PART II
REPORT ON DROUGHTS AND SCARCITIES IN SINNAR TALUKA
ALPMADKTICAL LIST OF VILLACKS SINNAR TAHSIL
Serial Name or Village Code No. Population Serial Name of Village Code No. Populaiion No. 1981 No. 1981 1 2 3 4 1 2 ■A 1 Adw:\di H4 958 "64 Laxmanpur 56 36(1 2 Aga>i KIWml 77 1,092 65 Mahajanpur 21 371 •3 Ashapur , 115 1,008 . 66 M aldhon 99 7(>.^ •I AlkavuUo 70 469 67 Mategjon 29 701 5 Aunillicwaili 112 897 68 M ancgaon 67 3.708 f> Barut;uon I’impri 7 2,409 69 M anori IWi 2.2-4.1 7 Bclu 7K 1,084 - 7 0 M aparwadi 27 991 * 8 niiaraipui' 55 1,001 71 Marhal Rk. 9() 1,581 • 9 Bhaiwaili 68 858 72 Marhal Kti. 92 830 10 Bliojapiir 120 Viiiiithilylfd 73 Mendhi 16 1,298 74 M irgaon 11 Bhokani 6J 1.543 59 1,312 75 Mith-Sagarc 61 12 Borkhincl 79 427 1,414 76 M ohodari 13 Urahmanwadc I 1,382 36 221 '14 Chandrapur 73 342 7T M ohu 31 920 78 15 Chapadgnon lOS 1,105 M usalgaon 41 2,908 16 Clias 123 3,158 79 Nalwadi 124 1,850 17 Chincholi 32 2,156 80 Nandur Shingolc 107 2,767 18 Chotidhi 17 404 81 Naygaon 4 3,083 19 Dahiwadi 20 946 82 Nimgaon Deopur 10 731 20 D apur 86 5,046 83 Nimgaon Sinnar 23 1,984 21 Dalali 43 1,458 84 Nirhale 104 1,577 22 D eopur 49 2,313 85 Padali 117 1,311 23 Dcsvandi 6 1,056 86 Panchale 50 2,028 4S 87 Pandurli 76 2,878 25 Dhondbar .. 113 1,230 88 Pangari Bk. 62 3,240 26 Dhulwad .. 109 1.044 89 Pangari K/i. 93 553 27 D o d iB k . 88 3,618 90 Pasie 37 1,234 28 Dodi Kh. 87 1.075 91 Path.vc Bk. 58 1,206 29 Duberc 83 3.578 92 Palhare Kli, 96 1,680 •. 30 Dusangwadi 95 552 93 Patole 84 I.7M 31 Ektaharc 25 247 94 Palpimpri 9 l,70J 32 Fardopur 47 626 95 Pimpale .. 119 1,698 33 F aiiepur . . 103 738 *96 Pimpalgaon 51 555 • 34 Fulenagar 101 871 • 97 Pimparwadi 60 351 35 G horvad . . 75 956 • 98 Ramnagar 85 6S3 •36 Ghoiewadi . . 102 875 • 99 R am pur 53 991 37 G onde 65 1,837 100 Sangavi 19 1,932 38 G ulapur . . 105 269 101 Saradwadi 38 535 39 Gulwanch 26 2.893 102 Sayalc 98 1,2.3-1 40 Gurewadi 66 355 103 Shaha 54 2,829 41 Harsulc 71 496 104 Shahapur 44 ' 257 42 Hivarc 118 1,174 •105 Shastrinagar 28 1,103 43 Hivargaon 12 787 106 Shivadc . . . 80 2,913 44 Jam gaon 35 790 • 107 Shriram pur .. 52 641 45 Jayagaon 5 898 108 Sinnar-Rural 39 2,445 46 Jogallcmbhi 3 657 109 Som thanc 18 1,819 • 47 Kahandalwadi . . 100 831 110 Sonambc 81 2,861 48 K ankori 89 1,309. 111 Sonari 82 2,080 ‘ 49 Kasarwadi 122 1,123 •112 Soncwadi 121 868 50 Kcdarpur 42 310 ^113 Songiri 2 800 •51 Kcru Patilnagar II 712 .1 1 4 Sundarpur 8 1,075 52 Khadangali 15 969 115 Suregaoii 91 ai6 5^ Khani^jJa 64 1,570 116 Thangaoji 116 4,305 54 K haparalc 72 214 117 Ujjani 22 766 55 K hopadiD H 45 1,015 118 Vadangali 14 2,350 56 Khopadi Kh. 46 450 119 Vadzire 30 1,281 57 K irtangli 24 1,171 120 Vinchuri Dalavi 34 2,545 58 Kolgaonmal 57 1,390 121 Wadgaon PiiigaJa 33 2,419 .59 Komalwadi 13 1,030 122 Wadgaon Sinnar 69 1,489 60 Konambc . 111 2.052 123 W aregaon 97 796 » 61 Krislmanagar 110 1,360 124 Wavi 94 3,257 ’62 Kundcwadi 40 603 63 K undcwadi- 74 781 T o ta l 171,152 CHAPTER V
GENERAL ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF SINNAR TALUKA
5.1 Introduction Sinnar taluka is a part of Deccan trap which lies in the upper Godavari basin between 19° 40" and 19° 55” north latitudes and 73° 15” and 74° 22 east longitudes. This taluka is surrounded by Igatpuri taluka to the south-west; Nasik taluka to the north-west; Niphad taluka to the north; Kopergaon, Akola and Sangamner talukas of Ahmednagar district to the east south and south-east respectively. Western part of the taluka has irugged mountain ranges having average height of 4500’. The whole area has eastward and south-eastward slope which ultimately merges into undulating plain at 1750’ average height.
Sinnar taluka has been frequently susceptible to serious drought conditions resulting in famines and scar cities. The eastern part of the taluka in particular is now recognized as susceptible to chronic scarcities and famines not only due to successive crop failures but also due to frequent scarcity of drinking water in a number of villages. The taluka as a whole possesses the characteristics resembling to the scarcity-prone areas of Ahmednagar district, as it is located in the eastern-most part of Nasik district bordering Sangamner and Kopergaon talukas of
75 76
Ahmadnagar district. This taluka consisted of 102 villages in 1971 with a population of 1.64 lakhs and density of 122 per sq.km. Net sown area in the taluka was 91,931 hectares in 1971, of which area sown more than once was 2,653 hectares.^ Total nximber of villages in the taluka increased to 124 in 1986 of which 106 are kharif villages and 17 rabi 2 villages. One village Bhojapur is uninhabited. Area under cultivation dropped by 10,214 hectares in 19^6 (i.e. from 91,931 hectares in 1971 to 79,134 hectares (net) in 1936) apparently because of repetitive scarcities in the taluka. The western and southern parts of the taluka are hilly with rolling murroad soils while the eastern portions and narrow strips along the river are plain with medium black soil. Most of the soils are susceptible to erosion.^
5.2 Population Total population of Sinnar taluka according to Census 1961, was 1 ,33,403, increased to 1,63,602 in 1971 and to 1 ,93,073 in 1931. Total population of the taluka increased at the rate of 22.6 per cent over the decade 1961-71. Rate of population growth in this taluka during the decade 1971-31 was 13.02 per cent for total population of the taluka, 19.37 per cent for rural population and 0.03 per cent for urban population.^ Assuming that population would continue to increase at the same rate after 1931, popula- » tion projection upto 1936 have been worked out as given in Table 5.1. 77
Table 5«1 : Population Projections upto 19^6, Sinnar Taluka
Year Rural Population Urban Population Total Population with cumulative with cumulative with cumulative growth rate of growth rate of growth rate of 1.0184% p.a. 1.006% p.a. 1.0172% p.a. (1) (2) (3) (4)
1981 1,71,152 22,926 1,93,078 1982 1 ,74,302 22,097 1,96,399 1983 1,77,507 22,270 1,99,777 1984 1,80,773 22,440 2,03,213 1985 1 ,84,100 22,608 2,06,708 1986 1,87,488 22,778 2,10,266
In 1961, proportion of working population to the total was 52,85 per cent. In 1981, proportion of rural working population to the total has declined to 46,63 per cent. Census statistics, 1981 shows that 59.47 per cent of rural workers were cultivators, 23.84 per cent were agri cultural labourers, giving us a total of 83.31 per cent of rural workers dependent mainly on agriculture. In 1961, the corresponding figure of dependence on farm employment was 80.88 per cent. The comparative figures prove that there has not been any significant change in the occupa tional structure of the Taluka*s population during the period 1961-81. In fact, due to lack of alternative employ ment opportunities in rural area, dependence on agriculture as a source of employment has increased by 2,83 per cent. It is estimated that 52 per cent of the total population 73 may be of working age (15-59). The estimate is based on my study of 436 sample households in 1972. Total working population in June 19^6 would be around 1,09,340. Distribu tion of working population by category of employment is worked out as under.
Table 5.2 ; Employment Structure in Sinnar Taluka (Rural) Estimated for 1936
Sr. Category Total Per cent No. workers of total work-force
1. Holders of Land: i) Below Poverty line : 1220 ii) Small holders : 9733
in (i) & (ii) above :1^452 30,405 27.30 2, Household farm labourers 17,453 15.96 3. Landless agricultural labourers 17,354 16.33 4. Workers on E.G.S. (15-4-1986) 6,000 5.49 5. Workers in Bidi Industry 32,500 29.72 6. Other industrial workers and self-employed persons 2,400 2.20 7. White collared employees 2,723 2.50
Estimated Total Working Force l’09,340 100.00
Note; Workers in Bidi Industry and E.G.S. workers also work as casual farm labourers during busy farming season. Hence, these workers may be treated as seasonal farm labourers. In fact they are disguised unemployed from the agricultural sector.
Source : Note on Sinnar Taluka, ibid., pp. 1-2. 79
Rural-urban distribution of work-force by source of employment as on 30-6-1986 is estimated as given in Table 5.3.
First three categories of workers, viz. land holders, household farm labourers, and landless agricultural labourers, taken together constitute 60 per cent of the total labour force in the taluka. They are the worst sufferers of famines and scarcity conditions on account of loss of employment and income. Distribution of population by social classes according to 1981 Census is given in Table 5.4. The Table reveals that 16.28 per cent of total population of the taluka belongs to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes together. Backward class population is concentrated in rural area. Total Scheduled Caste popula tion was 6.2 per cent whereas the Scheduled Tribes popula tion was 10.08 per cent.
Sex Ratio : Sinnar Taluka has a fairly good sex ratio according to 1981 Census statistics. In rural area, the sex ratio (number of females per 1000 males) was 966; for urban area, it was 969 and for taluka as a whole it was 966. Since Sinnar is the only town in the taluka with just 11.36 per cent of the total population, a slightly higher sex ratio for Sinnar town had a negligible effect on the sex ratio of the taluka. 88.64 per cent of the total popu lation lives in villages. Literacy Rate : According to 1981 Census figures, 80
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Proportion of illiterates to total population is much higher in rural area as can be found any where, Similarly, literacy among females, especially in rural area, is very much poor than among the males but this is also a common feature of literacy all over the State, Sinnar taluka as a whole had 40.75 per cent literate persons, as against 44.36 per cent persons of the Nasik District as a whole. However, percentage of literacy in rural and urban areas, if considerad separately, Sinnar taluka has slightly higher percentage of literacy in both urban and rural areas than Nasik District average. 5.3 Area and Crops Total geographical area of Sinnar taluka is 1,33,9^5.5 hectares (1238 sq.kms.). Distribution of area according to use has changed over the period from 1971-72 to 1985-86 as detailed in Table 5.6. The Table shows a sharp decline in the area under cultivation especially under kharif crops by about 11 per cent with a nearly matching increase in uncultivable and current fallow lands. Area under double crop has sharply come down by 25 per cent or from 3536 hectares to 2653 hectares over the period of 15 years from 1971-72 to 1985-86, This is mainly because 8 out of latest 15 years of serious scarcity conditions and scanty rainfall that has compelled the fanners to keep their lands barren. 84 C ^ I v \ to O' t o o ■P I O n 5 \ 0 O n o C vO W • I • o o to iH I ON O O hO I I 3 I C3 ir\ t. iH I o fci CO to ® <0 jC fl on > O' ”T I T ® (X, o •H rH O H hO tfl ■p c ® I +3 CO o I C I u cr\ to I WN O vrv O n O (4 I ® O *H O ON I o 3 O o Q> I 0 © j C • • I • • • # IX. I bC Ou cO r-t H I ON NO O CNJ o I (4 cO ® vO I »/N CN» Q m I ® « H CO vO I a. o bo co to TJ I I Water-table has gone down at such a low level that majority of private wells in the taluka become dry soon after the rainy days are over. At present, private wells as a source of irrigation for winter and summer crops have proved to be useless. In the year 1970-71, area under well irrigation was 5284 hectares. In 1985-86, well irrigation has fallen down to bare 1307 hectares; even less than 25 per cent as compared to the base year 1970-71. Assured canal irriga tion was available to 1394 hectares in 1970-71. Even this source has marginally declined to 1346 hectares in 1986. Wherever the canal water is supplied, fanners complain that water supply is very irregular, scanty and could hardly be relied upon. In spite of huge expenditure on minor irriga tion schemes like percolation tanks, village tanks, community wells over past 15 years, the position of irriga tion has been deteriorated. On account of lighter soils,' kharif crops are mainly taken up. Proportion of area under kharif crop to the total cropped area was worked out at 94 per cent in 1970-71 but declined to 90.24 per cent in 1985-86 (Table 5.4). Main kharif crops of Sinnar Taluka are bajra, groundnut and pulses. In the years of scanty rains, fanners postpone sowing of kharif crops and convert kharif area into Rabi, wherever possible. It is evident from the Table that there has been a slight increase in the area under Rabi crops for the reason mentioned above. Main Rabi crops in this taluka are jowar, wheat and gram. S6 It has been observed that the net area sown is continuously decreasing. Net area under crop during the period 1957-60 (three years average) was 96263 hectares which was dropped to 91644 hectares in 1971-72 and further dropped to 79134 hectares in 1935-36. The area and propor tions under important food crops and cash crops in the taluka as recorded in the Census Handbook of Nasik District, 1961 were as shown in Table 5.7. Table 5.7 : Areas and Proportions Under Important Food and Non-food Crops in Sinnar Taluka (1957-5^ to 1959-60 - 3 Years Average) Category Area under Proportion to crop gross cropped (Hectares) area ...... Area under cereals 71,677.42 72.01 Area under pulses 9,502.82 9.53 Sugarcane 631.45 0.64 Other Food Crops 3,000.00 3.31 Total area under food crops 34,311.69 35.54 Area under non-food crops 14,341.53 14.46 Gross Cropped Area ’ ’99,153.22" 100.00 From the seasons and crop reports in Tahsil Office at Sinnar for the years 1971-72 to 1985-36, it appears that there is a little increase in the area under cereals and sugarcane and corresponding decrease in the area under pulses and non-food crops. However, there is no major change in the a ? cropping pattern over the period of last 1$ years. In 1971-72, 90.37 per cant of the gross cropped area was under kharlf crops, and 9.63 per cent of the area was under rabi crops. In 1935-^6, the respective proportions were S7.34 and 12.66 for area under kharlf and rabl crops. Topography and climate of the taluka is suitable to kharif crop resulting in about 90 per cent dependence upon them. As such, on account of heavy reliance on kharif crops, failure of monsoon in June, July disturbs the whole agri cultural structure of Sinnar taluka. Important cereals in the taluka are Bajra, Jowar and Wheat, covering roughly 75 per cent of the gross cropped area, Kulith, gram, math and mung are commonly taken under pulses. Groundnut, onion, potato and tomato are other important crops which are taken in the irrigated pockets or in the areas of relatively assured rainfall. On account of little irrigation facilities, trend towards cash crops, as against food crops, is less. 5.4 Rainfall On account of lighter soils and excessive reliance on kharif crops, rainfall during the months June to September is most vital in deciding the crop harvests. Till 1970, the rainfall was recorded at the taluka headquarters at Sinnar only. Later, two more centres at Kolgaon Mai and Thangaon for recording rainfall were set up from 1971. Somthane, Nandur Shingote and Sonewadi (Bhojapur) rain gauge centres ad are maintaining rain records from 1976, 1977 and 1973 respectively. At present, there are six rain gauge centres as mentioned below with normal rainfall figures, mentioned against them,^ 1) Sinnar 655.4 mm 2) Thangaon 692.0 mm 3) Nandur Shingote 300.7 mm 4) Somthane 4^7.3 mm 5) Kolgaon Mai 479.5 mm 6) Sonewadi 326.2 mm Above figures of six rain gauge stations are for the year 19^4. Average normal rainfall during that year for all the six stations together works out to 490.2 mm, which is much less than the period prior to I960. "HistoiTr of past 30 years till I960 shows that the taluka had, on an average, rainfall of 22.93” or say 746 mm."^ In 1973> the second Facts Finding Committee for Maharashtra State working vinder the chairmanship of Shri S.E. Sukthankar reported that "Average rainfall of the taluka is 619 mm in 1972. The rainfall was less than 75 per cent of the average in I95S-I966. The deficient weeks were 11 or more in S out of 14 years since 1953.”*^ The Pardasani Committee did not consider this taluka as drought-affected because of the fairly normal rainfall and fairly satisfactory crop conditions prior to I96O. Repetitive droughts and scarcities after I960 attracted attention of the government and subsequently, the taluka was recognized as chronically scarcity affected. "The 89 Irrigation Commission (1972) has also considered this taluka a as drought prone.” Sukthankar Committee has observed that part of this taluka is irrigated by Godavari canals. Exclud ing that much part, the Committee has recognized Sinnar taluka as ’drought-prone area*. In order to be out of scarcity or drought conditions, rainfall should not only be nearing average normal, but it should also be evenly spread- over during the rainy-season. Table 5.8(a) illustrates the rainfall position from 1965 to 1973, and Table 5.8(b) shows rainfall position from 1974 to 1986. It will be seen from Table 5.8(a) that with the exceptions of the years 1967, 1969 and 1973, recorded rain fall has been continuously less than the pre-1960 average of 764 mm. as mentioned by the First Facts Finding Committee. Rainfall record for the period of 9 years from I965 to 1973 shows that there is hardly one out of every three years, during which rainfall had been satisfactory. This may be one possible reason for the Second Facts Finding Committee (1972) to accept a lower figure of 619 mm. as normal rain fall for this taluka. After 1971, five other rain gauge stations have bean set up one after another from 1978. Six rain gauge stations, Including Sinnar, are now recording rainfall. Sinnar station shows highest rainfall followed by Thangaon and Somthane recording rainfall higher than taluka average. Other three stations viz., Kolgaon Mai, Nandur-Shingote, and IT\ I I CM to to NO to c ^ iTk 1 f l rH • • • • • • • • 1 •r4 rH O rH to O n cr\ o NO 1 c * CO CO c>- -d- rr\ t r \ CM NO O rH 1 !X Cm vO i r \ CJN NO c\» to 1 to cO 1 «--N. CO -P 1 • 1 © O 1 cs « vO f*N C:r CM rH -* to -4- B CO Eh 1 -4- -* -4 - -d- NO NO 0^ Os O rH B 1 1 CO CO rH 1« 'O J3 to a 1 ■P Cm •H C C 03 1 1 1 CM C-. ITS O -H J«J 1—( 1 C rH • • eco 3 r-4 1 •H rH I to I I I I—I cd U U 1 CO CO CM C> © cd 1 © © 1 eg (H s: © E-« Cl -2 1 • p x ; •H 1 s a 1 >. p ® © © 1 C 00 I »/N I CM I I CM I h r XJ 1 > o 1 C 0) 1 CO '—' 1 1 +> 3 P . > W) *> I -H > , CO -H C o I (0 f 0 0 ^ fs. ^ 0 # ON ....^ 1 I * a 92 Sonewadi, falling in the eastern zone of the taluka have less than taluka average rainfall. Recently, the revenue administration of Nasik district has adopted still lower average rainfall for all these six rain gauge stations as mentioned in the preceding paragraph. Average normal rain fall of the taluka works out to 490.2 mm. Table 5.8(b) gives detailed analysis of rainfall in Slnnar taluka during recent 12 years from 1974 to 1985 covering agricultural years 1973-74 to 1985-86. It is evident from Table 5.8(b) that during the period under review, 9 out of 12 years had less than normal rainfall, followed by the current agricultural year 1986-87 in which scarcity has been declared in all the 124 villages in the taluka. The years of scanty rain and declaration of scarcity on extensive scale synchronizes in 6 out of 12 years. These years are 1973-74, 1977-78, 1982-83, 1983-84, 1984-85 and 1985-86. It is, however, interesting to note that in spite of a low record of rainfall, scarcity was not declared in the years 1974-75 (82 per cent of the normal rainfall), 1980-81 (94.41 per cent) and 1981-82 (just 22.24 per cent). Similarly, in spite of a high record of rainfall, scarcity was declared in a number of villages during the year 1978-79 with 12.6 per cent above normal rainfall. It is presumed that in the former case, scanty rains might have evenly spread over the rainy season so as to realize reason able agricultural produce. In the latter case, in spite of 93 heavy rains, the schedule of rainfall might have been quite uneven. Any way, the fact that rainfall is decreasing in this taluka can be established with the available statistics. Furthermore, erratic character of rainfall has not undergone any changes over the period of 20 years from 1965-66 to 19^5-36. Even during the recent period from 1973-74 onwards, every third year in this taluka is of scanty rains. During the years 1982-83, 1983-84, 1984-85 and 1985-86, Sinnar taluka had 4 continuous years of inadequate rainfall result ing in chronic scarcity conditions comparable with those of 1970-73 period. 