram Building by Fig-22: Lakeshore Drive of environment consciousness) to the present day Mies Van Der Rohe in New Apartments by Mies van der York,1958 Rohe in Chicago,1949 (Source: Wikipedia) (Credit:Antony Wood, CTBUH) 4.2.4 Fourth Energy Generation –From the energy crisis (1973) to the present day The energy crisis of 1973 resulted in increased awareness about prudent energy usage and this led to the change in single glazed curtain walls to more energy efficient façade systems such as the double glazed façade, use of low e-coated double glazing, argon filled cavities and attempts at solar shading Fig:25:Sketch of Commerzbank Fig-26 Section of Commerzbank by Fosters in 1997 (Source:CTBUH) and double skins.Clear glass is used instead of (Source: Foster and Partners) darkened, for improved daylighting, and artificial Fifth Generationbuildingsare designed with an idea lighting is more energy efficient.The building of the of further reduction of primary energy consumption th 4 generationis better insulated and less expensive to from those found in the fourth generation. Shallow maintain as compared to their predecessors, floor plates or large atriumsare provided to achieve although the prevailing belief is still to have the a high surface area to volume ratio. The buildings of façade largely of glass. There is resistance to this generation use natural and mixed mode introducing natural ventilation – because air ventilation systems to avoid excessive dependency conditioning is expected by tenants, and facades on air conditioning. Artificial lighting is reduced by with openings are more costly to build. Elevators good façade design and use of photo and motion have become vastly more energy efficient. sensors. Another major feature seen in these buildings is theon-site energy generation using wind turbines, etc. which are low or zero-carbon sources. (Bahrain World Trade Centre,Manama,2008),photovoltaics, co-generation and tri-generation, ground source heat pumps, fuel cells, etc. 12 Marionne James
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The first of its kind was the Commerzbank by buildings is another reason for the rise in building Foster in 1997 which incorporated several energy- costs,eg:Petronastowers,Malaysia.Excessive height reducing strategies such as natural day-lighting and has a need for multiple levels of mechanical ventilation through its façade design, water based systemseven if there is a bioclimatic design cooling system of chilled ceilings and full height agenda.At some point the cost of infrastructure central atrium along with large open sky gardens. deflects the cost benefits curve to be very There is a succession of exceptional buildings unsatisfactory, either to the developer or the 16 appearing in the current century, but their impact is environment. mainly educational, to show the professions and city As per CTBUH reports, 56 out of 59 supertall governments what is possible with technology and buildings built in the last 20 years are situated design. The costly investment in them goes beyond outside the U.S. This trend is projected to continue their normal economic ‗call of duty‘. These in future also. Currently 56 supertall towers are exceptional buildings may be classified as ‗6th under construction in China. This trend of generation‘. It will be a long time before there are construction of supertallsis driven mainly by city enough of them to change a city‘s environmental and national pride than economic considerations.17 statistic. Encouragement by city governments and 4.4 Conclusion enforcement of high standards such as LEED A building can be termed as a tall building if it Platinum and BREEAM Excellent are driving the exhibits some element of ―tallness‖ either in its Fifth generation forward. height in relation to the context in which it exists or .3 Iconic/Supertall Buildings by its proportion or because of the use of tall According to CTBUH definition a ―supertall‖ building technologies. On numerical height criteria building is one which is over 300 meters (984 feet) a ―tall‖ building is one that exceeds 100 in height, and a building over 600 meters (1,968 metres.Unlike the tall buildings of earlier times, feet) in height is termed as ―megatall‖. CTBUH new generation high rise buildings are having more data shows that there were 91 supertall and 2 mega- and more sustainable features. Based on the energy tall buildings fully completed, as on June 2015. consumption pattern, the history of high rise buildings are classified (Oldfield and Trabucco) into five Generations. Many of the office buildings of 21st century are still in the Fourth Energy Generation. Modern, environmentally-conscious constructions with various sustainable features come under the Fifth Energy Generation. Many such new buildings with Fig-27 Comparison of heights of iconic tall buildings exceptional sustainability features that demonstrates (Source: CTBUH) the innovative capabilities of design and technology In order to provide stability and bracing at higher have come up. level,for any building having height over 1 km, two The most advanced of these are likely to be or three support structures, or widened feet are classified as Sixth Generation with passage of time. required at the base with links or connections Presently there are 91 Super-tall buildings (over between themThe current tallest building the 300metres) and 2 Mega-tall (over 600 metres) in the BurjKhalifa which is 818 m will be eclipsed by world. Most of these with high infrastructure costs Kingdom Tower in Jeddah which will be 1 km tall have come up not on economic considerations but when completed (Smith Gill, tbf). The purpose of with the intention to boost the city/national pride. this tower is ―to be a symbol of welcoming to the city of Jeddah and to be the centrepiece for a new Kingdom City‖. (Smith, CTBUH 2015) 16 Tall buildings require sophisticated methods of Article on Design Intelligence ―Tall, Global and Sustainable‖ September 18,2013 by Adrian Smith getting people up and down, which costs a large 17 MORRIS,D. Lexology Why build Taller Buildings WWW page at: amount of money. The requirement of large
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maximum energy efficiency and comfort with CHAPTER - 5. FAÇADE INTEGRATED durability, minimum resource consumption and SUSTAINABLE TECHNOLOGIES retention of embodied energy is the leading motif of the basic study. 5.1 Importance of Facades in the overall architecture of a building The tall office buildings require large internal spaces and so achieving better levels of natural Thefunction of the external skin/envelope of a lighting and ventilation in the deeper parts of such a building is not only to project an image to the building is a very difficult task. In very tall outside world but to also play an important role of structures, strong winds and lashing rain that hit the an interface between the user, the interior space and higher levels of the building make it difficult or the external environment. Facades are becoming even impossible to keep the windows open all the more user-friendly and energy-efficientwith time and this also complicates the problem. improved climatic performance. The façade design strategies which recognize the Environmentally, facades affect the following: harmonious link between lighting, façade and Solar heat gain, convective heat and long mechanical systems will convey high performance wave radiation heat transfer and the conductive over the life time of the building, e.g. ‗Integrated loads Façade Systems‘ help in significant energy Penetration of sunlight and daylight into the reduction, helping us to move towards net zero interior spaces energy by 2030. Allowing natural ventilation through the 5.1.1Larger SurfaceArea to Volume Ratio building. Short Buildings have a small surface to volume Facades can indirectly affect the lighting load while ratio with their plan and roof being the largest considering day-lighting of a building and directly elements. Their façades are therefore small but affect its heating and cooling needs, having effects visible, keeping them restricted to a particular on the peak electric demand. visibility range. Tall buildings have a larger surface- The façade design and incorporation is more to-volume ratio which makes them visible from all complex than other building systems due to the fact sides, and the overall impact is significantly more that they remain the most striking architectural than shorter buildings. Tall buildings are more element, are subject to the wear and tear from wind likely to get incidental and solar heat gain through and weather, and because they affect the user‘s its larger surfaces. choice, comfort and fulfilment. Aesthetically, they are the visual identity of the building, and structurally, they may be a significant contributor, interacting structurally with the core through outriggers and belt trusses. The façade has the largest surface area of the building envelope, it also holds a substantial potential in gain and loss of energy and comfort. Modern facades should not only protect the building from unwanted influences, but also utilize solar energy, provide high thermal and visual comfort, and control daylight and fresh air flow through the building. They should also take the aesthetic, psychological, physiological and social needs of its Fig-28- Comparison of surface area to volume between short and tall inhabitants into account. buildings(Source : Kaiqing Zhuang 2013) These complex demands put a great technical challenge on facades, but also show the great 5.1.2TheStructural role of Facades in Tall potential for saving energy and reducing CO2 Buildings emissions. The search of new and robust solutions Up to 35 stories (approx.) the tall building could use for truly sustainable facades, which combine a rigid frame and the façade is merely applied to it 14 Marionne James
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as a non-structural environmental and aesthetic Fig-31:Petronas Tower Fig32: Jin Mao in Fig-33:Taipei 101 in envelope. Above that height, the façade takes an in Malaysia by Cesar Shanghai by SOM Taiwan by C.Y.Lee Pelli(Source: CTBUH) (Source: CTBUH) (Source: increasingly important role as the primary structural Wikiarquitectura) strategy. In some cases, the façade is conceived as a 5.1.3Health and well being structural ‗Tube‘ or ‗Tube in Tube‘, gaining its The sick building syndrome can be reduced by stiffness from its rigorously simple form, square or natural daylight and natural ventilation (assuming circular (World Trade Centre, NYC 1969). that other local factors like carpet, photocopier, noise levels and other sources are addressed). Good façade systems can help, but only if fundamental factors are addressed, such as floorplate depth, core location and orientation. Double skin facades are characteristic of fourth and fifth generation buildings. If they provide effective ventilation and solar shading, and admit good daylight, then they are a significant way to improve working conditions and thus increase the productivity rate of its Fig 1-Hearst Tower by Norman Fig30-Heron Tower by KPF Foster in New York,2006 in London,2011 occupants. (Credits: Hearst Corporation) (Credits: David Bennett) 5.1.4 Refurbishment projects A more recent idea is ‗core and outrigger‘. The Refurbishment projects generally require more Façade is acting in concert with the core for efforts to make themselves more energy efficient stability and protection against wind and seismic than new projects which can achieve high energy movement. This is achieved with the concept of 3 saving standards easily. Energy efficiency on its dimensional outriggers projecting from the core, or own does not justify wholesale façade replacement. with belt trusses, connecting core to façade, and The prime pressure for change is functional mega columns included in the facade. The façade is obsolescence, and thereafter it may be declining considered to be in creative tension with the core physical condition or mounting energy bills. and must balance out overturning forces. Such Another is the potential for higher rental income by systems can be seen in buildings such as Petronas presenting a smart new rebranding of the building. Towers (Cesar Pelli, Malaysia,1996),Jin Mao If enough pressures for change come together from (SOM, Shanghai,1999),and Taipei 101(C.Y.Lee, these causes, then façade renovation or replacement Taiwan, 2004). will happen, and energy performance is major The architect of the Taipei 101 (C.Y. Lee) said that bonus of the development. The reduction of his façade and outrigger concept has an analogy greenhouse gases and increasing energy efficiency with bamboo, one of nature‘s wonder-materials in can be achieved with the help of multi-functional its structural configuration. Along the length of façade systems in refurbishment projects. bamboo is a structural tubular skin, reinforced at intervals by a structural floor – strong in tension, compression and bending.18
Fig 34- First Canadian Fig 35- Madou Plaza in Brussels after Place in Toronto with re- refurbishment cladded facade (Credits: (Credits: Assar via CTBUH) Robert Portolese via CTBUH) 18C.Y.Lee‘s video about Taipei 101- 5.2 Growing role of Sustainable facades https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Holf_So76bs 15 Marionne James
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Façade, the skin that lies between the outside and 5.3.1 Climate based approaches in Façade Design the inside of buildings has a prominent role in According to Koppen Climate Classification providing protection from the elements that lashes System, there are five major climate groups – the exterior andin securing optimum internal Tropical Climate, Dry climate, Temperate Climate, environments.Designers have moved away from Continental Climate and Polar Climate. Different dark glass, the most favoured material of climatic conditions require different approaches and architecture of the International Movement, which strategies for façade design. In hotter climates, the in the world of tall buildings, is referred to above as need for solar shading and ventilation is more with the ‗Third generation‘. Dark single-skin glasscaused the benefit of collection of heat through passive bad experiences of summer overheating and winter heating and heat storage methods. In colder heat-loss. The ‗Fourth generation‘ was an attempt to climates, the need for solar gain increases make glass more acceptable by developing minimising heat losses. In mixed climate, improved double glazing, having maximum combination of good solar exposure and good day- daylight transmission, and avoiding thermal lighting is required.19 fluctuations with early versions of the double skin. Commerzbank building in Frankfurt, Germany is the first modern skyscraper that has opening windows and natural ventilation. Foster and Partners have combined advanced technology and bioclimatic concepts in its design. The building houses naturally ventilated multi-story gardens and the offices in the building have the luxury of enjoying fresh air during 80% times of a year.