5.5 Scarcity Repetitive droughts and scarcities has been a regular phenomenon in this taluka. Table 5.9 gives a clear picture of droughts suffered by this taluka since 1970-71 to-date i.e. upto 1986-87 rabi season. Table shows that almost all the villages in the taluka were declared as drought affected in 1971-72, 1972-73, 1982-83, 1985-86 and in 1986-87. In addition, 70 to 95 per cent of the villages were affected by droughts during the years 1970-71, 1977-78, 1978-79 and in 1984-85. As such, taluka had 9 out of 17 years of severe droughts leading to scarcity of food, fodder, drinking water and a general cry for restoring income and employment. Out of the total 124 villages, 101 villages are covered by Drought-prx>ne Area Programme, only 22 villages are left out of DPAP, One village CO ® ♦3 hO o 1 nJ o , c rH << i .HTJ a . o CO •H ® a b 1 x> > 43 1 ® O s > 1 t J u nJ •H ® o a o a X I «H d 05 t J 1 C« ® ® c c 3 * 3 NO W )43 I vO o q j O f - l -o >% ® >»,rH ® 1 iH a (D r - i U as 43 d o C -H «M 1 O The situation worsened further during 1971-72 and 1973-74. Same history repeated during 1982-83 and 198^^-85 to 1985-86. In all these years, sowing was done with the expectation that monsoon may come to rescue. However, scanty and irregular rainfall resulted into crop failures. Revenue authorities had to grant remission/suspension of land revenue and other cess on land, owing to declaration of scarcity conditions in the taluka, A comparative statement showing the loss to the State Exchequer due to remission/ suspension of revenues is given in Table 5.10. The Table reveals that the severity of scarcity condi tion is more serious during I983-86 than in 1971-73 period. Number of villages granted remission in land revenue during 1970-71 was 74 out of 102 or 72.55 per cent of the total. In 1971-72, only 3 (or 2,94 per cent) villages were granted land revenue remission, which increased to 24 (or 23.53 per cent) in 1972-73. During the recent scarcity years, none of the villages were granted remission during the year 1983-84 but during 1984-85 and 1985-86, 119 villages out of 124 (or 95.97 per cent) were granted remission in land revenue. Loss of Government revenue on account of remission/suspension in land revenue and Z.P. cess was more than 2.75 times in 1983-84 as compared to 1970-71, Loss of revenue during 1984-85 and 1985-86 over 1971-72 and 1972-73 was 2.13 times 96 u (h 5.5.1 Scarcity of Drinking Water As pointed out in the preceding chapter, scarcity of drinking water is a regular feature of Sinnar Taluka. Scarcity is especially acute during drought years and felt more seriously in the rain shadow area; the eastern part of the taluka. During the Summer of 1973, taluka as a whole in general and 64 out of 102 villages in particular faced acute scarcity of drinking water. Many times, trouble did not end with immediately succeeding monsoon. In December 1973, I have taken up a follow-up survey of Sinnar taluka, in which it was revealed that seasonal rainfall during 1973-74 had not been upto the mark in a number of villages, particularly in the eastern part of the taluka. As a result, 34 villages were facing acute scarcity of drinking water immediately after the rainy season. Tahsil office at Sinnar has also supported the information. It is observed during my recent inquiries from Tahsil office Sinnar that during the drought years 19S3-S6, position of drinking water has not improved much. A statistical table about the drinking water supply position in 19S4-S5 submitted by the Tahsildar Sinnar to the Central Government’s Team of Experts on Scarcity Conditions in Maharashtra, headed by 93 Shri R.K. Srivastava on 21-11-1935 shows that drinking water was baing supplied by tankers to 7 villages and 6 hamlets in October By March 1935, 11 more villages were likely to be added to this list. In 1933-34, 17 villages and 11 hamlets were provided drinking water through 7 tankers and 17 bullock-carts. Position worsened in 1934-35 when drinking water was required to be supplied to a number of villages from September to December 1934. By April/May 1935, number of villages which were supplied water by tankers, bullock-carts, etc., increased to 54 and 25 hamlets making a total of 79 settlements. This is perhaps the year of greatest drinking water scarcity since 1971. Scarcity of drinking water continued even in the succeeding year 1935-36 when 27 villages and 22 hamlets were supplied water by tankers/bullock-carts. Table 5.11 shows the position of drinking water supply for taluka as a whole during the years 1933-34, 1934-35 and 1935-36, Of all the villages and hamlets in the taluka, 10 villages and six hamlets suffered acute scarcity of drinking water continuously during three successive years of scarcity, 13 villages and 20 hamlets suffered in two out of three years and 29 villages and 17 hamlets suffered only once in three years, when water was supplied by the taluka admini stration through tankers and bullock-carts. , B ^ I « 52 O' ^ 1- I 3 • I « O ^ ^ 9 I' B • I O 'H -O « a ^ c2 M I w • e p I rH U u V o i a eg a o o I O O 9 o I O ® « a W I • K I j : I V I ^ < 4^ C I O I « 'Si*!• S' t. *H I • a I :cf-i L U I b 3 I I O3 i Vi ® l t I T) l« I • t a 9 I , jrf jtf l«f«O^I«0 • o S ,-S*|-S:^t3...... -a...... j «» a Ve o o ^ . ‘W jrf y o 6 • o V M ^ f-4 8 M d «H « I '3 • r t t ^ K 5 ^ ,g 151 r4 t b 8 a 9 I I I . a € £ 15 S. s a ■3 % 9 * m • ^ • « » f t . 0 S. S.3e fl IIII11 & & s i i 'II a £ >o W\ Tl WN <0 V UN vO «0 w\ V w\ *? •? sfl s ^ 5 *? S*?"? T S T *? l^V\W\«A WNtAVSWN^IA«Airvir\lAl^«^^«*«^VNVNV\l/> u*s ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 7 « «y »A. V\ ( I I. I I I I I I f t I • I I I I I I I I I I _l C4 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ w > -t -4- «0 «0 to *? 1 *? ’? 1 1 W> lA »A «A »A w s v> u> v O 1-4 o f* \ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 O «r\ r-< cs< o r- ' ^i (M 04 rOk .-4 r > M to u% UN W> ^ M^ r^^^0^.f^<^OOQOQQOO ^ fs. to v\'oa'VNoc'*A«AooQOOo 8 ^ S S 3 S O' r a o a ? « *o ~ ^ ^ o a o ^ u w u 1. m *H « « 4 U ^ 9 0 ► 9 b a « a 2 - S SI ► >S IISH CL Jt >« Wi ^ 5 • m ~ ^ m s ^ «H 4 ^ o 9 « L. t g 5 5 > •O TJ 9 « ”5 5 «« « a j; I a ^ iS B a iH 5 -a I ^ -< p III - > II 3 f i £ I I . 2 I »2 i u 1Vi'13‘=i7 & i« 4» « « u ^ .. «a ttf o II s 4 /; fl ^ •o Q 5 3 t* to « 3 S a s s O JMt r-l O • H 1 9 9 cS a iS 51 . I 1 . S S 6 III X ht i t • • • • • • • • • tp o o *-< oi - t »A 'O f^ « vO «0 o H M w> w\ u> wN ir\ UA w% N CM M 04 r-l Li U *d a»ckKt«»K»ii ^ iJ r\ I o u t §■ a o •J a iS c 1 a c 3 O o H W) » o -H u U U . U m « a •c 3 3 (0 « bO U I CO ex. O a « C3 4 o. 4 s o a a u (3 H u < < 6 ^o u d t^ t m 2 cS cf cn iS n (S cu o WN %o o VO NO nO no «0 flO to 1 1 T 1 1 ’Y (V 43 VA W> ir \ VT\ fcTV tr \ *A lA w \ ir\ w \ »rs lA «A *A V> to 1 1 *? 'T ' f VN w-t w^ w> m i u \ «A (A ^rv v \ «A »A «A «A «A 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 • I • •H P4 iH WN -#■ »A »A r - N CM p-l «H •H »A 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 • 1 t 1 1• I <*S * 1 1 1 o to <^ -J «A *o »A 8 s t o ~ t 1 1 rH rH (V - t -t •H t 1 1 1 1 1 >o 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 N fH d 4 a. 3 ■o m :» tt kl " o » 4J « • « > pH pH a a 9 4 taO 9 I eS X 5 x» • 3 C u u 4> a 4 t* « a H d 4 o •r4 d 1 •a V CU u § 5 M f-4 M o H Q i ^ £ £ 8 S € « o jO » « a ^ c v4 «C € « «* 0 £ 4 r*l c O) 5 s? «o <7^ nO ^0 ■V -t • ■? >? 3 «H r-4 C ^ I I I 4^ iH pH c CV (N uo o tTi krs kA w% W^ »Tv to t o I *? «? I "f ^ r- r- t^ vr. *r\ o% L« I t I I « I I I <5 *rN kT\ vr\ (M o toCH a a «H «H •rH to > a: (Q O •o 8 Mo a X a wO c (•o oa o «u « « its 4 bO bO c: O' (X £ -• t^ a bo S' i 3 ^'H •3 T5 S ^ 5 A ---- ^ 2 S u *>4 • <• W> £. 4bA 4c oa 5 & iS(Q 5 & ■o 4 £ 3 jx>: •o I a T> a a u» s? I i2 t>V A A VltLflGtBS 5 t« V s Ut Q A V- « V UI ut or o UI»- IL I s •4 ui Uk U. 'HAMI.STS oe o « U.d * to Q U) Y- I s^U tififi Vi^etdAM SHc\^iN6i S'afidciry of. DRjuking, ivrtru SupptAsp &Y >/iix/\e,Es ^ h a h u ts THd£E Vfirt/ls fiAtM To )985-8€. lOlf Analytical table showing drinking water supply to villages and hamlets during the years 1933-84 to 1985-86 is given below; No.of villages and Hamlets supplied water by tankero/bullock-carts during the years 1983-84, 1984-85 and 1985-86 All the Two out Only one Total three of 3 out of years years 3 years Villages 10 13 29 52 Hamlets 6 20 17 43 16 33 46 95 Source : Compiled from Table 5.11. It is also observed that during 1970-73 scarcity years taken together, in all 64 villages and hamlets met with acute scarcity of drinking water. The corresponding figure for 1983-86 scarcity years was 95. However,in the former scarcit; period,only one village was supplied water by tanker only in 1972-73 whereas during recent scarcity, water supply by tanker/bullock-cart was on much extensive scale, reducing human sufferings to minimum possible extent. In absence of such a useful service, there could have been large scale agony and dislocation of population, Taluka authorities deserve compliments for such an extraordinary service to the community. During the above-mentioned years 1983-84 to 1985-86, 105 50 40 30 20 V7 iO 1984- 8 5 1985- g6 _VlUAC,e^ HANt-fiTS. Fig,k9 Fie,un£ 5-2: Bar. 3)/aci« a m j nifMitA o f viti.AftSi' and HAMLfiTS in ViHICH DRlNKiN5i v^AjBR. WAS SOfPHCD OY TANKBR«^ 8ULU0CK CART^. 106 in all 95 settlements (52 villages and 43 hamlets) suffered scarcity of drinking water in one or more years as classified above. Thanks to the efforts made by the Taluka adninistra- tion in solving the problem of drinking water in a number of villages, as detailed below: 19i3-S4 1934-35 1985-36 1. Repairs to existing wells 34 7 - 2. Total wells & Pumps (as on June 30) 116 116 116 3. Supply of water by V. 17) ^^ 54) on\ iq tankers/carts H. 11) 25) 22) V « Villages. H - Hamlets. It may, however, be noted that during the years of scanty rain, supply of drinking water always lags much behind the requirement of the people; in the past as well as today. This problem is required to be cured through some permanent arrangements. 5.5.2 Scarcity of Food The scarcity of foodgrains was a natural outcome of the fall in agricultural productivity since 1970-71 due to repetitive droughts. However, scarcity was much more serious in 1971-73 period as compared to recent scarcity years 1933-36. During the scarcity years 1970-73, taluka began to face shortages of foodgrains. Scarcity became more and more acute in the succeeding years. It reached at its climax by 107 the end of March 1973. In none of the villages, any local supplies of foodgrains were available. Number of households depending on food supplies from government fair price shops showed a continuously rising trend. State machinery tried to provide relief to the suffering population through opening of new fair price shops. The number of fair price shops was only 60 in 1970-71 covering villages, which increased to 86 by end of 1972-73 villages with fair price shops recorded 52 per cent Increase (76) in 1972-73 as compared with the base year 1970-71. Number of households holding ration cards increased marginally from 21,410 to 25,282 or 17.62 per cent during the corresponding period. Though the number of fair price shops and the number of villages enjoying the facility have recorded significant increase, surprisingly, the quantum of supplies of foodgrains was not fixed during the years 1970-71 and 1971-72. In 1972-73, the quantum was fixed at 6 kg, per adult per month, at 50 per cent below the natural requirement of an adult, but actual supply was much less than the prescribed low quantum. I heard from the people that at the most 2 kg. of grain per month could hardly be available from the fair price shops. Inadequate supplies of grains from fair price shops could be attributed to the shortages with State and Central governments due to overall scarcity conditions in the country and, therefore, was not peculiar to Sinnar taluka alone. Foodgrains were not available for sale with the local well-to-do farmers. People had to buy foodgrains from nearby 103 weekly markets. Open market prices of grains in 1972-73, wherever available, were nearly 3 times higher than the normal crop year prices. Price hike in 1972-73 over the immediately preceding year 1971-72 was almost 200 per cent. Obviously,such high priced foodgrains from the sources other than fair price shops were beyond the reach of scarcity workers and unemployed masses. On the other hand government was unable to meet the minimum requirements of foodgrains through fair price shops. Under the condition, discontented rural masses organized in a morcha of about 5,000 persons coming from all the corners of the taluka on 22nd April, 1973 with a demand for increased supplies of grains at 12 kg, per adult, per month. The morcha was led by opposition party leaders. When the morcha reached Tahsil office, people became violent and ultimately burst into a food riot. People started throwing stones on the office. Few employees of revenue and police departments were injured. Police resorted to lathi charge, tear gas and finally to firing when five persons were shot dead. In spite of this outburst of dis content, position of food supplies could not improve till a satisfactory crop year in future i.e. upto kharif harvest in 1973-74, in general, and in few cases in particular, upto the year 1975-76, where crop condition improved very slowly. Position of food supplies during recent scarcity years I9S3-S4 was much more satisfactory. Food supplies were not available with the farmers as was the position in 1970-73 but sufficient quality of foodgrains was available through 109 fair price shops. In none of the villages I have visited complaints were registered for non-availability or inadequacy of food supplies from fair price shops. People could buy sufficient quantities of foodgrains, sugar, and pam oil in prescribed quantities, provided they had money to buy. Quantum of distribution fixed was 12 kg, of grains (wheat, bajra, jowar and rice taken together) per adult per month plus 1 kg pam oil above 5 units or j kg below 5 units. These quantities were actually supplied from fair price shops on demand. However, figures of offtake from government godowns showed significant increase from June to November 1934 and July 1935 to February 1936. In the remaining period of scarcity, demand for food was relatively slack. , Table 5.12 shows relative position of fair price shops in 1970-73 and 1933-36 scarcities. During the former scarcity years 1970-73 rate of growth in the number of urban fair price shops was 25 per cent in 1972-73 over the base year 1970-71. Rate of growth In the number of rural fair price shops during the same period was as high as 46.15 per cent. Number of villages having the facility of fair price shops increased by 52 per cent but the number of households holding ration cards increased only by 17.6 per cent. In spite of overall increase in the facility of fair price shops, supply of food grains during the period 1970-73 was far from being satis factory resulting in large scale misery of the people. Even decrease in population per fair price shop from 2725 in 1970-71 to 1901 in 1972-73 was absolutely unrelated to improvement in food supplies. 110 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 > #*> ■ g ; 1 1 1 O 1 t o S 8 s ” O 1 1 > o ^ 1 fH c j O g O O ' I CM 1 1 1 O f 1 rH •H 1 B •H 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 » o ♦ ♦ ♦ T T T i ♦ 1 * 1 . S . c 4 I I JQ I I* I I • ' t I > 1 fA tA to I I • I o S 8 Q\ ■8 vO u 1 • • < • f • • I I (A vC ^ CM * u 1 CM 9 . <*S f~4 1 WN Sh I * * I CM O 1 1 ^ I ♦ ♦ ♦ T T T > !S:S; 1 1 2 I I I iH 1 1 I I (M 1 1 I I 3 1 1 I I I NO I to 1 kA ■a f-i 1 o o I I I r-( I I OO CN. /H k/N Cf> o> O' vrs a I f * \ 1 fM CM On I I • wA I I I i-l 1 Latter scarcity years 19S3-S6 show a marginal rate of increase in the number of fair price shops in the taluka at 11.S4 per cent in 1935-36 over the base year 1983-84. Number of urban fair price shops increased by 10 per cent and rural fair price shops by 12,12 per cent as against 43*33 per cent, 25.00 per cent and 46,15 per cent increase in total urban and rural fair price shops respectively in 1972-73 over 1970-71. The number of ration card holders increased margi nally by just 9.33 per cent in 1985-86 over 1983-84 as compared to 17.61 per cent increase in 1972-73 over 1970-71. Number of villages having fair price shops increased by 52 per cent in 1972-73 but the corresponding rate of increase in 1985-86 was merely 12.9 per cent over the base year 1983-84. Under the new 20-point programme, a target of one fair price shop per 2,000 population has been set up. However, the actual number of fair price shops in Sinnar taluka was deficient by 20 in 1983-84, by 14 in 1984-85 and by 11 in 1985-86. The target was expected to be achieved in 1986-87. According to my observation, position of food supplies during the recent scarcity years 1983-84 was much more satis factory as compared to earlier two scarcity years. In addition to supply of foodgrains, reasonable quantities of sugar and pam oil were also supplied from the fair price shops. I heard no complaints about inadequate and untimely supply of these items, Taluka administration has also arranged provision for supply of cheap variety cloth at rationed prices from 6 112 different centres spread over in the taluka viz., Sinnar 2 and one each at Baragaon Pimpri, Wavi, Pundhurli and Nayegaon. The problem with the people was lack of purchasing power due to unemployment and absence of scarcity relief works in some parts and insufficiency in other parts during the year 1935-^6. 5.5.3 Scarcity of Fodder Scarcity of fodder is generally felt from late Summer even during the years of normal rainfall. But severity of scarcity is more during drought years. In 1970-73 drought years, serious scarcity of fodder was felt in 1972-73 and in early 1973-74. It was difficult to determine whether scarcity of food or fodder was more acute during the period of my investigations. Fodder is often required to be imported from outside whenever the taluka is confronted with drought years. Magnitude of scarcity can be judged from the increased prices of fodder over the related period. Table 5,13 shows relative trends in the prices of fodder in regulated markets and local markets during 1970-73 and prices in local markets during 1970-73 vis-a-vis local market prices in 19S3-S6 period. It will be seen from the Table that during the year 1971-72 there were only minor differences in the prices of fodder between the regulated markets and local markets. But the disparities in the prices of sarmad and ’Kadba* in 1972-73 were rather wide. Consequently, many farmers were not able 113 I I 'O -* f*> I C 8 ■p^ I «p o I I to > oo d C W I C^ O O' U O *> ♦ CO z 114 to feed their cattle. Those who had relatives in an area free from scarcity, sent their cattle for grazing to their relatives. A large number of cattle said to have died of starvation, though officially the fact was denied. Neither cattle camps were opened by the government in 1970-73 period nor could the government arrange for adequate supplies of fodder. Whatever small relief was provided through import of hey and other cattle feed could hardly save the animals from starvation, death, migration or distress sale at abnormally low prices. Unfortunately, reliable official statistics for taluka as a whole could not be available. This conclusion is drawn on the basis of conditions I have observed in the sample villages and sample households, I shall be dealing with in the following chapters. Local prices of fodder (all varieties) increased by 326 per cent during the year 1972-73 over 1970-71. However, variation in the prices of sarraad was 416,67 per cent and that of ’Kadba’ was 3^7.50 per cent during the same period. During the scarcity years 19^3-36, scarcity of fodder was equally serious. None of the villages had ready stock of fodder. Prices of ’Sannad*, ’Kadba' and oil-cake increased by 250 per cent, 150 per cent and 133 per cent respectively, averaging to 177 per cent variation in the prices of fodder. But the severity of this scarcity was greatly reduced through supply of fodder and cash assistance by the Government. Table 5.14 shows the extent of assistance 115 n I I JS I © OJ O I « taO -4- I—) o CO I I (0 I <« -4- CO U I O rH ® vO I I I HiH I <3 I—( "H s 0^ S'? ivo I -H I < > Ov CO cB fA to I C*< t o I I I I U 0 \ UN I c« CTv •o ® »H •5S I *0 I o Xi 0 I d rH vO ■P bc I <-< I -H I rH o to I CM n O.S I I I o u I a I I t H I f - +3 (5 a I I in cash and kind extended by the Government through Tahsil Office, Sinnar. In addition to assistance in cash and kind, taluka administration proposed to open two cattle camps, one at Bhojapur (Sonewadi) 40 kms. from Sinnar and another at Jogaltembhi 21 kms. from Sinnar where water and shelter was available but farmers did not respond to these camps. Instead, they preferred to send their cattle to their relatives else where outside the taluka. Fodder Tagai in kind was supplied through Sahakari Kharedi-Vikri Sangh at Sinnar, Wavi, and Wadangli and Vividha Seva Society, Dodi Bk. Tagai in cash was supplied by the Tahsildar Sinnar« According to reports received from Tahsil office, people were unwilling to accept fodder tagai in kind and demanded cash loans for purchase of fodder from open markets. Policy to distribute tagai in kind instead of cash was justified with a view to avoid misuse of cash for a purpose other than purchase of fodder. However, tagai applicants complained that the varieties of fodder supplied by the Government were not suitable for animal feed. Espe cially the damaged wheat. Even then,one must agree that Tagai loans in kind and cash have provided much relief to the suffering masses during recent scarcity years, in absence of which death or distress sale of cattle would have been much more. Price rise of fodder in local markets could also be checked to some extent through supplies of fodder by the government. 