Fig 38-Koppen Climate data (Source: Wikipedia)
In the book ‗Sustainable façades‘,AjlaAksamija has described the design strategies that can be adopted for high performance building facades as follows: Orientation, geometry development and massing of the building to respond to the solar position Provide solar shading to control cooling Fig 36: Commerzbank in Fig 37: Uptown Munchen loads and improve thermal comfort. Frankfurt, Germany (Source: Wikipedia) (Source: Wikipedia) Enhance natural ventilation through the building to reduce cooling loads and improve the air 5.3 Concepts of Low-energy Façade Design quality. Optimising natural day-lighting to reduce According to Saint-Gobain GlassSolutions the the energy used for artificial lighting performance specification of a façade should Optimise the exterior wall insulation to consider the following: reduce the energy used for mechanical cooling and Use and Occupancy of the building heating in the building. Nature of the interior space The main function of a façade system is to create a Safety and security requirement of the barrier between the interior and exterior occupants environments and provide a comfortable space External and internal forces acting on the within. To achieve this there should be a perfect façade balance between humidity, temperature and Resistance to wind loading Weather resistance, etc. 19 Sustainable Facades by Ajla Aksamija,2013 16 Marionne James
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ventilation. Additionally, facades should provide protection from wind and rain and control of light East Oriented – Solar radiation enters the east entry. facing façade in summers at a very shallow angle, 5.3.1.1 Facades in summers which makes it difficult to provide shading, it will With the increasing temperatures over the years, also obstruct the daylight entry and the views summers make the interior environments inside. The period of use of these shading devices uncomfortable for its occupants. There is also an would be 50% of the period of direct sunlight. increase in the internal heat loads from electronic South Oriented– Southern façade receives the most equipment especially in case of office buildings.The abundant and uniform sunlight.Good shading idea of correcting the design flaws of a building by devices such as louvers or projections can be installing air-conditioning units have long passed. provided while having very little effect on the views Buildings are now being designed to attain a and the daylight. The solar gain and the internal comfortable room climate naturally or to loads coincide as the direct sunlight on the surface economically operate an air- conditioned space.20 covers the whole period of use. This side provides 5.3.1.2Orientation and Massing to reduce solar the best surface for energy generation such as solar gain and maximise day-lighting and photovoltaics. Orientation and massing of the building plays an West Oriented–The west side of the building is the important role in maximising the daylight entry into most unfavourable one during summers as the heat the building while reducing the solar gain. This can gain are very high.Optimum shading devices is be achieved by extending the building in the east- difficult to design as the lighting is variable on the west axis which makes it easier to manage the solar west side. The no of openings on thewestern face gain and day-lighting on the north and south faces, should be therefore be minimized. Light can be while reducing the exposures on the east and the controlled better with the help of vertical screens. west faces.The orientation of the building 5.3.1.3 Facades in winter determines the altitude and the azimuth of the sun to During winters, the need and therefore the stress the façade.The interior spaces must have good will be on reduction of heat loss and retention of thermal comfort within the required supply air heat within the building at the same time maximise limits while controlling the lighting and views. By the light entry into the rooms. considering the orientation of the building along As the climate outside is cold, the room with providing good ventilation strategies and solar temperatures must be higher to attain thermal screening, the interior climate can be improved. comfort indoors. The transmission heat losses and North Oriented- The north façade generally have surface temperature on the inside of the façade are no solar shading as it receives direct sunlight only influenced by the quality of the glazing and the during summer solstice allowing it to be extensively insulation thickness. In well-ventilated buildings, glazed. radiators can be fitted on the internal walls. Good quality insulation can be used to reduce the heat output, which provides better flexibility in the selection of heat generating and heat transferring systems.
Internal heat loads and heat transfer as well as the proportion of window area will help determine the type of glazing required. The window frame is the weakest point in terms of energy, hence it is better to keep them at a smaller proportion at the same Fig-39 - Thermal and functional effects depending on the facade time glazing with multiple panes should be avoided. orientation (Source: Hauser G, Climate Skins, 2006) With a larger proportion of window area,the three pane glazing can help save more energy along with providing benefits such as better comfort 20Prof. Dr Gerhard Hausladen – Climate Skins: Building- skin: Concepts that can do more with less energy
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environments and less complicated technical reflective ceiling surfaces, floor and wall surfaces building services. and even the office worktops. 5.3.1.4 Air change and Heat recovery The ventilation energy demand can be influenced by the rate of air change. Therefore the building should have lesser no of items such as furniture, equipment, materials, etc. which emit pollutants or odour. By limiting the air change to the minimum required level of hygiene and heat recovery, energy Fig 40-Light shelf Fig41-Prismatic diffuser sheets to (Source: reduce glare(Source: can be saved with the use of good insulating http://www.mulfordplastics.com/) facades. http://www.lighthome.com.au/) Glare and reflection can be reduced by good light The rate of air change has a very high influence on distribution and reflective louvers can be attached the heating energy demand and the rate of air flow either inside or outside the building façade. can be determined by the air-tightness of the Distribution systems direct the light into the upper building and the adjustability of the ventilation part of the room which is then washed across the openings. Unintentional air changes or air leaks ceiling into the room. Additional reflectors or must be avoided by paying special attention during reflective surface can be incorporated onto the construction stage. ceilings for better lighting effects and it is better to For heat recovery within the building,the heat from keep it light coloured so that light does not get the exhaust air can be collected by a heat exchanger absorbed. or a heat pump. The heating demand can be reduced TheNorddeutscheLandesbank building in Germany by heat recovery methods – up to 25% with low air uses supplementaryday-lightingthrough the use of change rates and up to 40% with high air change Heliostats, but the primary lighting is provided rates. through the prolific glazing and transparent interior 5.3.2 Natural Day-lighting through Façade partition walls. Automated venetian blinds manage design heating and cooling stability of the tower. One Artificial lighting takes up one of the largest uses of Central Park (Jean Nouvel, Sydney,2014) is another electricity in buildings which can be significantly example of a building using heliostatsto redirect replaced by natural day-lighting through proper sunlight into the shaded portion of the façade design. Distributing sufficient daylight building.(Detailed case study done in Chapter -8) across the interior spaces, manage glare and 5.3.3 Visual Comfort incorporating lighting control system to maximise Openings for the views should be well positioned at energy efficiency are some of the main objectives of the user‘s eye-level. The higher the window natural day-lighting. As the artificial lighting position, the better is the daylight entry. decreases, the cooling load decreases and the indoor comfort level increases.21 5.3.3.1 Glare Lighting levels in the depths of the rooms can be Glare is caused when the luminance levels are very improved by producing uniform illumination with high. Vision is reduced when the light entering the use of natural light distribution systems. one‘s eye can no longer be limited. The level of Examples of light distribution systems are reflective glare has increased inside buildings due to Heliostats, light shelves, prismatic panels, venetian the use of computer screens upon which light gets blinds, solar pipes, avoidance of drop-down beams, reflected, creating discomfort to the users. This can be reduced by placing the screens perpendicular to the windows.
Glare protection systems such as louvers, 21J.W.Root, A great architectural problem (1890) WWW page translucent glazing, transparent or semi-transparent at:
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5.3.4 Solar shading/ Solar screening Solar shading devices help to control heat gain and heat loss and at the same time address the problems of glare, which is a significant problem that affects both the inside and outside of the envelop. Solar shading devices come in different forms and shapes such as sunshades, light shelves, vertical louvers, 22 Fig42- Colourful solar shades used Fig 43- Aluminium louvers as sunshades horizontal louvers, overhangs, blinds, fins, etc. in A Beckett Tower by Elenberg (Source:http://www.hhmetals.com/sunsh Fraser, Melbourne (Credit: Peter ades.htm Glare often occurs in areas close to the floor plate Clarke) edge which receive a large amount of sunlight or bright daylight. This gives occupants of the inner Some of the main features to keep in mind while spaces the uncomfortable impression that they are selecting the right type of screening device in darkness. Well-designed solar shading devices are:orientation, transparency of the façade, can perform both functions, those of protecting maintenance costs, wind exposure, daylight from sun, and assisting the reflection of light to the requirements and visual comfort. interior. Solar screens work on either absorption process, reflection, reduction, selection or External louvers are the most effective as it blocks transformation process. the sun from striking the façade but have a high maintenance cost as they are exposed to wind and In case of absorption process, the light striking the weather conditions. Internal louvers can be roller screen is converted into heat, eg.- Projections, blinds or venetian blinds. They can be easily Blinds and Awnings. Solar screening can work on controlled by the users and remains protected from reflection where it acts like a mirror to reflect light wind and weather conditions. without heating up too much, eg.- Venetian blinds and film roller blinds. The reduction process works by reducing the surface area which in turn reduces the intensity of direct and diffused light, eg.- Screen-prints, perforated plates, metallic fibre, wooden grillage, etc. Selection Process filters out certain wavelength of lights and transformation process is when diffused light penetrates into the room and direct light gets scattered. Fig 44-Sectional view of an Fig 45- Internal venetian blind system Externalsolarlouverswithfixed brise If the screensare placed on the interior side of the (Credits: J.S.T Home soleil(Source: improvements) http://www.coltgroup.com/solar- façade, both the absorbed and the reflected radiation shading-products.html) will be released into the room as heat by raising the 5.4 Conclusions air temperature. On the other hand, if the screens are placed on the exterior side, only a little amount The role of facades in the overall scheme of a of the radiation will contribute to heating inside. building is manifold. Apart from contributing to the The A‘Beckette Tower (Elenberg Fraser, aesthetic appeal of the building and from being the Melbourne,2010) is a good example of colourful most striking architectural element, facades may solar shading devices used that is both functional have different functions like structural, protection, and aesthetically pleasing. ventilation, day-lighting, thermal regulation, etc. They provide protection from the exterior environment especially wind and rains and in some cases from seismic movements. They have a role in regulating solar heat gain, convective heat, conductive loads and long wave radiation heat. Facades which form the major part of the surface
22 area have a crucial role in facilitating thermal and New Suburbanism: Sustainable Tall Building Development ByKheir visual comfort in the interior, allowing fresh air Al-Kodmany. flow, utilising solar energy and regulating daylight entry. 19 Marionne James
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Modern facades incorporate many sustainable 6.1.2 Elemental facades features which enable saving of energy and These facades are made up of prefabricated reduction of carbon dioxide emission. Most façade elements with functional elements for ventilation, functions when manipulated prudently can result in day-lighting and energy generation. great reduction in energy consumption, substantial 6.1.3 Baffle panel reduction or even elimination of carbon dioxide emissions and great improvement in internal This is an additional element to the façade where a comfort. Many of the modern sustainable panel is placed at a short distance away from the technologies that can manage and manipulate to windows (perforated or elemental facades) to advantage heat, light and energy gain from sun can reduce the disadvantages of ventilation and sound be integrated with the facades thereby aiding insulation in case of single skin facades. They can achievement of carbon neutrality. Many of these provide good solar screening, can be operated in modern technologies are active ones like control any wind conditions and offer good protection systems that can respond to environmental against the weather conditions. It is a cost effective demands. way of optimising a façade. They do obstruct the view out by a limited extend.
CHAPTER - 6. TYPES OF FACADES AND MATERIALS 6.1 Single Skin Façade Facadesare based on climate, orientation, massing, the building‘s function,occupancy patterns, equipment loads, etc. They are mainly of two types: Opaque facades – These are facades made up of layers of solid materials. Example – Fig47- Baffle panel detail Brickwork and masonry facades, precast concrete (Source: Hausladen,G, Climate Skin) panels,metalliccladding,tiles and stone veneer panels, insulation, cold-formed steel framing, etc. 6.1.4 Curtain Walls Glazed Facades - Facades that consist of transparent or translucent materials and metal Curtain walls are lightweight façade systems that framing components such as Curtain walling, are attached to the buildings primary structure using glazed terracotta, etc. aluminium extrusions. These are the traditional types of systems used in tall buildingswhich were of 6.1.1 Perforated Facades different types and methods such as: They are the earliest form of facades and mostly Stick (mullioned) curtain walling consisted of a wall that had openings for allowing Unitised curtain walling passage of air and light. Usually they were also intended to bear loads.These are the traditional Rain screen cladding method of design and have low maintenance and Windows in walls cleaning costs compared to the other types. Structural Glass (framed or frameless) One of the first tall buildings with the mullioned curtain wall façade was the UN Secretariat (Le Corbusier, 1952, New York).Curtain wall systems of this era have high operating energy cost, due to absence of thermal break design, double-glazing or inclusion of insulation. During the more energy- aware late 1970s, this led to a reduction in the useof Fig 46 - Perforated Facade detail(left), Elemental Facade detail(right) the bare curtain wall, as in their early formulation. (Source: Hausladen,G, Climate Skin) Stick Curtain walling: These are systems where each component i.e., the mullion, spandrel panels and glass are installed on the structure individually
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so as to finally make up the building envelope. They time cooling. It is not only used for tall buildings. A can interior or exterior glazed systems. walk through the City of London, or many cold Unitised Curtain wall system:These are climate European cities reveals many examples of prefabricated units, which generally is a pane wide double skin being used for new buildings of average and about one or two storey high. They are easier urban height. and faster to install with less labour required. The double-skin façade, as the name suggests, Unitised systems have a better performance than consists of two skins fabricated in a manner that stick systems. provides enough airspace in the cavity for ventilation routes, shading devices, green planting, engineer access or even leisure spaces.The main insulating façade is the inner skin. The outer façade is the climatic sheath, or wind-breaking skin.Double skins have strategies of air containment, such as the box, corridor, shaft, or uncontained all-over skin.
Fig 48- UN Fig 49- Shanghai Fig 50-On-site Fig 51- Ventilation is facilitated by the movement of air Secrétariat in Tower curtain installation of Installation of a New York by Le wall 2016 stick curtain unitised curtain through the cavity between the skins. It can be Corbusier 1951 (Source:CTBUH) walling system wall(Source:Arup) natural, fan supported or mechanical. Various (Source: (Source:Arup) CTBUH) factors like location, climate, time and period of 6.1.5Rain-screen cladding occupation of the building etc. can have a bearing on the origin and movement of air through the It is an extra element attached to the wall to keep cavity. Double skin facades can help in reducing water from entering in as well as to prevent leakage the heat losses in cold climate and at the same time of air, carry wind load and to offer thermal it can aid in passive solar heat gain. During hot days insulation. The rain-screen concept makes use of the it can reduce solar heat gain. These capabilities outer layer to act a protective layer against the rain together with the facilitation of natural ventilation and the weatherproof inner layer blocks moisture increases the energy efficiency of this type of and air from penetrating inside. Figure below shows façade.23 the different forces that lead to penetration of rain into the building. They can be made of different materials such as terracotta, precast concrete, cement composite, stone, glass, metal, etc.
Fig 55:Different types of double skin facade systems(Credits: T. M. Boake) Glazing can be done with single or double glazing units and the cavity in between. The width of such
Fig52- Fig 53- Various penetrating forces Fig 54-Rainscreen cavities can usually be from 20 cm upto 2 meters. Rainscreenprinci of wind(Source: Aksamija,2013) claddin on buildings Solar shading devices are usually located inside the ple in Jubilee Campus of (Source: University of cavity. This is safe and it helps in heat extraction Wikipedia) Nottingham and ensures protection from corrosive particles in (Source: Author) the air24.Double skin facades are of 4 types: Box 6.2Double skin facades window façade, corridor façade, shaft box façade Over the last 20 years, the most important and multi-storey façade. development in the facade industry has been the introduction of the double skin facade. With the 23 The Master Builder, Double skin Facades:Solution for energy correct configuration, it has become a solution for Efficient Building Operations WWW page at: many of the issues, at height,regarding natural
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6.2.1 Box Window Façade A box window has an extra glass panel in front of the window allowing a cavity formation between them. This type of window provides good ventilation, noise reduction and solar screening. They reduce the views outside and the construction costs are high but they provide comfortable ventilation in winters and can be prefabricated making them suitable for renovations. Fig 60- One Angel Square, Fig 61- The construction of the Manchester(Source: Author) double skin in One Angel Square (Source: Wikipedia) One Angel square (3DReid, Manchester, 2013) is an ‗Outstanding‘ BREEAM building in the UK, witha score of 95.16 out of 100.It has a double skin façade system which consists of two skins connected to each other by struts that create a Fig 56 -The shaft box type Fig 57- Box type facade construction detail façade (Source:http://www.fenestrapro.com/2014/01/2 walkway between them for solar shading, (Source:Aksamija,2013) 2/seeing-double-part-i-the-concept-of-a-double- maintenance and ventilation. skin-facade-2/) 6.2.3 Shaft-box type double skin façade 6.2.2 Corridor Façade The shaft box type façade is a double skinned one These are double skin facades with the cavity with a mix of both single storey cavity and a multi between the facades acting as corridor spaces and storey cavity and the benefits of both. It mainly are separated storey by storey. The air exchange consists of an alternating layout of box façade units. takes place either at every level vertically or at the According to the varying climatic conditions corners of the building (horizontally) or by both. outside and inside the building both the facades can The pressure conditions within the building can be be appropriately used when required to attain a controlled using these systems by opening or comfortable indoor temperature. Though its closing the façade/ window/ panels/ elements. Such construction costs are high it can be prefabricated type of facades has limited view outside and has with good ventilation options and can be easily high fire-safety requirements. installed.
Fig 62- Details of a shaft Fig63- Shaft box type facade box type (Source: Fig 58-Details of a corridor type Fig 59- Corridor type facade façade(Source:Aksamija,20 façade(Source:Aksamija,2013) 13) http://www.fenestrapro.com/201 (Source: 4/01/22/seeing-double-part-i-the-concept-of-a- http://www.fenestrapro.com/2014/01/22/s double-skin-facade-2/) eeing-double-part-i-the-concept-of-a- double-skin-facade-2/) 6.2.4Unsegmented or Multistorey double skin façade These facades do not have any horizontal or vertical separations in the cavity which could be as small as 1m to several meters deep. These skins are structurally independent of each other and the interior spaces require mechanical ventilation methods. For noise reduction purposes the number of air inlets can be reduced but for thermal
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optimised ventilation the inlets and outlets should 6.5 Multifunctional Façade Systems be spaced out over the height of the façade to These systems are designed with the best level of reduce overheating in the cavity.These kind of prefabrication and used in modular construction facades give a homogeneous appearance to the methods for large scaled residential and office building and can be simply retrofitted. They have buildings. These unitary systems can avoid thermal high fire-safety requirements and have limited bridging, have high air-tightness, attain all thermal views to the outside. requirements as well as integrate large innovative energy sources such as photovoltaics and hybrid technologies, e.g. the TES Energy Façade, enVELOP façade system.Thermal bridging is reduced by quality controlled prefabrication methods, which also reduces the on-site construction time, as well as achieving a very high air-tightness. Integrating cables, ducts and windows, Fig 2- Details of a multi Fig65- Multi storey facade system under storey double skin construction(Source: can also avoid thermal bridging, air leaks and future façade(Source:Aksamija,20 http://www.fenestrapro.com/201 maintenance failures. 13) 4/01/22/seeing-double-part-i-the-concept-of-a- double-skin-facade-2/) 6.2.5 Controllable Double Skin Façade The design and construction of this type of façade is very complex. They could be made for an individual opening in the floor to ceiling space of each storey or could be extended to the whole of the outer skin of the building. Control systems adjusts the façade to attain good climatic condition and Fig 68 – Dieselweg Graz- Refurbishment Project in Austria, 2010(left) natural ventilation. Its construction and maintenance construction layers : Existing wall, the insulation and wood frame(right) costs are very high due to the large no of moving (Source :http://www.gapsolution.at/) parts and control systems. Variable façade settings PIXEL (Studio505,Melbourne, 2010) is Australia‘s can be achieved, and by opening the outer skin first carbon neutral building with colourful excess heat in the cavity can be brought down thus panelised façade that control glare, maximise day- facilitating night cooling. lighting, provide shade and views and give a unique 6.3Fifty percent (50%) Facades identity to the building. The facade system consists of perimeter planting, double-glazed windows, solar A popular idea is for the return to the use of ‗the panels and fixed louvers. wall‘, instead of assuming that tall buildings must always be of glass.This is often called the 50% façade concept, whereby one achieves the necessary daylight and ventilation in a workspace with ‗punched-hole windows‘,, leaving the other 50% of thefaçade to be high performance insulated wall. (Shuttleworth, CTBUH Dubai conference 2008)
Fig 69- Colourful panels for solar shading on PIXEL, Melbourne (Credit: Ben Hosking)
I-module I-module facades are the best example of multi- functional unitary walling façades. These highly
innovative facades integrate heating, ventilation, Fig 66- 5 Broadgate by Ken Fig 67- The Cube By Ken Shuttleworth Shuttleworthar Birmingham heat recovery, lighting, sound insulation, etc all in (Credits: Make Architects) (Credits: Rich Beghin) 23 Marionne James
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its 20cm thick cladding panels. They are made of closed and transparent façade elements acting together as a single unit creating a perfect balance of solar protection and views to the outside, achieving averagely 50% glazing. The façade panel can control the air quality and building‘s temperature, and the panelis integrated with lighting and acoustic elements.