117 ♦JiH a c0 I I to « e ^ © O' o r-f O cv I o CH 0\ vO o o o o I o I (V a . • • • • • • r- ® u +J 0 On vO o IfN UN W\ -d- I cnI I 0 ON>H © o at 01 cs» CNi CM C«l cv CM O rH cu *>o I • >. I I fl m •P I I O a to o. © a I I • as n ^ ►> •CO CVi r-i vO CM iH u CO U v O +3 to WT\ I O' I o ca (0 ® StX) fl ir\ C^ S 5 CNi o c W) iH "O I O •b •« I « I p a 3 CJ vO »A iH O' Position of total working cattle in the taluka accord ing to 1972 Livestock Census, changes therein according to 1982 Census, as well as changes in the livestock position due to recent scarcity conditions is given in Table 5.15. It will be seen from the Table 5.15 that nearly 20 per cent of bullocks, cows and she-buffaloes, roughly 25 per cent of young stock, goats and sheep were sent out of taluka for grazing. I could not get data about death and distress sale of cattle due to scarcity from the Panchayat Samiti. We can estimate changes in the livestocks due to these reasons from the information gathered from sample villages and sample households in the next chapters. Tahsildar Sinnar, in an interview with me on 3th December 19^6, has denied the possibi lity either of migration of working cattle or its mortality during scarcity years 1983-B4 to 1985-86, Just the same way as it was denied during 1970-73 period. We shall, however, examine the validity of this claim in following chapters. 5.6 Prices Rise in the prices of essential commodities, especially of agricultural products, is a natural outcome of scarcity during drought years. In the early scarcity years 1970-73, wholesale prices were relatively stable in 1971-72 as compared to 1970-71. However, prices rose much sharply in 19 72-731 third continuous year of drought when scarcity condi tions aggravated. By June 19731 market arrivals of food and other agricultural commodities practically stopped. Limited 119 transactions of bajra, groundnut and foodgrains took place at the regulated market at nearly twice the prices in 1971-72 due to scarce supply and excess demand. Supplies of food grains through fair price shops were already much short in relation to demand. As such, prices of selected 12 items in transaction at the Agricultural Produce Market Committee at Sinnar increased marginally in 1971-72 by 3»33 per cent over the base year 1970-71 further increased by 55.52 per cent in 1972-73. Among them, prices of bajra, wheat, groundnut and chilly increased to 214.3i 141.S, 169.3 and 153.^ over their base year prices in 1970-71. A comparative statement showing price variations in the wholesale prices of foodgrains and other selected agricultural products in 1970-73 and 1983-86 period is given in Table 5.16. I have chosen only 13 commodities commonly transacted in the wholesale regulated market at Sinnar, which can be termed as essential commodities for rural population. By using simple index number with the base year 1970-71 prices as 100, index rose to 103.33 In 1971-72 and to 155.52 in 1972-731 such as sharp rise in the price level had an adverse effect on the standard of living of the people as the rise in the prices of more essential commodities like bajra, wheat, oil and pulses was sharper than other commodities, rise in retail prices in the local village markets was still sharp, resulting in added sufferings of the people. During the drought years 1983-86 same simple price index of selected commodities rose from 100 in 1983-84 to 120 d O WN O 'O O' r > c r r- 109.IS in 1984-35 and to 132.20 in 1935-36, showing 32.00 per cent increase over the period of 3 years. This rise in prices was comparatively leas than the rise during 1970-73 period, which stood at 55.52 per cent. But the tendency of steeper price rise in essential commodities continued during recent scarcity years as well. For example, in 1985-36 price of jowar increased by 43.5 P«r cent over the average of 1933-34 and 1934-35 prices recorded in the regulated market. Similarly price of bajra, wheat and gram increased by 45.72 per cent, 39.33 per cent and 35.05 per cent, respectively, in 1935-36 over the preceding two years average prices. As a result, history of sufferings on account of rising prices repeated but the tendency of rising prices was relatively less. Here, again, credit goes to the taluka administration which could maintain regular supplies of food- grains at the fair price shops in required quantities. Expansion of fair price shops in rural centres has provided much relief to the people. The matter was altogether diff erent in 1970-73 when State fired at the people who were demanding bread and work, 5.7 Relief Works With the early signs of scarcity conditions in a few villages in 1970-71, relief works were put into operation with a view to protide employment to displaced labour from agriculture. In the beginning, soil conservation department alone initiated relief by executing bunding works in different villages and relieved 340 unemployed persons from Sinnar 122 Taluka. Bunding and nala bunding works continued with increased employment of labour during 1971-72 and 1972-73. In the late 1971-72, Irrigation Division, Nasik had also started some irrigation works for providing relief to the affected farmers and landless labourers in Sinnar Taluka. A voluntary agency, namely St. Anne*s Church, took keen interest in relief measures and executed a large number of relief and development works in Sinnar taluka from the very beginning of 1970-71. The Church concentrated its atten tion on construction of new percolation tanks, low cost houses for the poor, and deepening of the existing wells. Out of the total employ^aent of 22,517 on all the scarcity works in the taluka, the Church alone provided employment to 21,677 persons or say 96.27 per cent of the total. Share of Seva Kendra in employment on relief works slightly declined to 36.77 per cent in 1971-72. In 1972-73, when State departments and Zilla Parishad started 219 works, Church alone executed 121 works and provided 44.29 per cent of total employment on scarcity works within the taluka. Table 5.17(a) analyses distribution of relief works by types, agencies and extent of employment generated by each of the agencies. Yearwise expenditure on scarcity relief works by the State government departments and Zilla Parishad together in the taluka was as under: Year Total Expenditure (Rs.) 1970-71 4,14,605 1971-72 4,19,261 1972-73 76,33,574 • . ■ ;■'• ■ i / • ::. ■'■■' " - f i l l 1.Metal breaking centre at D»dl Bk. Photographed on 12.3.1973(^b«ve) 2 .Sonairib&-Konambe Rs»ad work at its close EASY WAY TO near village Konarnibe,26.3.1973(Below) KEEP PEOPLE This work proved sheer waste BUSY Immediately after first'rain in 1973.74« u U3 t g • ^ t. ^ X) M. 3 a 5 ? « x> 0 bc « • M 4> ■3« I . 3 *J 4 • • O O O Stj • > ^ a •H ^ • s• 4> Ji 0 U TJ t j 3 • w S S (0 o r « «> •> V. 4 ^ ^ o *> a i) O Ji: O *> 0 4 I 4 e e u o 4 • I » a "o *ix> * Sc:: 2 U3 • • O • *-4 t c • o I A> ^ O • o 3 r ■o f^ S ® B C O • I I *M *3 a 4 4 a 4 *> o « c O • 't? 4 I 0-t * , 2 2 4) a • -H O « ^ «4 CLM 9 U I •) e «> 4 I ^o M n t M I • u a * g TJ I O o • I •O 3 m • 4> c a o P u a n u• c •a • TJ w» 4 4 d *> *> a •o 9 o c a a O St § o a o ja a «4 0 2 *9 *> c .O • «4 ^3 I s o 0 o 1 O s s o o 8. 4 E £ L3 i : « O3 J i s & « V4 e s o € *» •#4 4 4> 4 4 t tA “g 2 •H a ff) k. K £ O§ «• o u 9 «n*i« o 124 These figures of expenditure are excluding the expend iture incurred by St. Anne’s Church which has not maintained cash accounts, but paid wages to scarcity workers in kind, e.g., foodgrains, edible oil, etc. It can be seen from Table 5.17(a) that the government machinery did not take cognizance of serious scarcity condi tions in 1970-71 and 1971-72. Severity of the problem was realized in 1972-73 when the situation was much aggravated. Had not the Church rushed to rescue, sufferings of the people would have been beyond imagination. Taluka administration took up a crash programme of relief works from April 1972. By June 1973, as much as 219 works were executed. Rural labour was so much used to scarcity works that it was unwill ing to return farm labour during rainy season of 1973-74. But all scarcity works were stopped by the Government from 30-9-1973. During the recent scarcity years, a positive change in the government policy is noted. No sooner the scarcity was declared in 19S3-S4 in majority of kharif villages, immediate steps to start works under Eraployment Guarantee Scheme were taken up. As many as 52 works employing 8,400 workers were started in the taluka, of which nearly 50 per cent or 26 works were directly related to famine preventive measures viz. percolation and village tanks and forestry. Engineering departments of the State, Zilla Parishad, soil conservation, forests and social forestry departments 125 actively prepared plans and executed productive works. The tempo of E.G.S. works was more or less uniformly maintained continuously for three successive scarcity years 19^3-86. With rising tempo of relief work, proportion of productive works vis-a-vis less productive works like roads showed a positive improvement* Unproductive works like metal breaking centres were totally eliminated. Table 5.17(b) shows distribution of E.G.S. (Scarcity relief) works by types and agencies supplying them. Another Table 5.17(c) shows labour potentiality and actual attend use of labour on different types of E.G.S. works during 1983-8U, 1984-85 and 1985-86, Maximum number of workers of E.G.S. works recorded in June 1983-84 at 17,075 and minimum number of workers was recorded in February 1984 at 1,000. Highest number of works during 1983-86 period is recorded in 1985-86 at 57 with a labour potential of 7,315. Actual labour attendance in that year was 5,920 or 80,93 per cent of the labour potential created. One can easily predict from Table 5.17(c) that with a single exception of labour attend ance on village tanks in 1985-86, excess capacity of labour employment existed in all the types of works. For example in 1984-85, only 38 per cent of the labour potential in village tanks was employed. Capacity utilization in forest works and percolation tanks in the same year was 51.13 per cent and 57.18 per cent respectively. On an average utiliz ation of labour potential in E.G.S. works was 84,88 per cent in 1983-84, which sharply declined to 58,7 per cent in 1984-85- 126 I I I a o ’j^WAj^inoo i t I T O S I I I I pM to I I ^ I I I I flO o I 9t»U»0I ^ f I I I I I • Ut r t i ' I . no;3»xoi>J»d ' U I I I 1 I tUn^l ( N I M I •>»TTTA, I I I •P* o h ' I ■ s ew I I •r4 I I I I 5 I I IVIOX' ^ • T. 3 I I I P I I o no-;i»iJ*tnoo' i o t XTOg' •H I U I I I m I «l**40ii I 1 0 • s 5 I I I n M 1 VN I U ( « I d •X^trto I IJ • I I O' - I I l/N t o I b (W! aoT1»TOW«j, t £ ' i I D. vr\ I Tj •8»TTTA' I . s I I « I U I 9pvoyi I 9 i 0) I I I U I r r \^ to—' o - ' I o —I S I I 3 C #H »r\ u^O .H UN 0 \0 o o r - o . w cr\ bC I O © O iH I rHN cv c^ o • i/ \0 HCJ ITV I OnOsI •O i I X) 41 C3 r i • • mm © 8 I 4 «*— f-l r^-4• •HO 0\ I »^o l •o a, I tJ < T ) ITN P- H to. b ' NO I o I to U I o I 3 G o o O o I I VTN O ©f-JO o rH »r\ O ir\ r-4 cS n X> « C'4 ITv cvi I cr\ I o O •H'— I «b • u iH I l-q CL, 49 I C^ o I I a a I Utilization of labour potential again increased to 80.93 per cent in the year 1985-86. It is claimed by the people in general that the scar city in 1983-86 period is equally or perhaps more severe than 1970-73 period. But this fact cannot be established on the basis of labour employment on various relief works alone. A comparative picture of labour attendance on scarcity E.G.S. work is given in Tables 5.17(a) and (c) will show that though number of works has been increased by many-fold, the labour employment did not show any improvement over the period 1970-73• Instead, it shows a declining trend. Annual average employment on scarcity works during 1970-73 period was 24,753 whereas the same average for 1983-86 period comes to about just 6 ,527, as less as one-fourth of the employment generation in 1970-73. Taluka administration complained that E.G.S. works were facing serious scarcity of workers, which had limited the scope for and choice of appropriate E.G.S./relief works. On the other hand, there was a general appeal of the people all over the taluka for starting of new scarcity relief works. It was difficult to judge whether the number and location of the works started was appropriate or otherwise. I shall analyse the fact in following chapters on the basis of micro study of sample households. 5.8 Industrial Potentiality Sinnar is an industrially backward taluka. An Indus trial Estate has been recently set up at the taluka head 129 quarters at Sinnar. However, this region has neither history nor the infrastructure available for modem industrializa tion, Water supply is undoubtedly inadequate. Power supply is irregular and fluctuating. The town is not connected with railway. Supply of skilled labour is totally absent. Furthermore, local unskilled labour in Sinnar taluka is aggressive and arrogant. Managerial, technical persons are required to be drawn from Nasik, Bombay, Poona, etc. Under all these adverse conditions hardly any entrepreneur would venture to set up small/medium industries. In brief, indus trialization has every limited scope in Sinnar taluka due to heavy overhead costs. Sinnar town and some rural centres have the famous Bidi Industry which was generations of experienced iand skilled workers. Bidi Industry has 6 of its offices at Sinnar and 62 in rural areas of the taluka employing over 32,000 workers either full-time or part-time. Except this industry there is no other medium or even small scale industry in the taluka. Lack of alternative opportunities in modem sector, people have to depend excessively on agriculture; This typical situation aggravates evil effects of famines/droughts on population of the taluka. 5.9 Migration Rural community in general is non-mlgratory specie. However, under exceptionally pressing circumstances, people move outside the villages, either alone or with their entire 130 families. Conditions under which people are compelled to migrate are: (a) Severe droughts leading to crop failures, neglected scarcity of food, drinking water. (b) Alternative job opportunities in non-agri- cultural sector are not available. (c) Relief works are not executed immediately on declaration of scarcity by government. (d) At times, mere scarcity of fodder may compel the household to move away from village along with cattle in a drought-free area, (e) There is so-called a class of habitual migrants who usually migrate during slack season of agriculture to seek jobs in nearby towns in industries, sugar factories, etc. Migrants with land holdings in the village generally come back when normal rain/crop condition is restored. Land less labourers may or may not return home depending upon the jobs and relative earnings outside. It is supposed to be the duty of the Government to provide drinking water, food and work with a view to avoid unnecessaiT" migration. During the scarcity years 1970-73, as in the present scarcity period 19^3-36, taluka administration has emphatically denied the possibility of migration of population. It was argued that when water, food and work was made available to the scarcity affected people near their homes, there was no need for 131 outward movement of the population. However, according to my observation in 1970-73 period, official statement of zero migration did not stand. Many individuals and few others with their families, soma of whom did not return even when normal conditions were restored. In the present scarcity period 19^3-36 also, I have come across migrants as individuals or entire households for various reasons. But this issue will be analysed in Chapter VIII on "Condition of Households". 132 Notes and References 1. Report of the Facts Finding Committee for Survey of Scarcity Areas, MaharashtraState, 1973i Vol. II, p. 46, 2. Note on Slnnar Tahsil, 2-5-19^6 presented by Tahsildar Sinnar to Hon. Prime Minister Shri Rajiv Gandhi, p. 1. 3. Report of the Facts Finding Committee for Survey of Scarcity Areas in Bombay State, Vol. I, General Report, I960, p. 255. 4. Socio-Economic Analysis of Nasik District, Statistical Abstract for 19^2-^3 to 19^4-^5, Government of Maharashtra, p. 6. 5. Rainfall record from Tahsil Office, Sinnar, submitted to the Prime Minister in a note on 2-5-19^6, p. 11. 6, Report of the Facts Finding Committee for Survey of Scarcity Areas in Bombay State, Vol. I, General Report, I960, p. 256. 7. Ibid., p. 47. Ibid., p. 47. CHAPTER VI SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS IN SAMPLE VILLAGES DURING THE SCARCITY YEARS 1970-73 AND 1933-36 6.1 Sample Villages For the purpose of detailed investigation regarding famines and scarcity conditions, I have selected 4 villages from eastern part of the Taluka, termed as Group *A' chronic scarcity villages and 7 from Group *B', scarcity prone villages, 6 from western part of the taluka and one from extrema east of the taluka bordering Ahmednagar district. This gave me a total same of 11 villages mentioned below: Group *A* Group 1. Vadangli 5. Mohadari 9. Konambe 2. Khadangli 6. Malegaon 10. Sonambe 3. Dodi Kh. 7. Saradwadi 11. Kolgaon Mai if* Nirhale 3. Pandhurli The basis of selection and sample proportions have already been explained in the introductory chapter. Certain aggregative data about the sample villages obtained through secondary sources and field impressions obtained by me in the surveys conducted during 1972-73 and 1935-36, is given in Table 6.1. It will be seen that my inquiries in 11 villages covered an area of UU»5 sq.miles and a population of 14,057 in 1972-73 and 13,662 in 1935-36, comprising of 9.30 per cent and 9*70 per cent of total population of the 133 134 *o « a . 