Fig 71- The EEA +Tax office in Fig 72 - EEA+Tax office facade Netherlands by UNstudio details (Credits: Ronald Tillman) (Credits: UNStudio) 6.7Green Façade systems Green Façade systemsare made up of living plants or trees. These facades help in increasing the project‘s green space with a minimum-sized footprint. They are not a low-cost option. Further the maintenance costs also are high because it requires regular watering and replanting. However, Fig 70-Fragmented window "i-module" in Düsseldorf (left) and I-module window details and exploded view(right) the embodied energy costs are very low and they (Source: http://filt3rs.net/case/fragmented-window-i-module-dusseldorf-131) render considerable pleasure to the users and the public in comparison to other mineral based façade 6.5.1Solar Active façadesystem- GAP Solution options. Façade Systems Green facades which are architecturally designed In this system, the solar energy is trapped and used, are very attractive and helps in making the project in the passive energy concept. Façade system conspicuous. They have the ability to improve the contains a honeycomb shaped assembly made of local environment, and increase the appeal of the natural materials, which increases the temperature building. when sunlight hits them. This creates a gap between While the high installation and maintenance costs of the layers and reduces the thermal bridge. green facades are a dampener on the designer‘s Education Executive Agency +Tax Office enthusiasm, they have many advantages like: (UNstudio, Groningen, 2011) is one of Europe‘s It reduces overheating through shading and greenest building with its façade designed to cause transpiration minimal environmental impact. It has incorporated Helps in dust filtration concepts such as wind control, shading, daylight Reduces perceived noise levels entry through façade elements that are shaped as air Facilitates carbon dioxide storage and foil fins which help in by keeping the heat outside oxygen emission reducing the requirement for cooling. Helps in increasing Biodiversity – insects, 6.6Hybrid Façade Systems bees, butterflies, birds These are new technology façade systems, which are still under development and uses smart materials like aerogel, nano-particles and vacuum insulated panels. Hybrid systems can also be a combination of two different materials or technologies such as timber and aluminium systems. Such a system consists of aluminium on the exterior for durability, long life and low maintenance with the interiors made of Fig 73: Green wall at the Universidad del Claustro de Sor Juana in the historic engineered timber giving it a natural look and feel center of Mexico City.(left),Bosco Verticale,Milan (right) (Source: Wikipedia ) inside.
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6.9.3Prefabricated panels 6.9Sustainable Wall Materials Prefabricated wall panels typically include a All buildings have an embodied energy cost. The structural framing system, sheathing, façade, which must face the attacks of nature for weatherproofing, insulation and exterior wall many decades is a high proportion of the cost of a cladding. Prefabricated panelsare delivered to the tall building. Material selection is very important project and connected to structure providing the for sustainable façade design as every material has complete building envelope. Prefabrication provides different physical and thermal properties. The added quality assurance with fabrication under question is if sustainable building materialscanbe controlled conditions, reduced on site labor and used on the façade instead of costly materials like reduced construction schedule. Prefabricated panels stainless steel, aluminium or titanium? can be provided with a wide range of exterior materials including; Aluminum composite Normal urban buildings are designed for a lifetime materials, thin brick, terracotta, ornamental metals, of 30 years before requiring renovation, but etc. historically, tall buildings have had lifetimes of well beyond 50 years, with periodic expensive 6.9.4Composite Metal refurbishment programmes, but not demolition. Tall Aluminum Composite Material (ACM) – ACM is buildings suffer more severe conditions of thermal widely known as the exterior cladding of choice on expansion, oscillating wind pressure/suction and multi storey buildings because of its ability to UV exposure, resulting in loss of panels or provide complex architectural features and superior degradation of seals. Various new materials and weatherproofing. It is also used for column covers, technologies are discussed below. entrances, canopies and other critical design 6.9.1 Timber elements. ACM panels can be used in both Rain screen and barrier wall systems and also provide Timberis considered sustainable because it locks up LEED certification value as a sustainable carbon, and is grown through responsible forestry material.ACM panels are used widely for both new practices. Use of external timber cladding is not and retrofit construction, and can be field installed discussed in this study because the context of the or as a component in prefabricated panels to provide study is mostly tall buildings. On these, exposed a clean high tech look timber is too risky due to the risk of fire spreading easily upwards over the surface of the building 6.9.5Terracotta(„burnt earth‟) beyond the reach of fire-fighting teams, and spread For centuries, terracotta has been used in building of flame to adjoining buildings. There is also the construction, mostly as roof and floor tiles. very high cost of general maintenance of organic Terracotta now provides a premier architectural material at a great height over the much longer option used in Rain screen and ventilated exterior lifetime that tall buildingsare designed for. wall construction. Terracotta is available in varied Timber in solid form (CLT/KLH) may be used as a profile shapes and earth tone colours, glazed or wall substrate within the concrete frame, but it is unglazed, to provide an architecturally wholly fireproofed, never exposed. appealing, energy-efficient building. Terracotta is a 6.9.2 Glass Glass has become the symbol of modern facades.It is seen and used on the majority of the tall buildings around us and a huge advancement has been made in glass technology in the last few decades. Since the early glazed tall buildings of the 1950s, there have been major advances in the coatings and performance of glass. Furthermore, a wide variety of techniques can be used on glass such as printing, etching, coating, use of metal sheets with Fig 74 - Jubilee campus buildings with Fig 75 - Terracotta Panel Facade perforations over glass, louver variations, etc. terracotta facades by Ken Shuttleworth and System detail Make architects (Source: LOPO Terracotta products) (Source: Author) 25 Marionne James
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100% natural material, made from clay and sand, is the organic dirt particles and the hydrophilic stage non-combustible and provides LEED certification when the rainwashes the loose particles from the value as a sustainable material.Terracotta, with its glass. This reduces the maintenance costs of the colours stabilized under a glazed finish, has an building and helps keep the glass clean. Research eternal durability, and is a prime walling solution also proves that self-cleaning glass which uses for the new buildings of University of Nottingham‘s natural rainwater and gravity can reduce pollutants, Jubilee Campus, designed by Make. such as human-applied detergents which cause 6.9.6Fiber Cement major problems in rivers and treatment plants. Fiber Cement Panels (FCP) offer an architecturally uniform, non-combustible, durable exterior that is designed for use in Rainscreen and ventilated wall systems. FCP‘s are available in a wide range of aspects and colors. FCP‘s have been successfully used in Europe for over 35 years as a ‗No‘ maintenance exterior, requiring no caulking or painting. 6.10Fritted Glass Fritted glasshascomputer controlled patterns printed on the surface. Fritted glass has application ranging Fig 78- Self- cleaning glass details from reducing solar gain; avoid glare; or simply (Source: Aksamija,2013) creating a pattern, also, giving better safety and 6.11.2 Electro-chromatic glass privacy. They consist of an extra layer of film, which The Leatop plaza by JAHN in Guangzhou, China is changes its opacity when applied with an electrical a light, transparent tower designed to be energy- voltage.The transparent electro-chromatic glass can efficient and is an excellent example for its use of change into a tinted glass when applied with fritted glass making it resemble an ice crystal. It has electricity and vice versa, with the ability to a high performance façade which is triple glazed, remainin that state unless applied with electricity low e-coated, fritted, and shingled. again. The solar heat gain reduces when the glass is tinted and it increases when it becomes clear. Therefore, it can be used according to the changing climate. It provides good shading to the building and can reduce the overall energy consumption of the building. (Aksamija, A. 2013)
Fig 76-Bank of America in Fig 3- Fritted Glass Bryant Park, NYC (Credits: John (Credits: April Gocha) W. Cahill/CTBUH)
6.11Advanced Facade Materials 6.11.1 Self-cleaning glass Self-cleaning glass consist of a thin layer of photo- Fig 79- Electro-chromatic glass details catalysts on its surface, which are compounds that (Source:Aksamija,2013) accelerate a chemical reaction using the UV- bands 6.11.3Nanomaterials of sunlight. The commonly used photo-catalyst is Coating the façades of tall buildingswithNanopaint titanium dioxide. The self-cleaning process of glass could reduce pollution by acting as air purifiers. happens in two stages:The photo-catalyst stage Titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles in paint on when the glass is exposed to light, it breaks down exposure to ultraviolet lightbreak down organic and 26 Marionne James
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inorganic pollutants that wash off in the rain. It also Storage summers when the total winter sun is reflections are >40 < 35 degrees decomposes particles like formaldehyde that causes degree air pollution. (Source : http://www.glassxpcm.com/how-glassx-works/) 6.11.4Solar Nanotechnology Amorphous silicon, organic and inorganic solar 6.11.7 ETFE cells derived from nano-crystals has high solar Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene, commonly known as conversion rates and so can produce electricity at a ETFE is a fluoropolymer material. This comes as very low cost than the common silicon-based solar large sheets coated with Teflon. There is a steady cells. These cells also have the additional increase of ETFE usage in the building industry due characteristic that they are ultra-thin. to its built-in properties and adaptability. ETFE is a Nanotechnology has made it possible to print tiny low-maintenance, recyclable and extremely solar cells on very thin and flexible light retaining lightweight material when compared to glass. ETFE materials thus obviating the need to meet the cost has a long life of over 50 years as it is resistant to of silicon. degradation by sunlight, ultraviolet (UV) light, atmospheric pollution, etc. Depending on the 6.11.5Phase Change materials (PCM) specific requirements it can be manufactured as The first reported application of PCM was back in single, double or triple-ply with air fillings. In 1940s.The main attracting feature of the PCM is single ply-form its thermal and acoustic that they have a greater storage capacity than that of performance is very poor and so is not suitable for conventional materials as they can store heat energy façade applications. However, in the two or three- in a latentform.When the temperature rises, the ply forms it has very good thermal properties, chemical bonds break as there is a change in phase because the air trapped between the layers acts as an from solid to liquid. The PCM absorbs heat as the insulator. phase change process is endothermic and when the atmosphere cools down it return back to its solid phase releasing the stored heat. GlassX is an example of such PCM facadesand it consists of a PCM in its core which is made up ofCalciumchloridehexahydrate (CaCl2 6H2O) which is a non-toxic salt, with a melting point at room temperature.Itcan provide a thermal mass equivalent to that of 16‖ of concrete. Fig83- Triple ply ETFE cushion with changing position by varying air Façades made of this material does both the pressure(Soure:Aksamija,2013) function of absorbing the solar energy and ETFE does not have a tensile structure and so protecting it as well.A layer of salt crystals on the cannot support itself. The multi-ply sheets when surface will help absorb the heat and the prismatic filled with air forms into pillows which can adjust glass allows the radiation to pass only at the lowest to the varying loads exerted by the winds. The air- angle of radiation. pressure in the pillows are maintained constant in During summers, the solar radiation is reflected by relation to the wind force with the help of pumps. a prismatic outer layer when the sun is at an angle The pillows are kept supported by structures made higher than 40 degree. During winters, when the sun of aluminium or steel. ETFE is fire resistant and can is at a lower angle lesser than 35 degrees the be easily repaired when damaged. prismatic layer allows more solar gain. ETFE is 100% recyclable with self-cleaning properties. It is a very sustainable material with low levels of CO2 emissions due to its lightweight at the same time its carbon footprintis believed to be 80 times lesser than other transparent building materials such as glass. ETFE can admit more light than glass, thereby reducing the energy costs by Fig 80 - The PCM Effect Fig 82 - During Fig -During 30%. of Heat Absorption and 81 winter, when the 27 Marionne James
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interiors can be made possible by using silica aerogel due to its translucent nature. 6.11.10 Suspended Particle Device (SPD) SPD consists of a transparent conductive material with suspended liquid crystals laminated between layers of glass. The amount of light entering the glass can be controlled by applying a voltage. In the normal state, the liquid crystals are arranged
randomly and scatters light to give it the translucent Fig 84- The Medis ITC building in Barcelona Fig 85-The National Space with ETFE Facade byEnric Ruiz Geli Centre at Leicester with ETFE appearance. When electricity is passed through, (Credits:LuisRos) Façade these crystals rearrange themselves, allowing light (Source: Wikipedia) to pass through it making them appear transparent. 6.11.8 Vacuum Insulated layers They are generally used indoors for privacy control Vacuum Insulated layers are 5-10 times thermally and used less as building envelops. more effective than layers of conventionally available insulation. They make use of new technology and have room for further developments, for example, incorporating them into unitary curtain walling systems. Vacuum insulated layers have good insulating properties and can be made very thin, hence they can be easily used in small tight spaces such as below the window sill or floor connections to prevent heat bridges, or by enabling thinner panels, to improve the net lettable Fig 87- Suspended Partcle Device details space in the gross floorplate area of a framed (Source: Aksamija,2013) building. They are used mainly in refurbishmentprojects as they require smaller space 6.11.11 Coating agent for reducing the soiling as compared to conventional materials. Vacuum process of facades insulated layers can be used in prefabricated US has patented a coating agent for reducing the components such as precast concrete. In addition, soiling process of facades. The transparent coating the low self weight makes them attractive for use in agent comprises of a layered silicate capable of tall building walling systems. forming a colloidal gel in the presence of water. Soiling of the facades manifests in greying and this happens due to the deposits from the air onto the surface.Researches have revealed that the soiling consists mainly of inorganic particles with a size of up to 10 μm along with small fractions of soot.