3t 3 1■ Wf I r H — ' O n— trs irv -4- -J - <5 s t iH 6,2 Profiles of the Sample Villages I present here brief profiles of sample villages drawn both from village level and taluka level data obtained by me during the two surveys* The profiles include location infra structure, socio-economic structure and susceptibility of the villages concerned to scarcity situation. (1) Vadangli Location and Basic Facilities : Vadangli Is a fairly big village which had 460 households and 2,350 people in 1931. According to my survey data, 316 households were agriculturists and remaining 144 households were non-agriculturists. Main occupation of the people is agriculture. Majority people in the villages are Marathas. Among other minority people are Mahar, Mohmedans and Bhil, The village has an area of 1641.00 hectares under crop, which is 34*33 per cent of the total geographical area of the village. It is located at 35 kms. to the north-east from Sinnar. Frequent buses are available to and from Sinnar. Vadangli has a post office, one primary school, one high school, and two Anganwadies with an enrolment of 255i 600 and 55 students, respectively. One branch each of The Bank of Maharashtra and Nashik District Central Cooperative Bank are located in this village. Local weekly market holds on every Wednesday, It also have 4 co operative societies, a Multipurpose Service Society, a Sales- Purchase Union, a Milk Producers* Cooperative Society and a Cooperative Lift Irrigation Scheme namely ”Saraswatl Upsa 136 Jalsinchan". Since Vadangli is a village of mixed society, it has 16 prayer places which include 12 mandirs, 1 maszid and 3 dargas. The village is fully electrified. Electricity is available for irrigation, street lights and domestic uses. There are two private doctors in the village* Nearest cattle markets for the village are Sinnar (16 kms.) and Saikheda (20 kms.). Agricultural machinery available in this village includes 4 tractors with trollys, d electric pumps, 13 oil engines and one threshing machine, Vadangli has its inde pendent Gram Panchayat with 10 elected members. Area and Crops : Total geographical area of Vadangli is 1,941 hectares. ^4*33 per cent or 1,641 hectares was actually under cultivation in 1931. Area under all sources of irrigation is only 140.70 hectares or 11.66 per cent of the total area under cultivation in the village. Nearly 9.9 per cent of the total cultivable area is under well irriga tion, Area under relatively more assured lift irrigation is only 22,43 hectares or just 1,36 per cent of the total area under cultivation. During recent years, underground water level is steeply going down, particularly during drought years; well irrigation is, in general, available for winter crops only. We have to count area under well irrigation under such conditions as dry fanning. It is mainly a Rabi village with main Rabi crops Jowar and Wheat. However, some area is also sown in Kharif season. Bajra and Groundnut are generally taken up under Kharif crops. Main cash crops marketed by the village are sugarcane and onion. 137 In 1972-73, drinking water was supplied by a commu nity well and ’Deo nadi* (River), By the time of my recent inquiry in 1985-36, systematic tap water supply and one village tank were added to existing arrangements of drinking water. Now, this village is totally free from drinking water scarcity. Population: Social and Occupational Distribution; Total population of Vadangli was 2,350 according to 1981 Census, of which 1,236 were males and 1,114 were females. Sex ratio (number of females per 1000 male population) works out to 901. 179 persons or 7.62 per cent of the total popu lation belonged to Scheduled Castes; 141 persons or 6 per cent of the total population was of Scheduled Tribes. Total Backward Class population constitutes 13.62 per cent of the total population. 61.24 per cent of males (757) and 30.61 per cent of females (341) were literates. Literacy rate of the total population in this village was 46.72 per cent. All these literacy percentages were significantly higher than the taluka (rural) averages. Distribution of population between workers and non workers and distribution of workers by source of emplojrment and sex is given below: 13^ Sr. Category of employment No.' of Persons No. Males Females • Total 1. Cultivators 254 62 316 (20.55) (5.57) (13.45) 2. Agricultural Labourers 91 239 330 (7.36) (21.45) (14.04) 3. Household Industry, Trade, 19 - 19 Repairs Services,'etc. (1.54) (0.31) 4. Other Workers 294 102 396 (23.79) (9.16) (16.35) • Total Workers 653 403 1,061 (53.24) (36.13) (45.15) Marginal Workers 36 24 60 (2.91) (2.15) (2.55) Non-workers 542 637 1,229 (43.35) (61.67) (52.30) Total Population 1,236 1,114 2,350 (100. 00) (100. 00) (100. 00) Note : Figures in the brackets indicate percentages of the vertical totals in respective columns. During recent three years, following development works were executed in the village. Year Name of the work Estimated Cost (Rs.) 1 9 3 3 -3 4 Drinking water supply scheme 2 , 00,000 If Komalwadi-Vadangli Road N.A. 1 9 3 4 -3 5 Eklahare-Komalwadi Road N.A. 1935-36 Public Drainage System N.A. 11 One Class room for Anganwadi 20,000 Komalwadi-Chondhi Road N.A. 139 This village falls in the chronic scarcity zone of Sinnar Taluka. During recent scarcity years 19^3-36, crop condition was satisfactory only in the year 19^3-34. In 19^4-85, paisewari was zero and in 19^5-86, no crop report is recorded in Tahsil Sinnar. (2) Khadangli Location and Basie Facilities; Khadangli is a small village with 166 households and 969 people according to 19^1 Census. 109 out of 166 households are agriculturists and only 47 households are engaged in the activities other than agriculture. Main castes found in the village are Maratha and Bhil. Other castes are in negligible minority. Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes population is Just 2.87 per cent of the total. The village is in close vicinity of Vadangli located at 36 kms. to the north-east from Sinnar. Frequest S.T. Bus service is available to and from Sinnar. The village has no post office and no bank; however, people can avail these facilities from the nearest village Vadangli. It has one primary school with an enrolment of 12? students and two teachers. One anganwadi with an enrolment of 41 students and one teacher is also functioning. Residents of this village enjoy the services of fair price shop located in Vadangli. They also buy provisions from weekly market at Vadangli on Wednesday. It is exclusively a Hindu village. There are six temples of Hanuman, Shankar, Ganesh, Kalika, Shani and Bhairoba. Khadangli village is electrified. Electricity is available for irrigation, street lights and 140 domestic lighting. The villagers have set up two cooperative societies; one Multipurpose Service Society and one Milk Producers’ Cooperative Society with 65 and 25 members respectively. The village has an independent Gram Panchayat with 7 elected members. There is no hospital or a practising doctor in this village, Khadangli has an area of 463 hectares of which 397 hectares or S4.S3 per cent is available for cultivation. About 60 hectares were irrigated and remaining 337 hectares were unirrigated. In terms of percentages, irrigated area was 15.11 per cent and unirrigated area was 34.^9 per cent. Forty hectares or 10.08 per cent of the area was under well irrigation and 20 hectares or 5.03 per cent of the area under cultivation was under lift irrigation. Main crops of the village are ^ajra and Groxindnut during Kharif season, and Wheat during Rabi season. It is mainly a Rabi village. Sugarcane and Onion are the only cash crops which are gene rally sold in Kolpewadi Sugar Factory and Sinnar Market Yard respectively. Nearest cattle market for the village is at Sinnar. Of the total population in this village, 43.50 per cent are workers, 0.1 per cent are marginal workers and 51.39 per cent are non-workers. 470 out of 969 persons were working. Occupational distribution of work force in this village was as under: 141 Sr. Category of Einployment Males Females Total Per cent No. of total work force 1. Cultivators 177 114 291 61.92 2. Agricultural Labourers 13 28 41 8.72 3i Household Industry, Trade, Repair Services, etc. 2 1 3 0.64 4. Other Workers 90 45 135 28.72 Total Workers 282 188 470 100.00 Marginal Workers - 1 1 Non-workers 220 278 498 Total Population 502 467 969 Agricultural machinery available in Khadangli was k tractors with trollys, B electric pumps, 18 oil engines and one threshing machine. The village is situated on the bank of Deo river. The water is used for drinking. In addition, one Community well, and 3 hand pumps also supply adequate drinking water to the villagers. Normally, this village is free from the scarcity of drinking water. But due to severe drought in 19^5-86, scarcity of drinking water was felt from January 1986. During recent three years, following development works were executed in Khadangli: 142 Year Name of the work ES?^ditSJe 19^3-S4 Water Supply Scheme 2,00,000 19S4-^5 Drainages N.A. " Construction of a room for Anganwadi 20,000 1935-36 Komalwadi-Chondhi Road N.A, For future development of the village and also as a preventive measure against scarcities, villagers propose following works: (1) Extension of Karwa Right Bank Canal. (2) Extension of Lift Irrigation Scheme. (3) Increase in the area under canal irrigation. (4) Afforestation. Khadangli is frequently meeting with droughts and scarcities. (3) DODI Kh. Location and Physical Facilities; Dodi Kh. is a small village with 154 households and a population of 1,075 people. Main occupation of the people is farming. Village Dodi Kh. is located at 16 kms. to the south-east of Sinnar. It is connected by a Kacch Road of 1 km. to Dodi Bk. on Nashik-Pune State Highway. About 12 per cent of the total population belongs to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, Majority of the population in this village are Banjaras. Other non-backward class people are in negligible minority. 143 Nearest Bus stand, post office and market place are at Dodl Bk., 1 km. from the village. Nandur Shingote is another market place at 3 kms. Since the village has only Hindu population, there are 3 Hindu temples of Hanuman, Vitthal and Devi. The village is electrified. Electricity supply is available for domestic lighting and irrigation. However, there is no hospital or a practising doctor in the village. Nearest Doctor is available at Dodi Bk., 1 km. from the village. Nearest cattle market is at Sinnar, 16 kms. Dodi Kh, has an independent Gram Panchayat with 9 elected members. In general, there is no scarcity of drink ing water, which is supplied through one Community well, 2 private wells and 2 hand pumps. However, in 19S5-S6, scar city of drinking water was felt from March 1936. It has a primary school upto IV Standard with an enrolment of 220 students and 3 teachers. In addition, there are two Angan- wadies with a total enrolment of 55 students and 2 teachers. The village is provided with a fair price shop. Adequate quantities of foodgrains are supplied at present. Dodi Kh. has also a Multipurposer Service Cooperative Society with a total membership of 250. There is no bank in the village. Area and Crops; The village has a total geographical area of 1031.51 hectares. About 75 per cent of the total area or 810.10 hectares are under cultivation. Of the total area under cultivation, irrigated area is just 5.17 per cent (41.37 hectares). Distribution of irrigated area by source is I Class irrigation 11.37 hectares (1.47 per cent), well 144 irrigation 10 hectares (1.23 per cent), and II Class irriga tion 20 hectares (2.47 per cent). Rest of the 768.23 hectares (94.84 per cent) area is under dry farming. It is a Kharif village and main Kharif crop is Bajra. Some area is also assigned to Groundnut. In case of satisfactory rain fall in late October and November, Wheat is also sown during Rabi season. Onion 1s the only cash crop of this village, which is commonly marketed at Dodi Bk., Mandur Shingote and Sinnar. Major agricultural equipments found in the village on the day of my inquiry were 2 tractors, 70 electric pumps and 6 oil engines. Social and Occupational Distribution of People; According to 1981 population Census, there were 517 males and 558 females making a total population of 1,075 persons in this village. It has an exceptionally high sex ratio of 1,079 (females per 1000 males). It will be examined in the next chapter, whether there is a greater migration of male population due to one reason or the other. Of the total population, non-backward population was 88.00 per cent, Scheduled Castes 2.98 per cent and Scheduled Tribes 9.02 per cent. 40.43 per cent of the total males, 9.14 per cent of the total females and 24.19 per cent of the total persons in the village were literates. Corresponding percentages for Sinnar Taluka (rural) were 54.13 per cent, 21.28 per cent and 37.99 per cent. Dodi Kh. has the lowest percentage of literacy among all the sample villages. Literacy among the females is miserably poor. 145 Proportion of total workers to total population in 1961 was Just 28.56 per cent. This percentage is also lowest among all the sample villages and much less as compared to taluka average of 46,63 per cent. Only 307 out of 1,075 persons were working. The distribution of work force by source of employment was as under: C m Category of Elnployment Males Females Total 1. Cultivators 199 7 206 (38.49) (1 .25) (19.16) 2. Agricultural Labourers 33 9 42 (6.39) (1.62) (3.91) 3 . Household Industry, Trade, Repairs Services, etc. - _ - 4. Other Workers 48 11 59 (9.28) (1.97) (5.49) Total Workers 280 27 307 (54.16) (4.84) (28.56) Marginal Workers - 256 256 (45.88) (23.81) Non-workers 237 275 512 (45.84) (49.28) (47.63) Total Population of 517 558 1,075 the Village (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) Note : Figures in the brackets indicate percentages with the vertical totals in respective columns. Agriculture appears to be a single occupation avail able for the villagers. 146 Development Works Executed; During recent three years from 1933-^4, following development works were executed in this village. Year Name of the work Expenditure 19^3-34 Percolation Tank 2,80,000 1934-35 Village Tank 1,75,000 1935*36 2 Anganwadies 54,000 In view of future development of the village as well as prevention of famines and scarcities, local people have proposed following works: (1) Raising the height of Bhojapur dam by 10 feet. (2) Canal irrigation to larger cultivable area of the village from Bhojapur Dam, (3) Street lights in the village. Dodi Kh. is t|ie worst suffer of scarcity. During all the three years from 1933-34 to 1935, the village had Zero Paisewari and in 1936-37, no crop reports have been approved by the revenue authorities. During the current scarcity period, 25 households with 130 persons have been reported to have migrated in search of work, (4) Nirhale Location and Basic Facilities: Village Nirhale is located at 27 kms.to the south-east of Sinnar. It is Joined by a Kaccha road to Nandur-Shingote on Nashik-Pune 147 Road. It is a medium sized village with 249 households and 1,577 people in 19^1. Regular bus service to and from Sinnar is available, though frequency of buses is less. Majority of the people in the village are Marathas, Banjaras and other non-backward class people are in minority. The village has a sub-post office, fair price shop, a secondary school and two Anganwadies. There were 3B2 students and 10 teachers in the school, ^5 children and 2 teachers in Angan wadies on the day of my inquiry. Multipurpose credit society in the village had about 400 members. This village is also dominated by Hindus. Therefore, all the five temples in the village viz. Hanuman, Shankar, Vitthal, Shani and "Kashi aie” are prayer places of Hindus. The village is electrified. Electricity supply is made available for street lights, domestic lighting and irriga tion purposes. There are 2 dispensaries in the village, one is a primary health centre and another is a private dispen sary. Drinking water is supplied by a Community well, 2 private wells, 2 hand pumps and one large cement tank with taps. Water supply through pipe line was said to be under consideration. There is no weekly market in this village. Nearest market places are Nimgaon (4 kms.), Vavi (7 kms.), and Nandur Shingote (11 kms»). Nirhale is a part of Group Grarapanchayat, Nirhale-Fattepur, with 11 elected members. Area and Crops; Total geographical area of this village is 761 hectares. Area under cultivation was 679 hectares in 1981 (89.23 per cent of the total geographical 143 area). Irrigation facilities are available only to 55 hectares (or S.10 per cent of the area under cultivation) only. First Class irrigation was available only to 10 hectares or 1.47 per cent of the area under cultivation. It is a Kharif village with Bajra as its main crop. Ground nut is also taken up in limited area. Under favourable circumstances, Wheat, Gram and Jowar are sown in Rabi season, wherever irrigation facility Is available. Gash crops of this village include Sugarcane, Onion and Grapes. These crops are marketed at Dodl Bk,, Nandur-Shingote, Sinnar, Nashik and Bombay. Population; Social and Occupational Distribution: 150 persons (9*51 per cent) of the total population of the village belonged to Scheduled Castes and 77 per cent (4.38 per cent) belonged to Scheduled Tribes. Remaining 1,350 (35.61 per cent) persons were from non-backward castes. It has as low a sex ratio as 905 females per 1000 males. During my inquiry, I found a number of households and inviduals were migrated long ago due to repetitive scarcities, in search of Jobs. Of course, male migrants were more in number. However, 1931 Census data shows relatively high literacy ratio among both males and females than the taluka (rural) average. 55.56 per cent males, 22.70 per cent females and 39.95 per cent of total population of this village was literate. In all 729 persons (46.23 per cent) of the total 149 population in 1931 were workers. Marginal workers and non workers together constituted ^43 persons (53*77 per cent). More than 61 per cent females were non-working. Among those who were workerS} were distributed in various occupations as mentioned below: Category of Employment Males Females Total 1. Cultivators 272 9 281 2. Agricultural Labourers 56 211 267 3. Household Industry, Trade, Repairs and Services, etc. Id 1 19 4. Other Workers 91 71 162 Total Workers 437 292 729 Marginal Workers 1 - 1 Non-workers 390 457 347 Total Population 623 749 1,577 During my inquiry with the village officers and local people, it was revealed that following two persons to whom nobody is to support and are unable to earn their bread themselves were badly in need of financial assistance under *Sanjay Niradhar Yojana*: (1) Smt* Mankabai Ganpat Naik, 45» Sick for a long time* (2) Shri Nabaji Dhondiba Sangle, 70. Proposal for grant of financial assistance was said 150 to have been sent to Tahslldar Sinnar. His decision there on was awaited. Village Development Programme; During recent three years, 19^3-^4 to 19^5-^6, not a single development work was executed in this village except construction of two rooms for Anganwadi in 1935-36 with a small expenditure of Rs.29,000. In spite of dire need for provision of relief works during scarcity years, not a single EGS work was started in the village. This may also be one of the causes of migration of persons outside. For development of this village in future, people expect that the height of Bhojapur Dam be raised by ten feet and more canal water be made available to the villagers. People have no other plan in mind except an increase in the area under irrigation. (5) Mohadari Location and Basic Facilities: Mohadari is a vary small village with only 37 households and 221 people in 1931. It is located at a distance of t kms. from Sinrar on Pune-Nashik State Highway to the north-west of Sinnar. Frequent buses are available to and from Sinnar and Nashik. Over hO per cent of the population belongs to Scheduled Tribes, mainly Bhils. There are no Scheduled Caste people in this village. Among non-backward castes are Banjaras and few Marathas. Nearest post office and fair price shop are at Chincholl, 3 kms. It has a primary school and one 151 Anganwadi, employing one teacher each and enrolment of 30 and 15 students respectively. Nearest market for weekly provisions and for cattle is at Sinnar, 8 kms. There is not a single temple in this village. The village is electrified. Electricity supply is available for street lights, irriga tion and domestic use but only 3 households had domestic connections. Drinking water is supplied through one Commu nity well, two private wells and one tube well with hand pump erected in 19S4-S5. In general, drinking water scarcity of this village has been removed. In 19^5-36, scarcity of drinking water was felt from February 1936. There is a percolation tank near the village constructed in 1972. How ever, the tank dries by January/February every year, as a result, its percolation effect on nearby wells is not experienced. There is no doctor or hospital in the village. People seek medical aid either from Sinnar or from Nashik Road (13 kms.). The village is under Group Qrampanchayat Mohu, in which 2 elected members from this village are included. Area and Crops; Total geographical area of this village is 334 hectares. However, area under cultivation was only 132 hectares, about 39.52 per cent of the total area. It has 116 hectares under forest which constitutes 34.73 pez* cent of the total area but the forest is not well- developed. This is the highest percentage under forest available in all the sample villages. Out of the total area of 132 hectares available for 152 cultivation, only 20 hectares (15.15 per cent) is under different types of irrigation. Remaining 112 hectares (^4.^5 per cent) is unirrigated. It is a Kharif village. Bajra and Groundnut are main kharif crops. Wheat and Gram are also taken up during Rabi season, wherever irrigation is available. Onion and Cabbage are also produced and sent upto Sinnar and Nashik Road in limited quantities. Agri cultural machinery found in the village included one tractor with trolly, 13 electric pumps and one oil engine. Population; Social and Occupational Distribution; Total population of the village comprises of 111 males and 110 females. It has a fairly high sex ratio such as 991 females per 1000 males. 39 persons (40.2? per cent) belong to Scheduled Tribe. Remaining 59.73 per cent population comprises of non-backward people. This village has the lowest literacy ratio among all the sample villages. Only 29.73 P3r cent males» 9*09 per cent females and 19.46 per cent of the total population is literate. High proportion of tribal population, in which both males and females are totally illiterate, might have brought down the literacy rate of this village. Another distinguishing feature of this village is the highest proportion of workers to total population, as compared to other villages in the sample. As many as 129 out of 221 people were workers. This rate could have been achieved by withdrawing children of school going age into 153 work force. Marginal workers were totally absent. Division of working and non-working population was 5B.37 par cent and 41.62 per cent respectively. Among the total workers, 63 (52.71 per cent) are cultivators, 42 (32.56 per cent) are agricultural labourers and remaining 19 (14.73 per cent) are in other workers' category. One of the non-workers was receiving gracious financial relief under *Sanjay Niradhar Yojana". On my inquiry with the people, it was revealed that two more persons (1) Govinda Koli,(70), and (2) Sonyabai Karwan Kanadi (65) are supportless old individuals unable to work are also in need of similar assistance. The proposal was to be submitted through Talathi. Village Development Programme; Not a single develop ment work was said to have bean executed in Mohadari during scarcity years 19^3-^6. One room of Anganwadi was constructed in 1983-84 and one room for primary school in 1985-86 with approximate expenditure of R8.28,000 each. Similarly, no EGS works were started In this village in the year I983-84 and 1984-851 though paisewari of crops was less than 0.50 in both the years. Of course, EGS works with excess capacity of labour employment were available at Ghincholi (3 kms.)and Mohu (2 kms.), but people ware not ready to travel away from home to work. In 1985-86, however, Vadzire-Mohadari Road work was started. Total labour attendance on this work was 135 against the labour potential of 100 on that work. For future development of the village, local people feel that following works would fulfil their development 154 requirements as well as would prevent recurrence of evil effects of scarcity condition: (1) De-silting of existing percolation tank, (2) Quick afforestation of Sinnar (2iat, and (3) One village tank in southern valley near the village. (6) Malegaon Location and Basic Facilities; Malegaon is a medium sized village with 106 households and 701 people. It is located at a distance of 6 kms. from ^innar to its south west. It is connected to Nashik-Pune Highway by a kaccha road. No bus service is available to this village. People have to make their own arrangements to reach the request stop on the Nashik-Pune Road. Nearest Railway Station is Nashik Road, 15 kms. There is no post office, no fair price shop, no weekly village market. For all these services, people had to go to Sinnar, 6 kms. One primary school with student enrolment upto 50 and two teachers and one Anganwadi with 15 children and one teacher were working. There is neither bank nor a cooperative society in this village. There are three Hindu temples of Hanuman, Shankar and Kashi. Village is electrified. Electricity is available for street lights, irrigation and domestic purposes; but domestic connections were obtained only by 3 households. Malegaon is under Group Grampanchayat Paste with 7 members from this village. There is no doctor and no hospital. Supply of drinking water is made to Malegaon through 155 one Community well and two hand pumps set on tube wells. Water supply scheme through pipe line was under considera tion when I visited the village on 4th December 19^5. On the whole, life in this village is hard and dull. Area and Crops; Total geographical area of this village is 347 h’ectares of which 646 hectares (76,27 per cent) was actually under cultivation. Of the total area under cultivation, only 60 hectares (9.29 per cent) were under different sources of irrigation. Remaining 90.71 per cent or 586 hectares were dry. Malegaon is a Rabi village. Jowar, Wheat and Gram are its main crops. During Kharif season, Bajra and Ground nut are also taken up. This village does not produce any cash crops. Naturally, such crops are not marketed from Malegaon. Agricultural machinery available in this village on the day of inquiry was 15 Electric pumps, one oil engine and one threshing machine. This one is the only village in my sample from which no cash crop is marketed. Population; Social and Occupational Distribution: Out of the total population of 701, 222 (or 31.81 per cent) people belong to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Remaining 68.19 per cent of the non-backward people are mainly Banjaras. This village had highest proportion of Scheduled Caste population as compared to all other villages in the sample. Similarly, the proportion of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes taken together is also higher than the 156 Sinnar taluka (rural) total. 57«33 per cent of total males, 16,41 per cent of total females and 3^.23 per cent of total population of this taluka was literate. These percentages are slightly lower than the sample averages. Nearly 55 per cent of the total population in the village (or 385 persons) was working. There were no marginal workers in this village according to 19^1 Census data. Among workers, 337 persons or 37.53 per cent of total workers were cultivators, .20 persons (5.19 per cent) were agricultural labourers and remaining 20 persons (5.19 per cent) were other workers. Distribution of total population between workers and non-workers by sex according to 1931 Census statistics was as under; SJ; Category of Employment Males Females Total 1. Cultivators 163 174 337 (43.81) (52.89) (48.07) 2. Agricultural Labourers a 12 20 (2.15) (3.65) (2.85) 3 . Household Industry, Trade, 5 3 8 Repairs Services, etc. (1.34) (0.91) (1.15) 4. Other Workers 20 - 20 (5.3a) (2.85) Total Workers ” 196 189”’ ’ 385 (52.69) (57.45) (54.92) Total Non-workers 176 140 316 (47.31) (42.55) (45.08) Total Population * ’ 372 ‘ ’ '329’ " ~ 701 (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) Note : Figures in the brackets indicate percentage to vertical totals in the respective columns. 157 Village Development Programme! During last three years from 1933-^4, following development works ware executed in this village; Estimated Year Name of the Work Expenditure 1933-84 Tube wells 20,000 1934-^5 Pipe line with electric pump 20,000 1985-36 Anganwadi with 2 rooms 30,000 These works had little employment potentiality. Con- si daring the fact that 1984-85 and 1985-86 were the years of zero paisewari, more development and EGS works were necessary to provide relief to the suffering people. Un fortunately, not a single EGS work was started within the radius of 5 kms. from this village in all the three years of scarcity. Three individuals from this village who were badly in need of relief work were repoi*tedly Joined a canal work in Kopergaon Taluka. On the whole, the village is economically and socially backward one and needs immediate attention of the Government in respect of development and relief works. For the future development of village, people feel that the village should be linked to Pvme-Nashik Highway through pacca road, regular bus service should be started. Since there is no possibility of canal irrigation to this village, a lift irrigation scheme be implemented. A SaraaJ 15^ Mandir be constructed. Internal roads and drainage system be improved. With a view to avoid evil effects of famines, people have proposed following works as preventive of famines and scarcities in future; (1) One Hadki percolation tank to the north. (2) Completion of Nala bunding works. (3) Afforestation. iU) Financial assistance for development of poultry and dairy farming. (7) Saradwadi Location and Basic Facilities; Saradwadi is a small village with 79 households and 535 people according to 19^1 Census. Sex ratio in this village is as low as 9lS* It is located at 3 kms. to the west of Sinnar, the taluka head quarters, and connected to Sinnar town by Kaccha road. Bus service to and from ^innar is available twice a day. Nearest railway station is Nashik Road, 20 kms. It has a primary school upto IV standard, enrolment upto 70 and 2 teachers. One Anganwadi is also functioning in the village where 27 children are admitted. There is no bank, no post office, no cooperative society and no fair price shop. For all these services, people have to come down to Sinnar. Even weekly market place for provisions and cattle is also at Sinnar. There are three Hindu temples of Hanuman, Kanhoba and 'Kashi aei*. Village is electrified. Electricity is available for street lights, irrigation and domestic purposes. The village is covered by Group Gram Panchayat, Paste. Three 159 members from this village were elected for the Group Panchayat. For medical help also people depend on Sinnar since there is no hospital or practising doctor in the village. Supply of drinking water is made through a hand pump, an electric pump and one private well. This village is totally free from scarcity of drinking water. Area and Cropa; Total area of thla village is 263.63 hectares, but total area under cultivation was only 129.3^ hectares or Just 49.13 per cent of the total geographical area of the village. Area under different sources of irri gation in 19^1 was only S . 23 hectares, just 6.36 per cent of the area under cultivation. Remaining area of 121.15 hectares (93.64 per cent) was unirrigated. This is the village with lowest irrigation in the sample. Main crops of the village are Jowar and Bajra. It is mainly a Rabi village. During Kharlf season, Groundnut is also sown. Wheat and Gram are other Rabi crops that are generally taken up. Tomato, Onion, Cabbage and Garlic are the commercial crops of the village produced for marketing. Commercial products are marketed at Sinnar, Nashlk Road, Jalgaon and Bombay, During recent three years of scarcity, marketed quantities of these commercial crops have been reduced to almost one-third of the normal crop year. Agri cultural machinery found in this village on the day of inquiry was 1 tractor with trolly, 10 electric pumps and 10 oil engines. 1 6 0 Population: Social and Occupational Distribution; Total population of Saradwadl was distributed between males and females as 279 and 256 respectively. Majority popula tion in this village was of Marathas. Scheduled Castes population was totally absent. Scheduled Tribes population was 86 or 16,45 per cent of the total. This village had highest literacy rate among females (66.41 per cent) among all other sample villages and even more than the Sinnar urban area. As a result, aggregate literacy in the total popula- V tion was 61.63 per cent which was also highest in all sample villages. It is surprising. Distribution of working and non-working population in Saradwadl is given below: Sr. No. of persons No. Category of Employment Males Females Total 1, Cultivators 75 - 75 (26.S3) (14.02) 2, Agricultural Labourers 3 31 (3.24? (3.125) (5.30) 3. Household Services, 5 - 5 Industry, Repairs, etc. (1.30) (0.93) 4. Other Services 23 3 31 (3.24) (3.125) (5.79) Total Workers ” * 126 ” 16 142 (45.16) (6.25) (26.54) Total Non-workers 153 240 393 (54.34) (93.75) (73.46) Total Population 279 ’ 256 ’ 535 (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) Note: Figures in the brackets indicate percentages of vertical totals in each column. 161 Above table distinguishes the character of this village as largest proportion of non-working females and non-working total population. As many as 93*75 per cent women and 73.46 per cent total people were non-working. Reason for this abnormality will have to be examined in greater details. Village Development Programme; Not a single develop ment work was carried out in this village during recent scarcity years 1953-^6, except a canal work in progress by irrigation department, namely Saradwadi Dam Canal. The villagers suggest following works for future development of the village; (1) Construction of School Building, (2) Water Supply Scheme, (3) A Primary Health Centre, and (4) A Fair Price Shop in the village itself. As a preventive measure against future scarcities, people have suggested substantial increase in the area under canal irrigation and financial assistance for subsidiary occupations. (3) Pandhurli Location and Basic Facilities; Pandhurli is a large village with 444 households and people. It is located at a distance of 1^ kms. from Sinnar near the extreme western border of Sinnar Taluka. Nearest Railway Station is Deolali, 7 kms. and Nashik Road, 17 kms. Frequent bus 162 service is available for Nashik-Deolali Camp, Nashik Road and Sinnar. The village has a post office, Fair Price Shop, and a local Grampanchayat with 11 elected members. It has a govamment dispensary and three practising doctors. There is also a Multipurpose Service Cooperative Society with a total membership of 365. However, there is no bank. Nearest weekly market is at Bhagur, B kms., and cattle market at Sinnar IS kms. The village has a primary school a high school and two Anganwadies. The high school enrolled 650 students and employed 10 teachers. Enrolment of children in Anganwadies was around 60. Two teachers were employed to run them. Pandhurli is a village of mixed society. It has six Hindu Temples and a Maszid. Hindu temples are of Hanuman, Shankar, Bhairavnath, Devi, Khandoba and Samadhi. The village is fully electrified and electricity was avail able for street lights, irrigation and domestic lighting. Drinking water is supplied to the village through pipe line. In addition, there are 3 hand pumps on tube wells in diff erent localities. As such, there was no scarcity of drinking water. Supply of foodgrains through local fair price shops was also considered as quite adequate. Area and Crops; Total geographical area of village Pandhurli is 1395.33 hectares. 57.62 per cent (or 307 hectares) of the total area was xxnder cultivation in 1931, 600 hectares (74.35 per cent) are unirrigated. Remaining 207 hectares (25.65 per cent) are irrigated. There is no First or Second Class irrigation in this village. The only 163 source of irrigation is through wells. Pandhurli is a Rabi village. Its main crops are Jowar, Wheat and Gram. Bajra is also taken up in selective areas during Kharif season. Onion and Potatoes are commercial crops grown in this village. These commercial products are generally marketed straightaway in Bombay wholesale market. Production of these commercial crops has been greatly reduced during the years 19^4-35 and 1935-36 due to severe drou^t conditions. Agricultural machinery available in this village on the day of my inquiry was 5 tractors with trollys, 250 electric pumps and 5 oil engines. Population ; Social and Occupational Distribution; According to 1931 Census, Pandhurli had a population con sisting of 1,490 males, 1,333 females and total 2,373 people. Sex ratio of this village comes to 935. Majority people in the village are Marathas. 22.33 per cent of the total popu lation belongs to Scheduled Castes and another 15.39 per cent belongs to Scheduled Tribes. 653 males or 62,67 per cent of the total males, 217 females or 21.66 per cent of them and 375 people or 46,46 per cent of the total village population are literates. Literacy rate of this village is slightly higher than the taluka (rural) average. As regards distribution of total population as workers and non-workers, 322 males and 636 females were workers in 1931. Their proportion with the total population, both male and female workers together, works out to 50.66 per cent. 164 Proportion of non-working population to total was 43.82 per cent and remaining 0.52 per cent were marginal workers, all females. Distribution of total population between workers and non-workers according to 1981 Census Statistics was as under: sr. Number of persons No, Category of employment Males Females Total 1. Cultivators 361 240 601 (24.23) (17.29) (20.88) 2. Agricultural Labourers 289 363 652 (19.40) (26.15) (22.66) 3, Household Industry, Trade, 6 13 Repairs Services, etc. (0 .47] (0.43) (0.45) 4. Other Workers 165 27 192 (11.07) (1.95) (6.67) Total Workers 822 636* 1,458 (55.17) (45.82) (50.66) Marginal Workers - 15 15 (1.08) (0.52) Total Non-workers 668 737 1,405 (44.83) (53.10) (48.82) 1,490 1,38a 2,878 (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) Note ; Figures in the brackets indicate percentages with the vertical totals in each of the columns. Village Development Programme; During recent three years of scarcity, following development works were executed in this village; 165 Year Name of the work Expenditure 19^3-34 Primary Health Centre N.A. " Veterinary Hospital N.A. " Primary School (One room) 20,000 I9S4-S5 One class room for Hamlet School 20,000 1985-^6 Water Supply Scheme 7,^0,000 During 19^3-84| two EGS Works, one each at Pandhurli and Vinchoor Dalvi were started, where labour attendance was less than labour potential of these works. In 19^4-35, no EGS work was executed. Labour attendance on Sinnar- Pandhurli Road was only 12 per cent of the labour potentia lity. Keeping in view the future development of village as well as to prevent evil effects of famines, people propose following development works: (1) Completion of Borkhind Project work. (2) One percolation tank in the village. In addition, they have also suggested sizable increase in the area under canal irrigation and expected financial assistance for development of subsidiary occupations. In my inquiries in the village, I found following supportless individuals in need of gratuitious financial aid. They were: 1, Kacharabai Bhiva Pawar, 75, Supportless, 2. Mahadu Deoram Kamble, 70, physically disabled and supportless, 3* Ansabai Rajaram Nhavi, 50, supportless and mentally derailed. 166 4. Hausabal Mahadu Bedkule, 40, supportless and mentally handicapped due to untimely death of husband and only son. It i s necessary that revenue authorities should look into the matter and grant them relief under "Sanjay Niradhar Yojana", if their claims found to be genuine. (9) Konambe Location and Basic Facilities; Konambe is relatively larger village with 313 households and 2,052 persons in 1981. It is located at a distance of 12 kms. to the south-west of Sinnar, the taluka headquarters. Nearest railway station for the village is Nashik Road, 32 kms. Frequent bus service is available to and from Sinnar. It is connected by pacca road. The village has a Post Office and one branch of Bank of Baroda. It has a Multipurpose Service Cooperative Society with about 200 members. The village also has a fair price shop. Nearest weekly market and cattle market is at Sinnar, 12 kms. Konambe has an independent Grampanchayat with 11 elected members. There are four Hindu temples in the village, namely, Hanuman, Shankar, Datta and Vitthal. The village is electrified. Electricity is available for street lights, irrigation and domestic lighting. It has a primary school upto IV standard, employing 6 teachers. Total enrol ment of students was about 400. Two Anganwadies with 60 children and 2 teachers were also functioning in the village. There is, however, no hospital and no doctor in the village. Medical help can be had from a private doctor at Sonambe, 167 2 kms., and hospital services can be had from Dubere, 5 kms., or Sinnar, 12 kms. Drinking water is supplied through Water Supply Scheme from Konambe Dam. In addition, one Community well and 10 private wells are also available for drinking water supply. This village is not only self-sufficient in respect of drinking water but also an important source of water supply to a number of villages as and when scarcity is felt. Thus, Konambe is totally free from scarcity of drinking water. Area and Crops; Total geographical area of the village is 2295.99 hectares, of which 1344.16 hectares (58.54 per cent) area was actually under cultivation. Of the total area under cultivation, only 83 hectares or 6.17 per cent of the total area under cultivation was irrigated. First Class irrigation was available to 67 hectares consti tuting merely 4.93 per cent and well irrigation to just 16 hectares, 1.19 per cent of the area under cultivation. Remaining 1261.16 hectares or 93*64 per cent of the total area was unlrrigated. Konambe is a Kharif village. Main Kharlf crops are Bajra, Jowar and Groundnut. Wheat is also taken during Rabi season wherever irrigation is available. Commercial cash crops of the village include Sugar- - cane, Onion, Garlic and Tomatoes. Garlic is marketed at Jalgaon. Sugarcane is sold to Nashlk Sahakari Sakhar Karkhana. Onion and Tomatoes are directly sent up to Bombay, 1 6 a Agricultural machinery available in this village was 6 tractors with trollye, 150 electric pumps, 7 oil engines and 2 threshing machines. Population : Social and Occupational Distribution; Total population of 2,052 persons consists of 1,050 males and 1,002 females, giving the sex ratio 954. Majority people in the village are Marathas. Scheduled Castes population is only 12 with a negligible percentage with total population, 0.59 per cent. Scheduled Tribe popu lation constitutes 11.06 per cent of total population. Thus, socially backward population was 11.65 per cent of the total population. Literacy percentage amongst males was 62.67 per cent (65^ males), amongst females 21.66 per cent (217 females) and among the total population it was 46.