Fig 86- Section of a thin Insulation Panel The transparent, readily processable, colour-neutral (Source: Kingspan Insulation Ltd.) coating agent has thixotropic properties. Its 6.11.9 Aerogel composition is suitable for an even application to Aerogels are synthetic solids that are made up of air facades and helps in reducing their soiling tendency having the lowest densities among all solids. Due to and the attenuation of gloss. Moreover, it does not the low density, they have low thermal conductivity show any colour changes of the substance. making them ideal for use in areas where high 6.11.12Thermotropic Materials for Adaptive thermal insulationis needed. When integrated with Solar Control polycarbonate sheets, they form transparent Thermotropic materials which have high stability cladding materials. Aerogels have good acoustic against solar radiation and heat and also possess properties with good resistance to moisture and are optical properties like absorbance and reflection non- combustible. Diffused lighting into the have great utility in adaptive solar control. They also possess technology compatible processing
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characteristics. Thus they are among the best energy advanced façade materials presently being tried in efficient materials. Such intrinsic solar energy many buildings. reflecting, phase change materials are now being used for smart window systems. Summarizing their CHAPTER- 7. INNOVATIVE AND paper (ThermotropicMaterials for Adaptive Solar ADVANCED SUSTAINABLE FAÇADE Control) describing the details of this technology, TECHNOLOGIES Ruhmann, Seeboth, Muehling and Loetzsch states that ―it is amazing that the solar energy itself is used 7.1Energy Generating Smart Facades as a promoter against solar heat.‖25 Smartfaçades are building envelopes that adapt to 6.11.13 Coloured Glazed thermal solar collectors environmental conditions. Recent advances in material and chemical sciences have helped in the Research has shown that by depositing thin films of development of various types of smartfacades.Some silicon oxide and silicon titanium mixed oxides on of the interesting smart facades developed and tried solar collector glazing in a sol–gel dip-coating out by architects and designers are listed below: process based on alcoxide precursors higher values of energy efficiency can be obtained. The produced 7.1.1 Energy-Producing Algae Facade coatings combine a bright coloured reflection with A group of designers from Splitterwerk Architects an acceptable solar transmittance, and are thus well and Arup in Germany have recently unveiled a suited for the application in coloured glazed thermal 2,150 square foot micro algae bio-facade where solar collectors. This innovative method of colour countless microscopic algae flourish using the glazing can facilitate architectural integration of oxygen and nutrients provided to them. It has a thermal solar collectors as in solar active glass vibrant green colour which is due to millions of facades.26 microscopic algae plants tinted on the louvers 6.12 Conclusion covering the building. Under direct sunlight these microscopic algae multiply rapidly increasing the Façade types vary depending on structure, function biomass and resulting in heating up the water. This and extent of utility. The most common and widely heat is harvested and used in the building.This can used type is the double skin façade, which with be a new source of sustainable energy production, suitable variations and adaptations, helps in solving which can transform the urban environment. issues regarding natural ventilation, natural day- (International Building Exhibition IBA Hamburg) lighting and the use of thermal mass for night time cooling. Thus, they are most suitable for integrating According to Jan Wurm, Research Leader for sustainable features. Europe for Arup, "If we can demonstrate that microalgae bio-façades can become a viable new Multifunctional façade systems and green façade source of sustainable energy production, we can systems are also desirable from sustainability transform the urban environment." angles. Controllable double skin facades are complex systems that are capable of adjusting the façade to gain best climatic condition and natural ventilation. Materials useful for imparting sustainable qualities for facades are many. Composite metal, Fibre CementandTerracotta are materials being used widely. Phase Change Materials, ETFE, Special Nano-paints, etc. are Fig 4:Building with algae facade in Fig 89:Energy producing Algae Hamburg Façade (Source:http://www.iba- (Source:bernusarquitectos) hamburg.de/)
25 R. Ruhmann, A. Seeboth, O. Muehling, D. Loetzsch,(2013) 7.1.2 Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) "Thermotropic Materials for Adaptive Solar Control", Advances in Science and Technology, Vol. 77 Building Integrated Photovoltaics are photovoltaic 26 SCHULER,A.,DEPANSHU,D. et al (2006) Sol-gel deposition and materials used on the building envelop such as the optical characterization of multi-layered SiO2/Ti1xSiO2 coatings on roofs, skylights and facades of tall buildings to solar collector glasses generate energy. Photovoltaics consists of 20-40 solar cells which are joined together and embedded 29 Marionne James
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in a 1 x 0.5m module. The voltage obtained from Heron Tower and the Jubilee Campus atrium each of the cells are about 0.6 volt and the energy roofing are good example of this. produced depends upon the area of the cells and the 7.1.3 LED Facades solar irradiance. PV panels can be easily integrated LED facades help create a vibrant and beautiful onto the facades or placed on the roofs. The two visual quality to both the building as well as the main facades systems which can incorporate city. LED‘s are becoming famous as media facades, Photovoltaics are the curtain walling and rainscreen where hundreds of LED‘s can be linked together to cladding. form large screens but yet can be all controlled individually, letting images and messages come to life making shopping malls and corporate office buildings crowd pullers.LED‘s are perfect for outdoor application as they are weather resistant. With a life of 50,000 hours or more they can reduce energy and maintenance costs. The compact design
allows them to be installed very close to the façade, Fig 90 - The Solar facade details of the Fig 91- The CIS tower in Korean Industries Tower by Arian Smith Manchester with Pv panels saving energy and light emissions. + Gordon Gill Architecture that feeds into the National (Source:www.Inhabitat.com) grid (Credit: Author) The Agbar Tower by Jean Nouvel in Barcelona has 4,500 LED‘S that can be operated as computer These systems can work autonomously or can be controlled pixels, that creates moving images on the connected to the public supply grid in which case tower envelope, with as much control as the LED the excess electricity generated will befed into the screen on the laptop. With RGB (Red Green Blue) public grid. CIS Tower (Gordon Tait, management, the LED‘s can generate 16 million Manchester,1962) renovatedthe three exposed colours. façades of its service core with blue PV panels. This installation generates an average of 20Kw Iconic buildings such as BurjKhalifa in Dubai broke electricity per year and feeds its excess into the the world record for the largest LED-illuminated national grid. façade, turning the skyscraper into one of the world's brightest visual display. The LED display Photovoltaic modules will capture energy, but the has 70,000 LED bulbs held in place by 100,000 bonus is that they can be placed on the façade to brackets and linked using 55,000 metres of cabling. provide better sound and thermal insulation, weather resistance as well as effective solar 7.1.4 Mashrabiya Facades protection. They can be fixed systems or active Mashrabiya, a perforated screen based on Islamic systems. Active systems may have motorised geometric patterns have long been used in building frames or concentrators which adjust to the especially in the Gulf countries to provide solar changing solar angles to obtain maximum output. shading and privacy. This traditional window Old buildings can be retrofitted with PV panels to element with characteristic lattice works are being give them a more appealing look. In the case of the widely used in new buildings for both aesthetic and CIS, it was a ‗Listed‘ building, but the PV functional purposes. Many new buildings in the installation was considered acceptable by Middle East have incorporated mashrabiya screens Manchester city and English Heritage. into double skin facades to reduce cooling loads in Transparent solar panelsarealso called translucent photovoltaics. These transmit only 50% of the light that is falling on them. They can be installed over glass, or as a replacement for conventional elements that are made of glass such as skylights and windows. Unlike the conventional solar cells which use infrared rays these transparent photovoltaics generates electricity by using the ultraviolet Fig 5- Night time Fig 6 - The different patterns created by LED radiation and the current is conducted by the tin view of Torre Agbar display on BurjKhalifa oxide coating on their inner surface. London‘s in Barcelona (Source: alichws.com/burj-khalifa-show/) (Credit: Cesar Corcoles) 30 Marionne James
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the interiors, such as Doha Tower (Jean 7.1.5 Air-Filtering Façades Nouvel,Qatar,2012) and Masdar Institute (Foster 7.1.5.1 Smog-eating Facade and Partners, Abu Dhabi,2010) A 300-foot-long skin of Torre de Especialidades, a Doha Tower has a very rich ornamented multi-layer new hospital building in Mexico City, is made up of façade making it stand out amidst all the Prosolve 370e tiles developed by a German firm. neighbouring towers. The façade is made up of four They function as air filters around the sponge aluminium layers that are arranged in patterns with shaped structures where ultraviolet light-activated varying sizes of perforation. free radicals destroy the pollutants thereby making the air inside the building cleaner. The method is based on a technology developed by Alcoa, a chemical company, in which a material containing titanium dioxide destroyed the toxins in the air by releasing spongy free radicals.28
Fig94 - Mashrabiya on Doha Tower by Jean Nouvel (Source: http://www.architectureoflife.net/en/lace-of-steel-jean-nouvel-burj- doha/) 7.1.4.1 Active Mashrabiya Abu Dhabi's 25-story Al Bahr Towers by Aedas Architects has created an innovative active Fig 96-Torre de Especialidades at Mexico Fig 97: The Smog-eating facade mashrabiyafaçade which pays homage to traditional (Source: www.inhabitat.com) system(Source: Arabian architecture and design.It is a secondary www.inhabitat.com) sun-screen for the two towers that are originally 7.1.5.2 Air-filtering Concrete sheathed in a thick skin of glass. This secondary Italicementii-Lab designed by Richard Meier and sun-screen deflects a large portion of the glare partners is one of the first LEED Platinum rated resulting from the hot desert sunlight without project in Italy. They have sustainable features like blocking the views permanently. This is made rainwater harvesting and solar panels but what possible by a series of faceted fibreglass rosettes stands out more is itshigh performance pollution- which open and close in response to the temperature busting white concrete façade. Solar heat gain is of the facade. The geometric patterns that comprise minimized by the low-e glasses on the concrete this gigantic screen include over 1,000 moving louvered curtain wall that lets daylight into the elements that contract and expand during the day building. The heating and cooling needs are met by depending on the sun‘s position.27 the geothermal systems and the solar panels.
Fig98:Italicement i-Lab Fig 99:The Palazzo Italia at Milan (Source:http://www.dezeen.com/2 Expo 2016(Source: George 013/01/22/italcementi-i-lab-by- Mirecourt/Corbis) Fig 95- The kinetic Mashrabiya facade at Al Bahr Tower in Abu Dhabi richard-meier-partners/) (Source: Christian Richters)
27 KAYE, L. Inhabitat. World‘s Largest Sun-Responsive Façade Shades Abu Dhabi‘s Impressive Al Bahr Towers WWW page 28DOLLAGHAM,K.C. Gizmo.5 Smart building Skins that Breathe, at:
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The white TX Active® concrete is Italcementi‘s own innovativeproduct which can reduce pollution by reacting with ultraviolet rays and breaking down the harmful pollutants such as nitrogen oxide and sulphur in the air. The pollutants are converted into inert salts and this helps in overall reduction of smog levels in the environment. It also has self- cleaning properties which will help it to remain Fig 100-TILT! The movable structure Fig101 - Triangular kinetic facade white in colour. This innovative concrete was first on the observation deck, in the 94th elements on the university building in used as a biodynamic skin in the Palazzo Italia, floor of the John Hancock Centre. Kolding, Demark Italy‘s spectacular pavilion at the Milan Expo (Credit-AbiSkipp/Flickr) (Credit: Jens Lindhe) 2015.29 7.6 Kinetic Facades The Kiefer Technic Showroom designed by Ernst Kinetics can be exhibited in multiple ways –folding, Giselbrecht + Partneris an office building and sliding, expanding, shrinking and transforming.In exhibition space with a façade that optimizes the some cases, Kinetic elements are incorporated into building‘s internal climate. The envelope is made buildings just for aesthetic or experimental purposes up of several layers — aluminum posts and such as the John Hancock Centre (SOM,Chicago,1969). It has a new renovated observatory called 360 Chicago with a tourist attractive feature called ‗Tilt‘, whichis a platform that tips 30 degree to give visitors the sensation of
being suspended in the air.The university building at Kolding, Denmark by Henning Larsen Architects Fig 104-One Ocean kinetic façade when the fins are closed (left) and open (right) (Source: soma) has a triangular form kinetic façade that is climate transoms encased with an EIFS-façade in white responsive. The façade consists of 1,600 panels of plaster. Perforated aluminum panelsare operated metal perforated sunshade with heat and light with computers and it can transform the building detecting sensors that allow the panels to open and appearance fromasolidmonolithic volume to a close. Even when the panels are completely closed, playful combination of transparent and closed a considerable amount of light enters through the surfaces.30 perforations. The One Ocean Thematic Pavilion in South Korea is another example which has kinetic façade systems. The Pavilion has fish-like characteristics with a GRP façade system which integrates moving lamellas in to the building skin.It has a kinetic media façade that moves by deforming its louvers. There are a total of 108 fins, each measuring 10 and 42 feet high with 0.35 inchthickness. These fins depict the movement of the gills of a fish. It is compressed at the top and bottom by activators that are attached to the structure of the pavilion. When the fins are compressed, it begins to buckle longitudinally along its side creating an opening in the building skin. The lower opening is widened
Fig102-Kiefer Technic Showroom with Fig 103- Kinetic Façade and narrowed as the other edge pivots on a bearing. kinetic facades(Credits: Paul Ott) (Credits: Paul Ott) When opened, the fins let in natural light into the
29MELNHOLD,B. Inhabitat. Italcementi‘s Concrete Pollution-Busting Research Lab Achieves LEED Platinum in Italy WWW page at: 30 GROZDANIC,L.Architizer.8 Impossible Dynamic Facades that
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interior spaces and at night they turn into a LED display.31 7.1.7Other High –performance Facades 7.1.7.1 Low-Tech, Operable Skin Sean Godsell Architects covered Melbourne RMIT's design school building with thousands of small, sandblasted glass circles—each affixed to a central rod. These rods pivot automatically based on Fig 107- The Sony City Osaki Building at Tokyo (left), The ceramic pipes (right) the temperature and humidity inside the building (Source: www.inhabitat.com) thereby facilitating or blocking, as the case may be, 7.1.7.3 Pneumatic Facades the flow of air through the facade. FLARE is a shape shifting modular system, which 7.1.7.2 Cooling Facades - BioSkin can create an active structure for any vertical The Bio-skin is an elegant cooling system which surfaces. Highly durable system with simple has been designed not just to reduce the energy use construction and low maintenance designed by but when used on multiple buildings can impact on WHITEvoid32. It consists of a number of metal the microclimate of that area. shingle bodies that can be tilted, giving the The CTBUH2014 Tall Building Innovation appearance of an organic structure to the building. Award winner, the Sony City Osaki Building, When they remain in vertical standby position, designed by Nikken Sekkei, features the Bio-skin sunlight is reflected. It can be shaded from sunlight system which is a skin of water-filled ceramic by tilting it using a computer-activated system. pipes. Bio-Skin reduces the surface temperature of They appear as dark pixels that are formed by a building up to 12°C, and can even lower the reflecting the ambient light. Any number of these micro-climate surrounding the building 2°C. 4x4 FLARE units can be mounted on a building surface to create an infinite array. The system is based on the phenomenon of transpiration, whereby water moves through a plant and is evaporated from the leaves, stem and flowers, as well as the Japanese concept of ‗Uchimizu‘ — the sprinkling of water on gardens and streets to lower ambient temperatures and keep dust at bay.Bio-Skin tubes are made of extruded aluminium cores, with a highly water-retentive terracotta shell attached to the aluminium core using an elastic adhesive. When rainwater collects on the rooftop, it is then drained to a subsurface storage tank, where it is filtered and sterilized. This water is then pumped Fig 105: RMIT design school Fig 106: Sandblasted glass circles up and circulated through the pipes, which act as the (Source: Wikipedia) (Source: Wikipedia) balcony railings for this office tower.Rainwater penetrates outward through the porous ceramic, evaporating from the pipe‘s surface, cooling the surrounding air. Excess wateris drained down to the soil of the premises to the extent possible, normalizing the water cycle and reducing the load on sewage infrastructure.
Fig 108- FLARE Pneumatic Facade System (Credits: White void)
31SHAPIRO,G.F. Architect. Taking a cue from nature,a kinetic façade that breathes daylight WWW page 32WHITEvoid is an interactive art, design and technology group of at:
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is requiredbefore it can be fully employed on 7.1.7.4 Perforated Facades buildings. Perforated facades have been used for centuries as a way of adding a distinctive character to the building along with controlling the airflow and light entry.This is similar to the ‗mashrabiya‘ concept widely used in traditional Middle East architecture. The difference is in the computer generation of the perforations, ranging from entire window size down to fine pixel sized pinholes. Fig111- Heliotrace facade systems (Source:SOM) They can be used both internally and externally and It consists of three systems: The first system is the can help create aninteractionbetweenthe two exterior kinetic shading devices which are opaque environments by inviting views as desired, panels that are placed perpendicular and parallel to simultaneously creating a sense of privacy within. the façade. The second is a thermally efficient high Perforated Facades can be in the form of walls, performance curtain wall and the third is the MEP panels or screens. With the use of new technologies, and building service such as the chilled ceiling highly detailed patterns and shapes can be easily panels. etched unlike the traditional method of hand carving. When the kinetic curtain wall system panels are fully opened they can control the heat gain and Perforated facades can be used with new as well as glare in the building. When the shades remain partly refurbishment projects, thereby help create a new open, they control the glare without reducing the identity to an old building. These facades allow a light entry into the building. During winters, when perfect interaction with natural and artificial the shades are completely closed, the system lighting, from providing solar shading during maximises the daylight entry into the room and daytime to media walls andnight time lighting. The allows for passive heating. overall aesthetic delight of the building can be increased by introducing different patterns and shapes with the perforations.