^5 per cent. Distribution of working and non-working population and working population by sex and occupation according to 19^1 population statistics was as under (see overleaf); Highest proportion of marginal workers can be a distinguishing feature of this village. 169 Sr. Category of Eknplojrment Total Persons No. Males Females Total 1. Cultivators 397 290 687 (37.81) (28.94) (33.48) 2. Agricultural Labourers 46 41 87 (4.38) (4.09) (4.24) 3. Household Industry, Trade, 15 20 Repairs, Services, etc. (10.43) (0.50? (0.97) 4. 'Other Workers 61 48 109 (5.81) (4.79) (5.31) Total Workers ” ' 519 384 903 (49.43) (38.32) (44.00) Marginal Workers 28 182 210 (2.67) (18.17) (10.24) Non-workers 503 436 939 (47.90) (43.51) (45.76) Total Population 1,050 ’ ”1*002” 2,052 (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) Note : Figures in the brackets indicate percentages of the vertical totals in the respective columns. Village Development Programme: Following development works were executed in this village during recent three years of scarcity from 19^3-^4 to 19^5-^6: Year Name of the Work fxpeSdUure 19^3-^4 Grampanchayat Office Local contribution 1985-86 Road Works 6,50,000 1985-86 Anganwadies 3 rooms 55,000 170 As a programme of further development, local people have suggested following works; (1) Completion of Konambo upper project. (2) Drinking and irrigation water supply to an extended area through canal. (3) Konambe-Dubere Road. People feel that these works, if executed, shall also provide prevention of famines and scarcities. (10) Sonambe Location and Basic Facilities; Sonambe is a large village with 463 households and 2,S6l people according to 1931 Census. It is located at a distance of 10 kms. from Sinnar to the south-west. Nearest Railway Station Nashik Road is 30 kms. from the village. Regular bus service with reasonably good frequency to and from Sinnar is available. Post office, a branch of Nashik District Central Cooperative Bank, and a Multipurpose Service Cooperative Society with a membership of 400 are working in the village. A high school with 2,000 students, a primary school and 2 Anganwadies are well established. There were 23 teachers in high school and two teachers in Anganwadies. Enrolment in Anganwadies was around 100. However, there is no fair price shop in such a big village. Cheap foodgrains are required to be bought from fair price shop at Sonari, 2 kms. from Sonambe. Sonambe has an independent Grampanchayat with 11 elected members. Electricity is available for street lights, irrigation and domestic lighting. There is no doctor but one registered 171 medical practitioner provides his services to the village. Normally there is no scarcity of drinking water, which is being supplied through Deo River, 1 Community well and 10 private wells. During the recent three years of scarcity, village Sonambe was worst sufferer of drinking water scar city. From 19^3-64, water was required to be supplied through tankers. The water supply scheme for providing water through pipe line was in progress on the day of my inquiries in the village. By now the scheme is expected to be complete, relieving the village of drinking water scarcity. Since the village is comprised of mixed society, there is one maszid and 5 Hindu temples, which include Hanuman, Vitthal, Bhairavnath, Devi and Ram. Area and Crops; Total geographical area of Sonambe is 1311.37 hectares; -72,21 per cent of which (947 hectares) was actually under cultivation in 19^1. Out of the area under cultivation, irrigation was available to 184 hectares, 19.43 per cent of the total area under cultivation. Remain ing 763 hectares constituting 80.57 per cent of the area under cultivation were unirrigated. Between the sources of irrigation, I class Irrigation was available to 72 hectares (7.6 0 per cent) and remaining 112 hectares (11.83 per cent) were under well irrigation, which can be considered to be a seasonal source, Sonambe also is a Kharif village. Its main crops are Jowar and Bajra, In Rabi season summer Groundnut is tried. Cropping pattern of Sonambe is more or less similar to that of Konambe. 172 Commercial crops sold out in Bombay, Jalgaon and Nashik are Tomatoes and Onion, Garlic and Sugarcane. Agri cultural machinery found in the village on the day of my inquiry was 5 tractors with trollys, 200 electric pumps, 15 oil engines and 1 threshing machine. Population : Social and Occupational Distribution; Total population 2,S6l is distributed among males and females as 1,476 and 1,3^5 respectively. Sex ratio for this village works out at 93^. Majority people in this village were Marathas. The village has a negligible minority of Scheduled Castes people, with 48 persons constituting 1,63 per cent of the total village population. However, the number of Scheduled Tribe people was 557 constituting 19.47 per cent of total population. In spite of the fact that Sonambe has a well-established educational system, literacy ratio of this village is surprisingly lower than the taluka (rural) average. Only 749 males (50.75 per cent), 305 females (21.66 per cent) and 1,054 persons (36.34 per cent) were literates Distribution of population between workers and non workers by occupation and sex was as given overleaf. In Sonambe, proportion of working population to the total is second highest, next to village Saradwadi in our sample. Similarly, percentage of marginal workers is also highest among all the other sample villages. Main activity of the village is agriculture where potential disguised unemployment is large. 173 Sr. Total Persons No. Category of Employment Males Females Total 1, Cultivators k n 140 618 (32.38) (10.11) (21.60) 2, Agricultural Labourers 70 69 139 (4.74) (4.99) (4.86) 3. Housahold Industry, Trade, 23 1 24 Repairs Services, etc. (1.56) (0.07) (0.84) 4. Other Workers 134 56 190 (9.08) (4.04) (6.64) Total Workers " " 705 266’" * 971 (46.76) (19.21) (33.94) Marginal Workers 347 380 (2.24) (25.05) (13.28) Non-workers 738 772 1,510 (50.00) (55.74) (52.78) Total Population ' 'l’476' 1,385 2,861 ; i o o . o o ) (100.00) (100.00) Note : Figures in the brackets indicate percentages of the vertical totals in each column. Village Development Programme; In 19^3-34 and 1984-S5 no development works were executed in the village. In this village, though there was overall scarcity in the taluka, crop condition in Sonambe was normal with paisewari 60 or above. In 19^5-36, however, paisewari dropped to 22. As such, it is quite natural that in allotting development and relief works, this village might have been neglected. In 1935-86, Grarapanchayat office was constructed with local contribution and 3 rooms of Anganwadi were constructed 174 with an estimated expenditure of Rs.65,000. Villagers of Sonambe suggest following development and famine preventive works which they felt would be of much help: (1) Completion of Konambe upper canal. (2) Village tank on Bhoga River. (3) One percolation tank. Only one Sonambe-Shivde Road work was executed under EGS in 1933-34, where labour attendance matched the labour potential of that work i.e. 200. However, no works were started during subsequent years when such relief works were much needed. People feel that continuity of public works under EGS must be maintained during scarcity years. (11) Kolgaon Mai Location and Basic Facilities; Kolgaon Mai is a medium sized village with 230 households and 1,390 people. It is located at a distance of 36 kms. to the extreme east of Sinnar Taluka near Kopergaon Taluka border. Nearest town and Railway Station for this village is Kopergaon, 25 kms. The village is not connected by regular bus service. Nearest bus stations are Pathre, 3 kms., and Kolpewadi, 5 kms. Nearest Post Office and weekly market is also at Pathre and Kolpewadi. Kolgaon Mai is connected to Pathre and Kolpewadi by Kaccha road. There was no fair price shop in the village till the day of my inquiries in this village, people had to walk down a distance of 3 kms. to Pathre to collect their stock of foodgrains. 175 Kolgaon Mai had two primary schools, one of which was Urdu Medium School, In Marathi school, 80 students were enrolled and in Urdu medium 50 students were enrolled. Two teachers in each of the schools were teaching. There was also one Anganwadi with 30 children and one teacher. Electri city supply available to this village was only for agricul tural purposes. No street lights, no domestic connections. There was no bank and no cooperative society in the village. Nearest bank was at Kolpewadi. Nearest dispensary was at Kolpewadi, nearest medical practitioner was at Pathre. Nearest cattle market was at Vavi, 10 kms. The village is composed of a mixed society. There were three Hindu Mandirs of Hanuman, Renuka and Khandoba. One Maszid and one ’peer' were the prayer places for Muslims. The village has an independent Grampanchayat with 9 elected members. Area and Crops; Total geographical area of the village under different uses according to Census 19^1 was as under: Sr Particulars Area in Hectares 1. Total Geographical area of the village 844.91 (100.00) 2. Area under Cultivation 764.61 (90.45) 3. Total Irrigated area, 310.00 (36.69) of which under; a) I Class Irrigation 150.00 (17.75) b) II Class Irrigation 130,00 (15.39) c) Well Irrigation 30.00 (3.55) 4. Unirrigated area 454.21 (53.76) Note; Figures in the brackets indicate percentages to the total geographical area of the village. 176 Though this village had the highest percentage of irrigation as compared to other villages in the sample, its paisewari throughout the scarcity years 19^3-34 to 1985-36 was almost zero. Supply of canal water is very irregular, inadequate and undependable. Underground water table has gone much below, the water of wells can hardly be the source of irrigation during rainy days only. Kolgaon Mai is a Kharif village. Main Kharif crops are Jowar and Bajra. Wheat and Gram are taken up during Rabi season. In the irri gated lands, Sugarcane and Onion are taken up. These two cash crops are marketed at the sugar factory Kolpewadi and Kopergaon. Onion is sold in the markets of Nandur-Shingote, Vavi and Dodi Bk. During the years of recent scarcity, production and marketing of cash crops was almost zero. Population : Social and Occupational Distribution; Total population of the village according to 1981 Census was 1,390, with 723 males and 667 females. Sex ratio of this village works out to 923. Over 30 per cent of the population of Kolgaon Mai belongs to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Among non-backward class people, Marathas are in majority. 201 people or 14.46 per cent were of Scheduled Castes and 219 people or 15.76 per cent were of Scheduled Tribes. Literacy ratio of this village was fairly good, comparable with taluka (rural) average. 52.56 per cent males, 22,04 per cent 177 females and 37.81 per cent of total population of the village were literates. As regards occupational distribution and workers/non workers distribution, compiled Census statistics for 1981 reveals information as follows: Sr. Total Persons No. Category of Emplo3mient Males Females Total 1. Cultivators m 12 195 (25.31) (1.80) (14.03) 2. Agricultural Labourers 157 98 255 (21.72) (14.69) (18.35) 3. Household Industry, Trade, 4 - 4 Repairs Services, etc. (0.55) (0.29) 4. Other Workers 39 - 39 (5.39) (2.80) Total Workers " ’ 383 110 493 (52.97) (16.49) (35.47) Marginal Workers 21 67 88 (2.90) (10.05) (6.33) Non-workers 319 490 809 (44.12) (73.46) (58.20) Total Population 723 667’" 1,390 (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) Note : Figures in the brackets indicate percentages of the vertical totals in each columns. Relatively small proportion of female workers can be a distinguishing feature of this village. However, Kolgaon Mai is a second highest in non-working females, next to Saradwadi, 17 S Village Development Programmet No development work was conducted in this village in 19S3-S4. Following works were executed in 19^4-35 and 19^5-36. Estimated Year Name of Work Expenditure 19^4-85 Anganwadi 2 rooms 27,000 1934-35 Primary School 1 room 20,000 1934-35 Samaj Mandeer 27,000 During all the three years of scarcity, EGS works were provided to this village, but the people have not fully availed of the labour potential created on these works. For future development of the village, people suggest following schemes: (1) Construction of a pacca road to Pathre. t (2) Broadening the Kolgaon-Kolpewadl Road. (3) Regular bus service from Pathre and Kolpewadi, (4) Setting up of a Multipurpose Service Co operative Society which may also be given a fair price shop to run. With a view to avoid evil effects of famines and scarcities in future, people expect assured canal irriga tion to larger area, improved transport facility so as to enable men and material to move in or out of village during scarcity. As a long-term measure to improve rainfall, afforestation on the open land is also suggested. 179 6.3 Socio-Economic Conditions In the Sample Villages The sample villages have been classified Into two groups, namely, Group ’A’ - Chronic Scarcity villages and Group ’B’ - Scarcity prone villages. Our assumption is that sufferings of the people in Group *A' are more serious than Group ’B* villages. We shall test this assumption while analysing the effects of each of the aspects of famines and scarcities. My study of the earlier scarcity 1970-73 revealed that Group 'A* villages are seriously affected by the evil effects of famines and scarcities. We shall again test this assumption in the context of recent scarcity years, 19S3-S6, and shall discuss the changes, if any. .Let us deal with various aspects of the rural economy and Impact of scarcity conditions thereon for the groups separately and then for the aggregate sample. (1) Population; Total population of the sample villages in 1971 was 14,057 constituting 9.^0 per cent of the Sinnar taluka (rural) total. In 1981, population of the same sample villages increased to 16,609. Rate of population growth in the total sample during the decade 1971-81 was 18.15 per cent. Rural population of Sinnar taluka was 1,43|386 in 1971, increased in 1981 to 1,71,152. Rate of population growth during the decade 1971-81 was 19.36 per cent. Population in sample villages increased at a lower rate than the taluka total. Table 6.2 analyses rate of population growth by Groups of villages A and B. 180 Table 6,2 : Population Growth in Group *A* and Group ’B' Villages During the Decade 1971-81 Population Population Decadal Growth Group of Villages in 1971 in 1981 Rate in 1981 Over 1971 Group *A’ villages 5,490 5,971 (+) 8.76 Total (39.06) (35.95) Group »B’ Villages 8,567 10,638 (+) 24.17 Total (60.94) (64.05) Sample Total (10o!ool (100!00? 18.15 Note ; Figures in the brackets indicate percentages of vertical totals in the respective columns. Source ; Compiled from the Census data 1971 and 1981. Above Table clearly shows that rate of population growth in sample villages under Group *A*, chronic scarcity villages, was only 8.76 per cent over the decade 1971-81 as against 24.17 per cent for Group *B' villages. There is likely to be some degree of migration from Group ’A’ villages or a reduced family size due to severe drought conditions. Rate of population growth in Group 'B*, scarcity prone villages, appears to be normal for rural area in Maharashtra at present. Over the decade 1971-81, there has been signi ficant improvement in the literacy rate of population in both the groups as well as in the sample total. Table 6.3 gives the" comparative literacy percentages in 1971 and 1981. Initially,literacy percentage in Group *A* population was lower than Group ’B’ population. The same aggregative l a i Table 6.3 : Literate Population as Per Cent of Total Popu lation in the Sample Villages in 1971 and 1981 Literacy Percentages Census Year Group ’A* Group *B' Sample Villages Villages Villages Total 1971 32.23 33.82 33.28 19^1 3 3 .3 5 39.39 3 9 .3U Per cent change in 1981 over 1971 (+18.99) (+17.95) (+18.21) tendency continues even today. However, growth rate of literacy in Group ’A* villages was more than Group ’B’ vill ages during the decade 1971-81, Primary Census abstract of sample villages is given in Table A^.3» Distribution of population between workers and non workers and of workers between different occupations accord ing to 1981 Census in the sample villages is given in Table 6.4. Villagewiae particulars of working population, marginal workers and non-workers and workers by occupation and sex are given in Table A^.4(a) and (b) respectively. Comparable statistics for 1971 could not be available. But the fact that over 80 per cent population in the rural area depends directly or indirectly on agriculture and allied activities has remained unchanged even today. Group- wise analysis of employment structure shows that proportion 1 6 2 I ir\- \0 — CM-~* I ■CO — 0 - - I O n— I I r-l O-i- r-i (*\ u^tO HCT n ONfH 0 0 I <« v O H o a •HvO C^rH I 0 - 4 - 0 0 -4-r-l IvOO I I +5 ' cn • iH • f-» • • to • NO • n '^ v O ' -O H I OJ r - O I CM iH I H O I I Eh »A (M H ^ ^ UN o © rH I I I r - i I X! CO I +J P 0) I H I t I I O ClJ I m CM— ' O-' u^— © 4J o I 4^ I D W) c rH o trS I — I CO CO to > r-l I O n -r-l iH I • CM—' C'-—' t o vO — ' I-H—' I C3 rH hO-H I iH ON CM <0 C7N trvON I vO O n r-1 to to C'-O © • CO C > I CO I O nO vO -4- C^CM UN O n ONO I O n O I o o Cm cO I P »T\ iH • * • I CM • • • t. 2: O Z UN ' P I CM vO ON CM rH I O I © * 1 ^ I t-< -* CM CM I -4^ U> o a L. tn ^ D, I I I rH I CO O o I I © •H O %% I I I p P P X3 •H CO I m CM'-^ r — * CM^— 0\-«^ I O — C'-—' to — CO CO (n T3 ■P I -a; I •Marginal workers’ is a new term coined by the Census of India, 19^1, to express, abnormally underemployed persons who are not able to get employment for the major portion of a year e.g. less than 6 months or less than 183 days in a year. Marginal workers occasionally get employed during the busy season of agriculture. For remaining period, they are unemployed. Therefore, marginal workers are nearer to non workers rather than workers, and are excluded from total workers. Surprisingly, the proportion of marginal workers is found more in villages where percentage of irrigation is higher. As such. Group ’B’ villages had slightly higher per centage of marginal workers in 1981. Furthermore, absolute number as well as percentage of marginal workers is much greater, amongst females, almost 7.5 times more than the males. Such marginal workers should hav« a priority claim over EGS works, as and when they are started. Worst sufferers of famines and scarcities are (i) Landless agri cultural labourers, (ii) Small holders of land and (iii) Marginal workers. (2) Area and Crops; Total area of the sample villages, land use of the total area and land under different sources of irrigation is shown in Table 6.5 and Table 6.6 respec tively. Total geographical area of Sinnar Tahsil (rural) is 1,0^,737.71 hectares or 71.45 per cent area was under culti vation. In Group *A* villages, percentage of area under cultivation was as high as S2.86 per cent and in Group 'B’ villages the same percentage was as low as 65.40 per cent of the total geographical area of the respective areas. Sample total, however, is roughly equal to taluka (rural) percentage at 71.