Fig112 - When the shades are closed(left), partly open(center) and fully open (right) (Source:SOM) 7.2 Biomimicry in Architecture Fig 109- The perforated Fig 110- The stainless steel concrete facade of O-14 in perforated skin of the Rose Museum Low energy usage, easy to recycle, durability and Dubai by Reiser + Umemoto by NEXT architects in China RUR Architecture (Completion in 2016)(Source: versatility are some of the basic characteristics of (Credits: ImreSolt) http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk biological systems and the main aim of biomimetic /) design is to achieve these attributes through 7.1.7.5 Helio-trace Façade systems engineering.According to Julian Vincent patterns Skidmore, Ownings and Merril (SOM) along with can be translated or adapted from nature in three Permasteelisa group and Adaptive Building different ways: The lowest level of direct copying Initiative (ABI) are working together to develop from biological objects (shells, leaves, bones, trees, THE Helio-trace façade system, which is an etc.). The second level is engineering to solve advanced building enclosure concept. The façade problems by recognizing patterns in the way nature system is designed to increase the daylight entry uses them to solve problems. Major part of the and reduce the solar gain by 81% annually. The design is recognition, solution and elimination of prototype is still under testing and further research problems. The third level is more closely related to the current practice in engineering and design. It is
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founded on the TRIZ system, which was developed through to the space below. When it cools down it specifically for solving engineering closes on its own. problems.33Some of the examples that we can learn from nature are: 1. Human skin that is self - repairing, waterproof and heat sensitive. 2. Feathers and Fur – Thermal and water protection Fig 114: The sunshade between the Fig115: Bloom- Thermo-Bimetal 3. Structures of plants which can be applicable two buildings (Source: www.architizer.com) to buildings, such as self-cleaning lotus leaf, or leaf (Source: www.architizer.com) bone structures. 7.2.1Biomimetic facades 7.2.1.3Breathing Skin Project These new façade concepts are mostly modular Based on the concept of Biomimicry,Tobia multifunctional units, which aim at being more Becker‘s ‗Breathing Skins Project‘ is inspired by sustainable, energy active, climate adaptive and organic skins, which can adjust its permeability to energy efficient. A few different types of such control the required light entry, matter and facades are described below: temperature between the interior and the exterior. 7.2.1.1 Biomimicry - Esplanade This façade works by expanding or diminishing the span of the openings that are scattered over the The esplanade in Singapore designed by DP surface—just like the skin's pores would open up or Architects appears like a durian or a bee‘s eye.It has tighten. There are 140 air channels on each sq. a unique geometry for its facades, which consist of meter, whichare depicted by Becker as ‗pneumatic a number of diamond shaped panels on the muscles‘. These roundabout mechanical assemblies exterior.This façade systems maximises daylight swell, and the aggregate expansion or emptying is entry into the building at the same time reduce glare the controlling component behind the façade's and block excessive heat gain. They allow good porosity. As a type of responsive engineering, the view to the surroundings through the doubly curved regularly changing pneumatic muscles permit a glazed roof. particular measure of air, light, and visibility.It not only gives a performative benefit but an aesthetic one as well with the ever-changingsurfaces.The innovation principally comprises of two glass surfaces sandwiching these pneumatic muscles.
Fig113 - Esplanade at Singapore with diamond shaped facade panels (Source: DP Architects) 7.2.1.2Heat Reacting Metal Doris Kim Sung, professor of architecture, USC‗s research in biomimetic studies how architecture Fig116-'Breathing Skins Project' with pneumatic muscles show them closed(left) and open (right)(Credits:Archdaily) can mimic the human body. His temporary installation named ―Bloom‖ is a sunshade made of thermobi-metal which is a lamination of two metals 7.3 Conclusion with different thermal expansion coefficient. When In times when sustainability is the most sought after the surface of the shade heats up under sunlight the qualityin the built environment, the face of the thin panels on it curl up and permits air to pass building, ie. thefaçade,with sustainable features is very much in demand. Research and innovation in the material and chemical sciences have brought out many types of smart facades like, Energy-producing 33 Julian Vincent, Professor of Biomimetics and Director of Center of algae façade, Bio-skins, Bio-mimetic facades, Biomimetics and Natural Technologies at University of Bath. 35 Marionne James
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Kinetic facades, Building integrated photovoltaics , concept of the building design was to close the west etc. façade with a second skin as it is facing the streets Building integrated photovoltaics have great where there is noise,traffic and air pollution.The air acceptance because of their capacity to generate inlets are placed on the east facade which will cross large amounts of electricity. In the facades, the ventilate the offices in the double façade. photovoltaics also replace the cost of non-glazed panels in curtain walling and the rain screen cladding. In the energy-producing algae façade, under direct sunlight,microscopicalgae multiply rapidly in the heated up water, generating vast amount of biomass which can be harvested and Fig 118-Winter thermal mass (left), Summer thermal mass (right) converted to oil or gas, or in some cases, directly (Source:https://karianna11.wordpress.com/) generating hydrogen. This biomass product is exported or may be used in the building. Other modern façade technologies include Air filtering facades, Low-tech operable skin facades, Pneumatic facades, Helio-trace façade systems, Breathing skin Fig 119- The buffer zones (left), The daylight entry (right) Project, etc. (Source:https://karianna11.wordpress.com/)
CHAPTER- 8. CASE STUDIES The south façade is the smallest to minimise heat gain.The east and west facades are designed as double skin facades with different properties 8.1 GSW Headquarters, Berlin, 1999 i.e.,The east façade has two glass skins 20 cm apart, Location: Berlin, Germany ventialted on every floor and the west has one meter continuous cavity between the glass layers, Climate: Maritime acting as a solar chimney. influenced Climate East Façade Treatment Date: 1999 The east façade consists of triple glazed windows Architect:Sauerbruch with blinds in between the panes and all the module Hutton Architekten elements can be operated both manually as well as Building Type: Office automatically by the central building management Area: 54,000 Sqm system.All the air inlets are provided in the east Height:82m façade for cross ventilation. Stack effect through the buildig aids in good ventilation. No of stories:22 Fig 117-GSW headquarters in Berlin(Credits: Annette Kisling) Facade System: Dynamic Façade – Double skin
GSW headquarters building in Berlin is the new extension of the existing17 storey tower that was built in the 1950s. Ithas a striking adaptive building façade systemandisoriented in the east west direction according to the prevailing wind.The Fig-120The east façade building consists of a tall and narrow body, which is Fig-121-The coloured solar shading louvers (Credit: Annette Kisling) curving asymmetrically towards the south end.It has on the west façade(Credit: Annette Kisling) a very small floor plate depth of maximum 11.5m to West façade treatment maximise the daylight entry and enable good cross The west façade is deep and triple layered providing ventilation into the office spaces.Due to this shape, stack effect and consists of a double skin with there is good light entry from both the sides of the interior double panes that can also be operated both building.According to B.Cody from Arup, the
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manually and automatically.The double glass layers which were installed as the construction, acts like a solar chimney creating a natural air progressed.The planter boxes are made up of rotor- conditioned space indoors. This system has helped moulded polyethylene, which is very strong, water in reducing the energy by 40 % as compared to the tight and lightweight, making them easy to be German energy standards.(Russel,2000) The outer installed and maintained. The vertical gardens can single glazed façade is made of laminated glass act as an air purification system as the plants can which is supported by cantileveredbracket with absorb the pollutants present in the air and convert metal-mesh decking. The west façade also contains them into fertilizer by slow decomposition. various colourful vertical perforated aluminium The heliostats louvers for solar shading purposes.Colours range One of the main features of One Central Park is the from pink and orage to bright ruby red giving an large cantilever with heliostats that redirect aesthetic appeal to the west façade.(GSW,2000) sunlight. The heliostat systems consists of mirrors The automated building operation system controls the artificial lighting systems by switching off when there is adequate day lighting present.Cross ventilation through the building is made possible by providing large air-inlets with open spaces and by ventilation panels integrated on the doors. Stack effect means that when the air outside the building is warmer than that inside, the hotter air flows out through the solar flue and gets replaced by the cooler air below. Fig 122- The building form Fig 123- Ventilation modes of GSW (Source: (Source:https://karianna11.wordpress.com/) 8.2 One Central Park, Sydney, 2014 visualizeus) and panels that cantrack sunlight and reflect it to the shaded portions of the building. The heliostat Location: Sydney, mirrors are placed on the roof of the 16 storey West Australia tower which refelects sunlight onto the reflective Climate: Temperate panels, that are placed on the cantilevered structure Completion Date: 2013 on the East Tower which further reflects it down Architect: Jean Nouvel onto the southern corridor.The cantilever is suspended horizontally 40m from the edge with a Building Type: th Residential structural steel frame on the 28 floor of the East tower and reflects light 120 m down. Area: 255,500sq.m The heliostat system consists of 40 motorised Height:116 heliostats on the west tower and 320 reflective No of storeys:34 mirror panels on the East tower.At night the system FaçadeSystem: Green gets converted to an LED screen with 2,100 LED Facades lights displaying videos by renowned artist Yann Fig 124- One Central Park Kersale on various interpretations of Sydney‘s (Source:AteliersJean Nouvel) landscapes. One Central Park by Jean Nouvel in Sydney is a residential complex with two towers placed above a 6 storey central shopping center. It has been awarded a five star green star rating by the Green Building Council, Australia.It has followed a carbon conscious design by adopting two technologies into its design – Hydroponics and Heliostats.
The vertical gardens were Fig 126- One Central park layout showing the two towers(Left),The working of the designed with the help of the heliostat systems (right) botanist Patrick Blanc. These (Source:http://stevekingonsustainability.blogspot.co.uk/2013_ green walls are curtain walls, 06_01_archive.html) 37 Marionne James
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The East tower has majority of the apartments The energy savings of up to 40% is achieved by facing the east and west with only one apartment enabling the windows in the light wells to open facing north on each floor.Therefore, each automatically to augment the air conditioning apartment gets ample natural daylighting.The system with natural ventilation. The steel spiral heliostats are placed on the west façade of the East diagrid structure creates an aerodynamic form that tower which also helps provide shading from the provides the lowest resistance to wind and harsh west evening sun especially during summers. diminishes the danger of strong downward winds in 8.3 Swiss Re /Gherkin, London the area around the building.The façade consists of an operable glass screen with perforated aluminium Location: London, UK louvers which acts as the internal sun-screen, along Climate:Temperate with a column casing and façade frame of Completion Date: aluminium. 2004 Architect:Foster and Partners BuildingType:Office Area: 64,469 sq.m
Height:180m Fig 128 -Details of the building form Fig 129- Triangular window panes showing the spiralling light well and mullions (Source: Foster and No of storeys:41 Partners) Fig 127-Night time view of Gherkin (Source: Foster and Partners) Facade System: (Credits: Foster and Partners) Gherkin has a fully glazed double skin façade, Double skin Façade whichis designed in such a way that the air extracted from the offices cools it and this helps 30 St. Mary Axe, popularly known as the reduce the overall heat load of the building. All the Gherkin,isLondon‘s first ecological tall office internal and external glazingis easily accessible for building. Designed with an architectural, spatial, cleaning purposes. technical, and social approach, it houses the The façade is made up of a double-wall system with headquarters of Swiss Re. It contains offices, a double-glazed glass wall for its outer layer. It is shopping arcade, restaurant, a plaza at the street composed of triangular shaped windows panes and level and a club room at the summit which offers mullions. The inner layer is made up of sliding 360-degree panoramic view of the city. doors. Horizontal shading devices make up the SUSTAINABLE FEATURES: space between the two layers.Thesmooth glass The aerodynamic design of the tower can reduce the façade consist of thousands of flat triangular panes wind load on the structure and the tapered shape can of glass with a single piece of curved glass at the direct the wind around the tower, reducing the risk very top of the building. of unpleasant turbulence at ground level. Daylight penetration is maximised through light wells between the six fingers on each floor. It has reduced carbon emissions with the use of gas and an overall energy saving of 50%. The shape of the building makes it look more slender than a conventional rectangle block of the same size. The tapering towards the base helps inincreasing the social space andat the same Fig 130- The principle of double skin facade in gherkin timereduces the wind effects at the street level.34 (Source: Foster and Partners)
Each floor is rotated by 5 degrees from its adjacent floors and the light wells connecting up to six
34 Foster+Partners.Projects:30St Mary Axe WWW page at: floors. The triangular façade contains venting flaps,
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The ceiling on each floor has a built-in heat
Fig132-The louver Fig 133- The shower Fig 134-Shower Tower details details on the tower on the south (Credits:DesignInc) Fig 131-Views of CH2, Shutters on the south façade (left), northern façade(Credits: Diana Vertical green walls on the north façade(right) façade(Credit: Nick Snape) Carson) (Credits: Diana Snape) exchange system, which cools the interior spaces. 8.4 Council House 2, Melbourne, Australia Black water from public sewers are collected and (2006) recycled for building requirements such as Location: Little Collins Street, Melbourne flushing,irrigation,etc., through its water mining plants.The building also has excellent indoor air Climate: Warm Temperate quality, by providing 100% fresh air to all Completion Date: 2006 occupants with one complete air change every half Architect:DesignInc an hour. The chilled ceiling panels help keep the Building Type:Office building cool during summers. The chilled water for this is supplied by 3 large tanks. In each of them, Area: 12,536m² there are 100,000 small stainless steel balls filled No of storeys:10 with phase change material (PCM) that freezes at 16 Facade System: Louvers,Green walls degrees and acts as a thermal storage device.35 FAÇADE SYSTEMS Council House 2 (CH2)is a sustainable office The north,east and west facades are extensively building designed by DesignInc in collaboration shaded to protect from glare and solar gain. with the City of Melbourne.CH2 has helped Balconies and light shelves redirect light into the changethe idea of sustainability in buildings by interior spaces to maximise the natural lighting. being Australia's first building to achieve a Task lighting and daylight sensors help reduce maximum six star green star design rating by the energy consumption.The southern face is made up Green Building Council of Australia. of small louvers made out of recycled timber, which 36 The total building costwas $51.045 million, of automatically adjusts according to the sun. These which $12 million was spent on sustainable design shower towers take in air as well as water from the mechanisms, which has increased the worker storage tanks. The water through this shower towers productivity/ efficiency by 10%.CH2 saves enough evaporate and cool the remaining water droplets 37 energy to equal $5,479.45 every day, about $2 which is then collected. million a year equating to the total cost of the GREEN WALLS building over a period of 25.5 years. Biomimicry is a large design component for this building and the design of the HVAC systems are based on the strategies taken from the termite 35 CHUA, G. Architecture and Design.Keeping it cool:how mound.CH2 boasts of a number of environmental Melbourne‘s Council House 2 took advantage of the night WWW page at:
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The north facing balconies from 1st to 9th floor have planet Earth it can also be an economically viable, vertical green wall supported by metal mesh on sociologically beneficial and individually satisfying either sides which protects them from glare and one. 38 screens the sunlight at low angles. The plant species selected were based on the following CHAPTER - 9. CONCLUSION aspects:Glare reduction and Solar screening, life cycle and growth rate, climbing habits, less water Concerns about the future of life on planet earth is consuming, aesthetic properties, longevity and compelling governments, organisations, architects maintenance (Hopkins, Goodwin 2011) and designers to become stakeholders and facilitators of sustainability. Concerted efforts to achieve carbon neutrality in the built environment by 2030 are on. 195 countries in the world negotiated the Paris Climate agreement of 2015, and the majority have signed it during 2016. Facades have an important role to play in making a building energy responsible. Provision of natural ventilation, solar control and photovoltaic energy conversion are the most common features of sustainability that
Fig 136-The balconies on the are being sought from facades. Research, especially Fig 135-The different species of plants used north façade(Source: Diana on CH2 façade(Source: DesignInc) by devoted Façade Research Groups have evolved Snape) various technologies and methods in this direction and efforts are on through programmes of CASE STUDY CONCLUSIONS publications and conferences to promote the The case studies carried out are in respect of four sustainability potentialities of facades. Types and tall buildings renowned for their sustainable varieties of façade technologies and their features and adoption of most modern technologies. sustainability features that have been looked into These buildings are best examples of integration of show that its range is wide. The new and futuristic sustainable technologies in their facades. They façade technologies studied prove that they have manifest the practical possibilities of many promising potentialities that will help in achieving innovative sustainable technologies. These carbon neutrality. sustainable features while aiding the efforts to Strides in research in the field of chemical sciences, reduce carbon footprint also contributes to nano-technology, aeronautics, mechatronics, etc. physiological and psychological well-being of the have brought out many new products which are able occupants. It is important to note that in CH2, to provide augmented sustainability capabilities and Melbourne by spending just $12 million on innovative features to facades.Some of the most sustainable design mechanisms the worker sustainable tall buildings studied proves that the productivity/efficiency has increased by 10% and cost incurred for incorporating sustainable the annual gain on account of energy savings technologies in buildings is a prudent investment amounts to $ 2 million. This means that the cost of not only in terms of sustaining life on planet Earth installing sustainable mechanisms will be recouped through achieving carbon neutrality but also in in just six years and the cost of the whole building bringing better returns in terms of economic, social in 25.5 years. The benefits from worker and personal well-being. productivity /efficiency over the years will be Energy efficiency standards of each building calls enormous. This goes to prove that while for appropriately designed solution keeping in view sustainability efforts are primarily aiming at site-specific features of microclimate, orientation ensuring the continued existence of homo sapienson and form factor. The wide range and availability of innovative technologies and materials when integrated into the façade designs will definitely aid in the quest to achieve carbon neutrality. 38WOOD,A.,BAHRAMI,P., SAFARIK,D. (2014) CTBUH Technical Guides-Green Walls in High-Rise Buildings: An output of the CTBUH We live in an era of unparalleled technical Sustainability Working Groups.pp-53-59 innovation. At the same time we face an existential
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problem greater than all of us, the combination of 16. SCHULER,A.,DEPANSHU,D. et al (2006) Sol-gel extreme rates of Urbanization, the end of fossil fuel deposition and optical characterization of multi- energy, with advancing Climate Change. Is it too layered SiO2/Ti1xSiO2 coatings on solar collector much to ask that the future generations of architects, glasses engineers, governments and citizens should all use Official Publications 1. EUROPEAN COMMISSION (2011) a New Plan for their best ingenuity to face up to this challenge? Energy efficiency- European Energy efficiency Plan 2011- Communication from the Commission to the BIBLIOGRAPHY European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee of the Regions Book and articles 2. Performance Building Façade Solutions, PIER Final 1. AKSAMIJA, A., (2013), Sustainable Facades: Project Report submitted to the California Energy Design Method for High –Performance Building Commission Envelopes, John Wiley & Sons. 3. UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT 2. ALI, M.M., and ARMSTRONG, P.J.,(2008), PROGRAMME(UNEP), (June 2012) Building Strategies For Integrated Design of Sustainable Tall Design and Construction: Forging Resource Buildings, University of Illinois Efficiency and Sustainable Development, Report 3. COOK, R., BROWNING, B. and GARWIN, C., prepared for the UNEP – Sustainable Buildings and (2013), Edited by Parker, D. and Wood, A., Climate Initiative. Sustainability and energy considerations , Chapter Journal articles/research /technical papers 12, The Tall Building Reference Book. 1. AKSAMIJA, A. (2009). Context based design of 4. CURL, J. S. ,(2006) "Sustainable architecture." from double skin facades: climatic consideration during A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape the design process, Perkins + Will Research Journal, Architecture. (2 ed.), Oxford University Press Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 54-69. 5. HAUSLADEN, G., SALDANHA, M.D.,and 2. AKSAMIJA.A.(2015) ―High- Performance Building LIEDL,P.,(2006),Clımate Skın, Berlin: Bırkhauser Envelopes: Design Methods for energy efficient Publ. Ltd. Facades‖,BEST4 Conference. 6. KNAACK, U., KLEIN,T., BILOW, M., (2008) 3. ALI, M.M. and ARMSTRONG, P., (2008) Facades: Imagine No. 01 Overview of Sustainable design actors in High-Rise 7. KODMANY, K.A., (2016) New Suburbanism: Buildings, Technical Paper presented at the 2008 Sustainable Tall Building Development, Taylor & CTBUH 8th World Congress, Dubai. Francis Ltd. 4. ALI, M. M., and ARMSTRONG, P.J.,(2010) 8. LOVELL, J., (2010), Building Envelopes – An Sustainability and the Tall Building: Recent integrated Approach, Princeton Architectural Press Developments and Future Trends, Paper presented at 9. MCINTOSH, M., (Editor- LANG, W., and Mc the AIA Illinois Central Symposium. CLAIN, A.)Sustainable Building skin design- 5. ALI, M.M. and KODMANY, K.A., (2012)Tall School of Architecture, Centre for Sustainable Buildings and Urban Habitat of the 21st Century: A Development, The University of Texas at Austin Global Perspective, (2012) Buildings 2012 Vol.2 10. MOLONEY, J., (2011) Designing Kinetics for issue 4. Architectural Facades: State Change, Routledge part 6. BLEECKER, H.DE, (2012) MFREE-S Closed of Taylor & Francis Cavity Façade – Cost Effective, Clean and 11. OESTERLE, E. (2001), Double-Skin Facades: Environmental, Paper presented at the 9th CTBUH Integrated Planning, Prestel Publishing World Congress. 12. OLDFIELD, P., TRABUCCO, D., WOOD, A., 7. BOAKE, T.M., Presentation Mashrabiya (2009) Five Energy Generations of Tall Buildings: Reinvented: Double Skin Facades, Persian Gulf An Historical. Analysis of Energy Consumption of Style, University of Waterloo. High-Rise Buildings,Routledge, part of Taylor & 8. CTBUH in the Media, June 30, 2015 – ― Council Francis Group. Report Examines the Pros and Cons of Vertical 13. PARKER, D. and WOOD, A., (2013) The Tall Greenery‖, CTBUH, Milan. Building Reference book 9. DARAPHET, M., (2013) Tall Buildings – 14. PATTERSON, M., (2011) – Structural Glass Imaginative Façades Solutions, CTBUH Research Facades and Enclosures: A Vocabulary of Paper. Transparency, John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 10. EREN, O. and ERTURAN, B.,(2013) Sustainable 15. ROBERTS, S., and GUARIENTO, N., (2009) Buildings with their Sustainable Facades, Paper Building integrated photovoltaics - a handbook, published in the IACSIT International Journal of Basel, Boston; Berlin: Birkhauser
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