^4. Villagewise classification of land use and cultiv able area by sources of irrigation is given in Table A^.5. Only one out of four villages in Group *A* has a limited area under forest, whereas in Group 'B' three out of seven villages have forests. Villages Mohadari and Konambe have a sizable area under forest. Area under forest is only 3.15 per cent of the total area in Group *A* villages. The corresponding percentage for Group *B’ villages is 3.57 which matches with the Sinnar Taluka total. But the sample total under forest at 6.57 per cent of the total area is less than 135 Tabic 6.S i Land Us* of tb* Total Araa of Saapl* Vlllagts Aecordiog to Cansua ■*------Data, 1981 Sr. Mas* of Total Land us* of total ana Id hactarai Ho. Vlllag* baotaraf Total araa Culturabla tiot Foraat uiidar Watta availabla cultivation for cultivation (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) t - OROUP »A« 1. Vadangli 1946.00 1641.00 - 305.00 - (100.00) (84.33) (15.67) 2. Khadaagll 468.00 397.00 - 71.00 - (100.00) (84.83) (15.17) 3. Dodt Kh. 1081.51 810.10 62.00 75.62 133.79 (100.00) (74.90) (5.73) (7.00) (12,37) 4. Mlrttal* 761.00 679.00 30.00 52,00 - (100.00) (89,23) (3.94) (6.83) Croup Total ’4256.51’’ ’ 3527*10 ’ 92.00 503,62 133,79’ (100.00) (82.86) (2.16) (11.83) (3.15) GHOUP ’B' 5. Mohodarl 334.00 132.00 18.00 68,00 116,00 (100.00) (39.52) (5.39) (20.36) (34,73) 6. Malagaon 847.00 646.00 49.00 116.00 36,00 (100.00) (76.27) (5.78) (13.70) (4,25) 7. Saradwadl 263.36 129.38 92.36 41.62 - (100.00) (49.13) (35.07) (15.80) 8. Pandhurll 1395.83 807.00 175.00 413,83 - (100.00) (57.82) (12.54) (29,64) 9. Koaaaba 2295.99 1344.16 140.00 338,92 472.91 (100.00) (58.54) (6.10) (14.76) (20.60) 10. Soaaaba 1311.37 947.00 167.00 197.37 - (100.00) (72.21) (12.74) (15,05) 11. Kolgaoanal 844.91 764.21 50.59 30,11 - (100.00) (90.45) (5.99) (3.56) Group Total 7292. 4769.75 691.95 1205.85 624.91 (100.00) (65.40) (9.49) (16.54) (8.57) Saapla Total par cant of 11548.97 8296.85 783.85 1709.47 758.70 taluka total (7.58 (7.63) (7.15) (8.78) (5.82) 3ourca > Coapllad froa Villaga Dlractorr of Slnnar TaluJca, Canaus Handbook of Kaahik Wstriet, 1981, pp. 168-177. 186 T»bl« 6.6 ! Irrigatsd Ar»« in Sampl* VlUagas (Area la Hsctaras) 3r. Naaa of Total araa Irrlgatsd «r«a br aourc* (in hsctaras) Ho. uad«r Cultivation Canal Wall Rlvar Othar Total In Irrl- Irri Irri So urea hactaras satlon gation gation (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) p«sy£-».*L X. VadangU. 1641.00 340.00 340.00 (100.00) (20.72) (20.72) 2. Kfaadaagll 397.00 60.00 60.00 (100.00) (15.11) (15.11) 3. Dodl Kb. 810.10 30.00 11.37 41.«7 (100.00) (3.70) (1.47 (05.17) It. Nirhal* 679.00 10.00 55.00 (100.00) (1.47) (^!6^ (fl.lO) Croup Total 3527.10 10.00 475.00 11.87 - 496.87 (100.00) (0.28) (13.47) (0.34 (14.09) GROUP 'B* 5. Mobodari 132.00 - 15.00 - 5.00 20.00 (100.00) (11.36) (3.79) (15.15) 6. Kalagaon 646.00 - 60.00 - - 60.00 (100.00) (9.29) (9.29) 7. Saradwadi 129.38 7.00 1.23 - - (100.00) (5.41) (0.95) 8. Paodhurli 807.00 - 207.00 -- 207.00 (100.00) (25.65) (25.65) 9. Konanba 1344.16 57.00 16.00 10,00 - 83.00 (100.00) (4.24) (1.19) (0.74) (6.17) 10. Sonamba 947.00 17.00 112.00 10.00 45.00 184.00 (100.00) (1.80) (11.83) (1.06) (4.75) (19.U ) 11. Eolgaon Kal 764.21 150.00 160.00 - - 310.00 (100.00) (19.63) (20.93) (40.56) Qroup Total ’4769.75’ ' 231.00' ’ 571.23' * ’20.00* * * 50.00' * * 872.23 (100.00) (4.84) (11.98) (0.42) (1.05) (18.29) Saapla Total 8296.85 241.00 1046.23 31.87 50.00 1369.10 (100.00) (2.90) (12.61) (0.38) (0.60) (16.50) Sinnar (Bural) io8787'7i ’ ' * 2945*05 ’ 9638’63 ‘ ’347T69 207.32 ’13138’69 Tahall Total (10.00) (2.71) (8.86) (0.32) (0.19) (12.08) Sampla aa Par Cent of Taluka 7.63 8.18 10.85 9.17 24.12 10.42 (Rural) Total Notf : Figuras in tha brackata indieata parcantagae to total araa undar cultiration, Col. 3. 3ourc« I CoMDllad froa 7lIlaK« Diractonr of Slnaar Tahsll. Cansus Handbook of Naihlk Dlitrlct, 1981, pp. 168-177. 1S7 the taluka average. Thus, our sample villages have a much less area under forest than is required for normal rainfall (about 20 per cent). Table 6,6 shows the proportion of irri gated land to the total area in the sample villages by source of irrigation in 1931. It is observed from Table 6.6 that well irrigation has been the main source of irrigation in sample villages as well as in the Sinnar Taluka as a whole. Canal irrigation has a negligible proportion to total area. Well irrigation is considered as less dependable source of irrigation due to a variety of reasons, viz., (i) It is a seasonal source of irrigation and is least useful for summer crops, (ii) It can irrigate a limited area and as such, operational cost of irrigation is high, as compared to canal irrigation, (iii) Well water is dependent upon the rainy season. If rainfall is inadequate or scanty, especially during scarcity years, area under well irrigation gets converted into unirrigated area. There are year to year fluctuations in the area under well irrigation depending upon the level of rainfall in the respective year. Due to repetitive drought years, under ground water level is depleting year after year. Under the conditions, scarcity of water for irrigation purposes is aggravating in sample villages. My survey of sample villages in the year 1973 revealed information about such fluctuations between 1970-71 to 1972-73, is given in Table 6.7. Table 6.7 shows that area under irrigation, especially 1S3 I I I r» I I I I I I cvi a to 'O vO ^ O Q O CM iH ON o to I to I C^*H ! H I t J 0 \ Ox to ‘S' OOOtO'O'OvOlCTN iTN m I Ox I CO *H 0) ediH • • • • I • I II fH Ct o o CM O -4- OOO iH O - 4 ^ I nO -4 m s I None of the four villages from Group ’A’ had I or II class irrigation sources. Therefore, area under irrigation was dropped to 24.6 per cent for this group during 1970-73 scarcity years. On the other hand, 3 out of 4 villages in Group 'B* had I or II Class irrigation sources. This group of villages was, therefore, less affected as far as reduc tion in the irrigated area was concerned. In this group of villages, area under irrigation reduced to about 67 per cent during the same period, 1970-73. For sample as a whole, area under irrigation from all sources declined to 54.58 per cent, and that under well irrigation, declined to less than 40 per cent. The least affected villages in the sample were Konambe and Sonambe from Group *B* where I or II Class irrigation was available. Thus it can be said that wherever canal irrigation is available, scarcity of water for irriga tion is not immediately felt. However, irrigated area is 190 drastically reduced wherever well irrigation is the only source of irrigating land. Over the period of 15 years from 1971 to 1936, there has been some increase in the area under different sources of irrigation. Information collected by me from the village officers of sample villages for the year 19S6-S7 as recorded in village record is given in Table 6.3. There is 19.54 per cent increase in the area under irrigation from all sources. In 19?0-71| none of the vill ages from Group ’A' had I or II Class irrigation, but by the end of 1935-86, village Vadangli has its lift irrigation scheme on cooperative basis. Irrigated area of this village is increased by over 46 per cent. Area under well irrigation in Khadangli village during the same period is increased by 88.87 per cent. Other two villages from Group *A’, Dodi Kh. and Nirhale, are being supplied water for irrigation for a small part of the area through Bhojapur dam. Similarly, there is about 144 per cent increase in the area under well irrigation in Village Malegaon from Group ’B’. However, the water supply through dams was quite Inadequate during scarcity years and, therefore, it could not be considered as depend able source of irrigation. Drop in the area under well irrigation during scarcity years was also a regular feature of the sample villages. Therefore, the increase in the area under irrigation has a little significance for improvement in the productivity of agriculture or as a protection against droughts and scarcities. Main crops in Kharif villages are 191 Table 6.8 ; Araa Under Irrigation by Sources in Sample Villages During 1985-B6 (Area in Hectares) Sr. Name of Sources and area under Total Per cant No. Village irrigation Irri change gated in 1986 i" i i " w e U Total area over Class Class Irri in 1973 gation 1970-71 1 2 3 k 5 6 7 8 GROUP »A» 1. Vadangli - 22.48 118.22 140.70 96.12 (+) 46.38 2. Khadangli -- 34.81 34.81 18.44 {+) 88.77 3. Dodi Kh. - 33.82 70.10 103.92 70.56 (■^) 47.28 4. Nirhale - 50.45 133.55 184.00 96.77 (+) 90.14 Group Total - 106.75 3 56.^' \ 63T43 281.89 (+) 64.40 GROUP »B» 5. Mohodari - - 3.28 3.28 3.28 - 6. Malegaon - - 20.00 20.00 8.21 (+)143.61 7. Saradwadi - 71.23 10.00 21.23 21.37 - S. Pandhurli - 72.17 82.69 154.86 154.87 - 9. Konambe - 56.58 70.76 127.34 139.52 (-) 8.73 10. Sonambe - 113.65 92.89 206.54 199.19 (+) 3.69 11. Kolgaonmal 105.89 - 49.42 155.31 155.32 - Group Total 105.89 253.63” 329.04’'6i8T56 "681T76 '(+)" 1.06 Sample Total ’105T89 "360T38 "685T72 ’n51.99'’ 963.65" 1+) 19.54 Source : Information collected for village schedules. 192 Bajra, Jowar and Groundnut and that of Rabi villages, Wheat, Gram and Jowar. Other cash crops commonly taken up are Sugarcane, Onion, Garlic, Potatoes and Tomatoes. (3) Paisewari; During the scarcity years 1970-71 to 1972-73 and 19S3-$4 to 1935-36, rainfall was scanty, deterio rating the crop condition in sample villages. The years 1972-73 and 19^5-36 recorded total failure of crops throughout the Taluka, Figures of paisewari were collected from the village officers and were verified from Sinnar Tahsil, Comparative figures of paisewari are given in Table 6,9. During the early scarcity of 1970-73, all the sample villages had below normal crops for all the three years. The position was somewhat better during recent scarcity years 1933-86. In the year 1933-34, 6 out of 11 villages had above normal crops with more than 60 paisewari. In 1934-35, only 1 out of 11 villages had normal crop. It was only during 1935-36, that all the villages in the sample had a paisewari below normal, ranging between NCR (No Crop Report), Zero to 32 paise. Two villages from Group *A’ and three villages from Group *B’ suffered by below normal paisewari continuously for three years from 1933-34 to 1935-36. One village each from Groups 'A' and had continuously Zero paisewari during the period from 1933-34 to 1935-36. On the whole, statistics of paisewari shows that severity of scarcity must be less during recent years 1933-34 to 1935-36 as compared to previous scarcity 1970-73* 193 Table 6.9 : Paisewari of Crops in Sample Villages During Scarcity Years 1970-73 and 1933-36 Paisewari during Paisewari during Sr. Name of Season 1970-73 1933-36 No. Village 1970- 1971- I972I 1933-’1934-'’1935- 71 72 73 34 35 36 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3 9 GROyP ’A' 1. Vadangli Rabi 0.25 0.25 0.00 0.34 0.00 NCR 2. Khadangli Rabi 0.25 0.25 0.00 0.37 0.13 NCR 3. Dodi Kh. Kharif 0.25 0.05 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 4. Nirhale Kharif 0.25 0.05 0.05 0.00 0.25 0.00 GROUP ’B» 5. Mohodari Kharif 0.30 0.25 0.00 0.40 0.40 0.20 6. Malegaon Rabi 0.30 0.25 0.00 0.65 0.00 0.00 7. Saradwadi Rabi 0.30 0.25 0.00 0.65 0.00 0.14 3. Pandhurli Rabi 0.25 0.25 0.00 0.65 0.45 0.32 9. Konambe Kharif 0.40 0.25 0.20 0.22 0.45 0.25 10. Sonambe Kharif 0.40 0.25 0.20 0.63 0.60 0.22 11. Kolgaonmal Kharif 0.40 0.05 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 Source : Data collected from village officers of the respective villages and also from Tahsil Sinnar. The figures for 1970-73 period were of annewari converted into paisewari for comparison, viz.: 1 anna 05 paise 3 annas - 20 paise 4 annas 25 paise 5 annas - 30 paise. 6 annas 40 paise NCR “ No Crop Report 194 6.4 Scarcity The sample villages suffered due to scarcity of drinking water, food and fodder during scarcity years. Though such scarcities are common during drought years, I have noted the difference between the severity of scarcities during different periods* (1) Scarcity of Drinking Water; Nature and extent of drinking water scarcity in Sinnar Taluka as a whole has been discussed at a length in Chapter V. Scarcity of drink ing water during the summer of 1973 was quite extensive leading to great misery of human souls and cattle. Two villages, Dodi Kh. and Nlrhale from Group *A’, and one village, Pandhurll from Group 'B’, suffered scarcity of drinking water from early 1971-72 but no special arrange ments for improving supply of drinking water were made in these villages. During recent scarcity years 19S3-S6, only one out of 11 sample villages faced acute scarcity of drinking water. Village Sonambe was being supplied water by tanker through out the period of three years. In Khadangli and Dodi Kh. villages from Group *A’, scarcity of drinking water was felt during summer of 1986. In remaining sample villages drink ing water supply position was satisfactory. A comparative statement of drinking water supply position during 1970-73 and 1933-86 scarcities is given in Table 6.10. From Table 6.10 it can be seen that over the period 195 a •> E 3 © & f: t * t: (d to es <0 (0 CO d Li n as TJ (0 m n m « n <0 43 O n to c 1 > s © t vO <0 « n m n n 43 n ^ (2) Scarcity of Foodgrains: Scarcity of foodgrains is one of the by-products of fall in the productivity of agriculture during famines and scarcities. During the early scarcity years, 1970-73, shortages of food articles were i experienced. Scarcity became more and more acute in the succeeding years and reached at its climax by the end of March 1973. In none of the sample villages, any local supplies of foodgrains were available. Households depending on food supplies from fair price shops showed a rising trend. Taluka administration tried to provide relief to suffering population through opening of new fair price shops. Position of food supply in the sample villages during 1970-73 and during 1983-86 is summarized in Table 6.11.-, 197 Table 6.11 : Position of Fair Price Shops and Supply of Food- grains in Sample Villages between April-June, 1973 and 19S6 Sr. Name of Total number Number of Number of Whether the No. the of households, Households villages has Village households self- depending a FPS? sufficient on FPS If not, the in respect nearest FPS of Foodgrains 1971 1931 1973* 1936 I973'"l9i6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3 GROUP »A' 1. Vadangli 485 460 4 10 481 450 Yes 2. Khadangli 100 166 6 2 94 164 Khadangli 1 kn 3. Dodi Kh. 131 154 8 4 123 150 Yes 4. Nirhale 189 249 - . 189 249 Yes GROUP 5. Saradwadi 42 79 • 3 42 76 Sinnar {U) 6. Malegaon 77 106 25 6 52 100 Sinnar (6) 7. Mohodari 24 37 5 3 19 34 Chincholi (3) 8. Pandhurli 369 444 6 10 363 434 Yes 9. Konambe 258 313 3 100 255 213 Yes 10. Sonambe 358 463 6 10 352 453 Sonari (3) 11. Kolgaon Mai 141 230 15 25 126 205 Pathre (3) w M » « » « » » « « M « m ^ ^ « w » A « M w « Source : Primary data collected from concerned villages. 196 In 1972-73, 6 out of 11 sample villages were without a fair price shop. Same villages remained uncovered by the fair price shops upto June 1936; in fact, the medium sized villages like Sonambe and Kolgaon Mai should have been provided with independent fair price shops. It is a matter of surprise as to how these villages were Ignored by the taluka administration. People of villages where there is no fair price shop had to travel a distance of 3 to 6 kms. to fetch their weekly supplies of foodgrains. Though the number and location of fair price shops in the sample villages did not change over the period, it is observed that there is a marked difference in the supplies of foodgrains from fair price shops in the sample villages. In 1972-73, quantum of foodgrains waa 6 kg. per month per adult. The quantum is now almost double at 12 kg. per month per adult. In 1972-73, supplies of foodgrains from fair price shops were very irregular and too much less than the prescribed quantum. As a result, the household had to buy foodgrains from open market at an exorbitantly high prices. Fair price shops could hardly provide relief to the suffering people. On the other hand, food supplies during 1933-^6, scarcity years were adequate and timely. I heard no com plaints from any of the sample villages, except Malegaon, where some people complained about inadequate supplies from their fair price shop at Sinnar, In all other villages, people were happy with their fair price shops. Such improve ment in the supply position of foodgrains is most desirable during scarcity periods. 199 (3) Scarcity of Fodder and Position of Livestock; Scarcity of fodder is another important outcome of famines and drought conditions. With failure of rains in 1971-72 and 1972-73, scarcity of fodder began to be felt in a number of villages. The scarcity, however, was more serious in 1972-73 and it continued to be so during early months of 1973-74. It was difficult to determine whether scarcity of food or of fodder was more acute during the period of my Investigation. Four out of eleven sample villages were not self-sufficient in respect of fodder even during normal years During the year 1972-73, almost all villages were required to purchase fodder from outside. Increased prices of fodder over the period would throw some light on the magnitude of scarcity of fodder. Scarcity years 1933-36 repeated the same experience of fodder scarcity and rising prices of fodder. Wholesale and retail prices of fodder and cattle feed as recorded in the regulated market at Slnnar were roughly 2.5 times higher in 1972-73 as compared to the prices in 1970-71. Actual rise in retail local prices in the villages concerned was as much as thrice the prices over the same period. Table 6.12 summarizes prices of fodder in regulated market as well as in the sample villages, which shows that scarcity of fodder became progressively acute between the period 1970-71 to 1972-73* Simple average prices of fodder (all items) in the regulated market Increased by 50 per cent In 1971-72 and by 140 per cent in 200 I a I I «> u o I tn z 201 1972-73 with the base year 1970-71. Maximtun increase was recorded in the price of Kadba, from Rs.40 per 100 sheaves in 1970-71 to Rs. 50 in 1971-72 and to Rs. 100 in 1972-73, with per cent increase in price at 25 and 100 respectively in 1971-72 and 1972-73. Local prices of Kadba in the sample villages in 1972-73 over 1971-72 increased by 200 per cent, and that of Sarmad by 212.50 per cent. Averag® prices of fodder (all items) in the local markets in 1972-73 increased by 226.15 per cent over 1971-72. It will be evident from the Table 6.12, that during the year 1971-72, there were little disparities in the prices of fodder in the regulated market and in the local markets in the villages concerned. But the disparities in the overall prices of fodder and especially in the prices of ’Kadba' and ‘sarmad’ in 1972-73 were rather wide. It does not, however, mean that ample supplies of fodder were avail able in the regulated market. On the contrary, non-arrival of fodder in regulated markets led to acute scarcity and resulting abnormal price rise of fodder in local markets. Consequently, many farmers were not able to feed their cattle. Some of them, who had friends and relatives in an area relatively free from scarcity, sent out their cattle for grazing, A large number of cattle practically died of starvation though officially this fact was denied. Taluka administration failed to supply adequate quantities of fodder to the needy farmers. No cattle camp was opened anywhere in the taluka. Whatever little relief was made available 202 through import of hey and other cattle feed from outside was of too little help, resulting in dislocation of working and non-working cattle. Though reliable statistics could not be obtained, 171 working cattle died of starvation only in four sample villages. From one of the sample villages, almost all the cows and young stock were sent to Dang in Gujarath State for grazing. A large number of cattle was sold at very low prices. Experience of fodder scarcity repeated in the recent scarcity years 1983-36; but this time, taluka administra tion provided relief through fodder tagai in the form of Hey, waste grain and cash loans. In addition, two cattle camps were opened in 1985-86 at Jogaltembhi and Bhojapur where shelter, water and fodder was said to have been made available. But from none of the sample villages the services of cattle camps were utilized. It seems that the relief measures adopted for supply of cattle feed kept the prices of fodder under check. In 1985-86, overall prices of fodder increased by 33.6 per cent as against 226.15 per cent in 1972-73 over a year before. In 1985-86, prices of ’Sarmad', ’Kadba’ and Oil Cake increased by 53*85 per cent, 36.84 per cent and 20 per cent respectively over their prices in the immediately preceding year. Thus, relatively less steep price rise in recent scarcity years shows that fodder supply position, though tight, was much better than that of 1972-73 scarcity year. Even then ,there was some degree of displace ment of cattle due to high prices and shortage of fodder 203 between the period 1934-35 and 1935-36, Table 6.13 shows the livestock position of Sinnar Taluka and sample villages and displacement of cattle due to recent scarcity years 1933-36. Livestock Census information for the years 1972 and 1932 is collected from Panchayat Samiti Sinnar. Live stock position in the sample villages and information about displacement of cattle duo to distress sale, death and sending cattle out of villag* for grazing has been collected by me during the course of my inquiries. Table 6.13 shows that about 16.03 per cent of cattle either died or sold out during the years 1934-35 and 1935-36. Separate figures of death and sales could not be available. Similarly, number of cattle died due to old age disease and due to starvation could not be available. Only information I could gather is that normal rate of reduction in cattle due to death and sales is about 5 per cent. Excess death rate may be the result of starvation. Extra sale of cattle might have been resulted due to exorbitant prices of fodder. Highest rate of decrease in the number of cattle due to death and sales recorded was of bullocks, followed by sheep, she-goats and cows. In addition, 5.20 per cent of cattle from sample villages was sent out for grazing. Highest rate of cattle sent out was of she-buffaloes and sheep (12,05 per cent each) followed by bullocks and she-goats. Under the circumstances, it was felt that timely organization of cattle camps^ on an 204 I I • & S "m I “ ;! « c I ■»<*<„ T* -»<» a o t a u • <>N0 k I e W*<#60 3 0.#0 I »>r4CO.£a l,H 6.5 Prices Prices of food articles and other essential commo dities show 'abnormally rising trend during famines and scar cities. I have already discussed the trends in wholesale prices of 13 essential commodities as recorded in the Agri cultural Produce Market Committee, Sinnar for the scarcity years 1970-71 to 1972-73 and 1933-34 to 1935-36. Local retail market prices in the sample villages also show si trends but the rise in local retail prices was sharper 1 those of wholesale prices. Table 6.14 shows the trends local retail prices in sample villages during scarcity years 1971-73 and 1934-36 with base years 1971-72 and 1934-35 > respectively. It can be seen from Table 6,14 that simple retail price index of 14 commodities increased to 177.29 in 1972-73 over the immediately preceding year 1971-72. During this period, wholesale price index increased to 150.50. Rise in the prices of food articles and edible oil was more signi ficant. On the other hand, retail price index of some items increased to 130.12 in 1935-36 over the immediately preceding year 1934-35, when wholesale price index rose to 121.03 during the same period. During this period, retail prices of Onion, Potatoes and Chilly showed a sharp rise as compared other commodities. Prices of food articles in the local markets increased between 20 and 25 per cent which could be 206 Table 6.14 ; Variations in the Retail Prices of Food and Essential Commodities in Sample Villages During Scarcity Years 1971-73 and 19^4-86 (Average of all Sample Villages) Sr. Commodity Unit Prices in May-June of Prices in May-June of No. of Measur- 1972 1973 Per cent 1985 1986 Per cent emant variation variatior in 1973 in 1986 over 1971 over 1985 5 (6 7 8 9 1 .2 0 2.20 {*) 83.33 2.60 3.10 () 19.23 1.85 3.60' {^) 94.59 4.10 4.85 ( ) 18.29 1 .0 0 1.75 {*) 75.00 2.15 2.70 () 25.58 1.05 2.15 (+)104.76 2.10 2.40 ( ) 14.29 1 .8 0 3.20 (♦) 77.78 6.30 7.80 () 23.81 1.40 2.75 (>) 96.43 6.05 7.45 { ) 23.14 2.50 4.00 (♦) 60.00 5.85 7.05 ( ) 20.51 1.80 2.40 (^) 33.33 4.05 5.05 () 24.69 0.25 0.60 (♦)140.00 1.30 2.40 () 84.62 0 .6 0 1.25 (♦)108.33 2.15 3.00 { ) 39.53 4.25 7.50 (♦) 76.47 16.00 22.50 () 40.63 Edible Oil Per 4.50 8.60 (♦) 91.11 14.90 17.50 () 17.45 Ltr. Kerosene ” 0.63 0.73 (♦) 15.87 2.15 2.50 ( ) 16.28 Milk " 1 .2 0 1.80 {♦) 50.00 2.85 3.50 () 22.80 Total ’24.00 42.55'*(>) ’77.29’’70.55' 9l’80 {) 30.12 Simple Index 1 0 0 .0 0 177.29 - 100.00 130.12 - Source : Average Prices in May-June of the respective year collected from local shops of the villages concerned. 207 considered mild when compared with previous scarcity years 1971-73. Regular and adequate supplies of foodgrains, sugar and edible oil from fair price shops kept the prices under check. Otherwise price rise would have been much more than what has been experienced by the villagers. This aspect also supports the view that sufferings due to giving prices were less during recent scarcity years than 1970-73. We can make an allowance of 5.7 per cent per annum price rise towards normal rate of inflation on the basis of all-India consumer price index for agricultural labourers (R.B.I. Bulletin, July 19^6, p. 627). Excess of price hike could be attributed to scarcity conditions. 6.6 Relief Works In order to provide work and bread to the affected population, a number of relief works were put into operation by various departments of State Government, Zilla Parishad, and one voluntary agency, namely, St. Anne*s Church Nasik Road, from 1970-71. Since then starting of relief works during scarcity years has bean a regular activity of the taluka administration. It was expected that work should be available to needy persons, as far as possible, near the places of their residence or at least within the radius of 5 kms. from their places of normal residence. Table 6.15 gives details of relief works started from time to time in the sample villages or within the radius of 5 kms. from sample villages, where people could conveniently Join the work. 208 H w L. 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O.K 1 ■»“i I S ' 6 I m o 0 t t « W%vO «> r^r-< d I fsi rH r« I f-4 f I iHI » f ► I I to to m l • N I f «-(i u n O' I «HI s I I s « I u to I t ^ I r\ 11 cvi I Ml a d 4 oa •4»p4 j ^« o d ^ •# 0*H K 8 8 §Sl§|88f IllfS I • H i I fSl C4 II ^ c t : s O WN «A #H 4 O • b p M N r N O H »r\ (V 2 3 S g :S ;' ?:S ^S S 5;S ^ f-( N M rH rH M ^ BH 4 O 4 4 r*- o o r> O fs| vO I I I^O Q O ^O to r- iH rv u^ kA « *o *0 T> T> “C « -D T3 T) *C ^ TS ■o *0 • -o • • «««« ••••• • • • C • «> ^ 60 «* «•••• •«••• • • pI • • P • »H ^ «H C «-4 «H C «H & a a a a o. o. ao.o.aa o. i a £ a a A« g. 5 5 J J 5 5 ^ 5 5 3 J3O 4^« ?«5 S5 ! = • X 1 2 K z *J OS<£ —' t> « w “ "s i W r-l 4) • w4 O w« v4 Ok ► ■« a - t* n • ^ wi « m "B a 4 - S « 4 *> M r ^ a ^ *» I 4 <0 3 0«• ^ 4 K1 »H ^ o ac 0, « u “ J ^ 8. «4 td N £ « a : • ® 2 . § a a U « cu ^ a 5 N ^ a a TJ 1 1 ^ s g t o 4 • 4 » 2 o S cu « « « ;!f ^ 4 9 & s ^ 2 1 ? ^ g g - I 3 •Hu ja £ s s «> :2 « 1 1 ^X f-t H £ « 5 - P O V 0 • § i ~ a M M d n O i r■ a : 2 a o a 1 «H o T)d • 4 .-4• «-( I. a 4 n t i* W 4 9 M .S g g 2- 5 JS 4 '3 I m i-l ' k € s 5 5 *o4 ^-1•»4 5 3 t K 3 *. ^ j ^ I " i > > M O. flk«s l OS n oi ^ 5 a .9 j 3 t -c vO -# V> •t w> >0 w% w^ JS5 s to to to ^ T T « 3f u u\ w% I •# ^ lA ^ ^ lA 25 to to to to to to to «0 to to to to to to Os O ON ^ ^ O' 0^ O' O' O' O' »HrH :* p '^;5 d 2-3 4> t a 4 2 J? 3 £S 9 9 «r 5 o d i s Ji £ 0 3 vo r^ to O z 5 212 Table 6.15(a) gives details of scarcity works executed during the scarcity years 1970-73 in sample vill ages. In all 37 works of different types spread over very unevenly over three years. In 1970-71i only one relief work of construction of 35 low cost houses was executed by a private agency, St. Anne’s Church's Seva Kendra at Kolgaon Mai. None of the other villages were provided with work, even in all the 4 villages from Group 'A’ and Pandhurli from Group where annowari of crops was just 4 annas. In 1971-72, all villages in the sample faced low annewari between 1 and 4 annas but only one scarcity work of perco lation tank was provided in village Malegaon by Seva Kendra. State departments and Zilla Parishad did not provide any scarcity work in the sample villages. People suffered a lot due to lack of employment, income and food. In 1972-731 however, 35 works were provided in eight sample villages. Majority works were of roads (21) followed by percolation tanks and village tanks (5 each), canals (2), forest work (1) and metal breaking centre (1). Villages Khadangli, Malegaon and Saradwadi were remained neglected in providing / relief works. Thus, there was lack of pre-planned pro gramme of scarcity works. Twenty-two out of 35 works were relatively less productive having no relevance to preventive measures to combat scarcity situation in future. People also complained that there was always a time lag between comple tion of one scarcity work and starting of a new one. Sometimes time lag was as long as 7 to ^ weeks. Meanwhile, people 213 were required to remain without job, in the intervening period. Such forced unemployment thus added to the misery of the scarcity affected people. Only 10 out of 35 works were directly productive, namely, 2 canals, 10 percolation/ village tanks and one forest work. The officers in charge of scarcity works could not provide information about labour attendance on works already completed and even in some cases where works were in progress. Table 6.15(b) summarizes relief works executed in sample villages during the period 1983-^6. There seems to be a proper phasing of work, a shift in favour of more preventive works and proper record of labour statistics. Efforts seem been to have/made to provide work in the villages concerned or at least in their close vicinity within 5 kms. In all 34 works the were executed in all/sample villages phased over the period of 3 years. Classification of works executed by category is as under; Sr. No. of works executed No. Category of Work ...... 1933-^4 1934-^5 1935-^6 ------. - 1. Roads 3 3 14 2. Canals mm - 1 1 3. Percolation Tanks 1 2 - 3 4. Village Tanks - - 2 2 5. Soil Conservation - 2 2 4 6. Forests 3 4 1 8 7. Social Forestry - - 2 2 Total *12 ’" ~ II” li " " ’ 34 Villages Covered 8 6 6 10 2 U Only village not covered by relief works during 1933-36 was Malegaon. Village Nirhale was also without a single relief work during 19^3-34 and 1984-35. Village Saradwadi was provided one v/ork only in 1933-34. Village Khadangli has a negligible share in the works provided to Vadangli. During the year of Zero paisewari in 1935-36, villages Khadangli, Malegaon, Saradwadi, Konambe and Sonambe were not provided any relief work. As a result, people from these villages suffered due to loss of employment and income. It was, however, observed that on the one hand, people from sample villages were demanding more relief works but on the other hand labour potentiality created by the EGS relief works was not fully utilized in many cases. For example, only in 3 out of 34 works, labour potentiality was fully utilized. Remaining 26 works were with excess labour potentiality varying from 10 to 33 per cent, which shows that more works were executed than the genuine requirement of the people. On the front of relief works, on the whole, people were better off during recent scarcity years 1933-36 than the previous scarcity years 1970-73. Wage Rates; Wages of agricultural labourers by 1970-71 in normal times varied between slack and busy season for adult male workers from Rs.1.50 to Rs,2.00 and for female workers from Rs.1.25 to Rs.l,50 per day. Wages on scarcity works were fixed at Rs.2.50 and Rs.2.00 for male and female workers respectively. These rates were revised to Rs.2.50 for both malesand females from 15th April 1973. In addition,a 215 scarcity allowance of Rs.0.50 per worker per day was paid during the period from 15th April to 31st July 1973. The allowance was withdrawn from August 1973* Basis of wages differed from work to work. Soil conservation works were paid at piece rate. Zilla Pari shad works were paid on the basis of piece-cum-daily wage rates. Irrigation works were paid on the basis of daily wages. Wages on community wells were paid on the basis of piece work and were found generally lower than those of other works executed departmentally. There was, therefore, a tendency among the workers to Join daily wage based works. A number of community well works were to be stopped due to non-availability of workers. Wage payments were usually delayed by 3 to 4 weeks. Wages on works executed by Seva Kendra of St. Anne’s Church were paid in kind 28 lbs. grains and 6 lbs. oil per month per worker. On the face of acute scarcity of food- grains and oil in open market, these works appeared most attractive to the scarcity-stricken people. Wages on scarcity works during recent scarcity years 1983-86 were paid according to Minimum Wages Legislation 1983. From 20th October 1984 at revised piece work rates approved by the Government of Maharashtra for different categories of work were made applicable to scarcity works/EGS workers in the sample villages. People working on scarcity works were getting daily wages between Rs. 6 and Rs. 10 per day. There were no complaints about malpractices in wage payment, but 216 wage payments were irregular. Sometimes, wages were delayed by 2 to 3 weeks. 6.7 Migration When employment is not locally available and/or scar city of drinking water, food, etc., becomes serious, migration of working population in search of employment elsewhere becomes inevitable. Migration of households takes place where overall scarcity of drinking water, food, fodder and work becomes a common feature. Such migration may also take place in an area neglected by the administration while plann ing the programme of development and relief works. There is also a class of habitual migrants which usually migrates to nearby industries or sugar factories during the off-season of agriculture and returns back to village with the emergence of monsoon. Table 6.16 summarizes migration of individuals and households along with families from the sample villages during scarcity years 1970-73 and 19S3-S6. Officially, migration on account of scarcity conditions was denied by the Tahsildar Sinnar during both the scarcity periods. However, my inquiries revealed that in 205 house holds from 11 sample villages either with families or some individuals from these households were migrated which was 9.43 per cent of the total households in the sample villages. 109 or 5.01 per cent of the total households were migrated along with the families. One or more individuals from another 96 households (4.42 per cent of the total) were also migrated 217 TJ I I 0 •p I I +> I I I I •H I I fH etf ® m o — I ex'—^ I I ir\—. I I to ^ r-— I O I J3I ctj U m’O.H iHtO -H CM O vO if\ o Recent scarcity years 19^3-86 show similar tendencies of migration. In all 227 out of 2,701 households (3.40 per cent) were found migrated either fully or partly. 147 house holds moved out with families and individuals from another 80 households migrated, leaving their families in villages. This constitutes 5.44 per cent and 2.96 per cent of the total house holds respectively in Group *B’. During this scarcity also, heavy migration upto 20.31 par cent of households from Group ’A* was reported. There was a slight decline in migration of people from Group ’B' villages. Only 16 out of 1,672 house holds (1.03 per cent) were found migrated. Thus, between the scarcity years 1970-73 and 1933-36, rate of migration slightly increased in Group ’A’ villages with a more than compensatory decline in the rate of migration from Group *B‘ villages. Highest rate of migration was recorded in Village Nirhale from Sroup *A’, Differences in the degree of migration in Group *A’ villages establish the fact that Group ’A’ villages suffer from chronic scarcity conditions even after 15 years of 219 scarcity relief measures. Drastic protective and preventive measures need be applied in chronic scarcity villages to check hardship of the suffering people and their migratory character. 220 Table A^.l : New Villages Added in Sinnar Taluka from ------1961 to 19^1 Sr. Name of Village Location Population No. Coda No. 1. Ashapur 115 1,00B 2. Bharatpur 55 1,001 3. Bhatwadi 6a 358 4. Chandrapur 73 342 5. Dusangwadi 95 552 6. Fulenagar 101 371 7. Ghotewadi 102 375 S. Khardalwadi 100 331 9. Kasarwadi 122 1,123 10. Keru Patilnagar 11 712 11. Komalwadl 13 1,030 12. Kriahnanagar 110 1,360 13. Kundewadi (B) 74 731 14. Laxinanpur 56 366 15. Pimpalgaon 61 555 16. Pimparwadi 60 351 17. Ramnagar 35 633 IS. Rampur 53 991 19. Shastrinagar 2B 1,103 20. Shrirampur 52 641 21. Sonewadi 121 363 22. Sunderpur a 1,075 Total 22 17,977 Note : Village Bho.lapur existing in 1961 has been uninhabited now due to completion of Bhojapur Dam, 221 Table A^,2 ; List of Villages in Sinnar Taluka, 1931 Sr. Name of Village House- Location Population No. Holds Code No. (19S1) GROUP (Chronic Scarcity Villages) 1. Chondhi 74 17 404 2. . Dohiwadi 16S 20 946 3. Deopur 450 49 2,313 4. Dharangaon 133 4^ ^79 5. Dodi Bk. 509 3,613 6. DODI Kh.» 154 37 1,075 7. Dusangwadi 75 95 552 3. Eklahre 40 25 247 9. Fardapur 94 47 626 10. Fattepur 100 103 733 11. Fulenagar 149 101 371 12. Ghotewadi 150 102 375 13. Gulapur 52 105 269 14. Gurewadi 60 66 355 15. Khandalwadi 136 100 331 16. Kasarwadi 154 122 1,123 17. Keru Patilnagar 112 \1 712 18. KHADANGLI * l66 15 969 19. Kirtangli 142 24 1,171 20. Komalwadl 161 13 1,030 21. Kundewadi II 135 74 731 22. Laxmanpur 63 56 366 23. Mahajanpur 62 21 371 24. Maldhone 115 99 765 25. Manori 324 106 2,243 26. Marhal Bk. 233 90 1,531 27. Marhal Kh. 136 92 330 23. Mendhi 277 16 1,293 (continued) 222 Table A^.2 ; (continued) Sr. Name of Village House* Location Population No. holds Code No. 29. Mirgaon 219 59 1,312 30. Mithsagare 201 61 1,424 31. Nandur Shingote 456 107 2,767 32. Nimgaon Deopur 134 10 7 3 1 33. NIRHALE * 249 104 1,577 34. Panchale 361 50 2,028 35. Pangri Bk. 557 62 3,240 36. Pangri Kh. 72 93 553 37. Pathre Bk, 199 58 1 ,2 0 6 38. Pathre Kh. 274 96 1,680 39. Pimpalgaon 99 51 555 40. Pimparwadi 63 60 351 41. Ramnagar 118 85 683 42. Rampur 168 53 991 43. Sanghvi 331 19 1,9 3 2 44. Sayale 236 98 1,2 3 4 45. Shaha 496 54 2,329 46. Shrirampur 100 52 641 47. Somthane 319 18 1,819 48. Saregaon 92 91 606 49. Ujjani 124 22 766 50. VADANGLI * 460 14 2,350 51. Waregaon 134 97 796 52. Wavi 44 94 3,257 Group Total 9,935 63,157 (36.91) (continued) 223 Table A^,2 : (continued) Sr. Name of Village Location Populatic No. Code No. (1981) GROUP ’B’ (Scarcity Prone Villages) 1. Adwadi 114 958 2. Agaskhind 77 1,092 3. Ashapur 115 1,008 4. Atakwade 70 469 5. Aundhawadi 112 897 6. Baragaon Pimpri 7 2,409 7. Belu 76 1,084 a. Bharatpur 55 1,001 9. Bhatwadi 63 858 10. Bhojapur 120 - 11. Bhokni 63 1,543 12. Borkhind 79 427 13. Brahmanwade 1 1,382 14. Chandrapur 73 342 15. Ghapadgaon 108 1,105 16. Chas 123 3,158 17. Chincholi 32 2,156 IS. Dapur 86 5,046 19. Datli 43 1,458 20. Desvandi 6 1,056 21. Dhondbar 113 1,230 22. Dhulwad 109 1,044 23. Dube re 83 3,578 24. Ghorwad 75 956 25. Gonde 65 1,837 26. Gulwanch 26 2,893 27. Harsule 71 496 28. Hivare 118 1,174 (continued) 224 Table A^.2 : (continued) Sr. Name of Village Location Populati No. Code No...... 29. Hivergaon 12 787 30. Jamgaon 35 790 31. Jayagaon 5 898 32. Jogaltembhi 3 657 33. Kankori 89 1,309 34. Kedarpur 42 310 35. Khamble 64 1,570 36. Khaprale 72 214 37. Khopdi Bk. 45 1,015 3S. Khopdl Kh. 46 450 39. KOLGAON MAL * 57 1,390 40. KONAMBE * 111 2,052 41. Krishnanagar 110 1,360 42. Kundewadi I 40 603 43. MALEGAON * 29 701 44. Manegaon 67 3,708 45. Maparwadi 27 991 46. MOHODARI * 36 221 47. Mohu 31 920 43. Musalgaon 41 2,008 49. Nalwadl 124 1,850 50. Nayagaon 4 3,083 51. Niragaon Sinnar 23 1,984 52. Padali 117 1,311 53. PANDHURLI * 76 2,878 54. Paste 37 1,234 55. Patole 84 1,760 (continued) 225 Table ; (continued) Sr, Name of Village Location Population No. Code No. 56. Pat Pimpri 9 1,70 4 57. Pimple 119 1,698 53. 5ARADWADI * 33 535 59. Shahapur 44 257 60. Shastrinagar 23 1,103 61. Shivade 30 2 ,9 13 62. Sinnar (Rural) 39 2,445 63. 50NAMBB * 31 2 ,8 6 1 64. Sonari 32 2,036 65. Sonewadi 121 363 66. Songiri 2 300 67. Sundarpur 3 1,075 68. Thangaon 116 4,305 69. Vadzire 30 1,231 70. Vinchoor Dalvi 34 2,545 7 1. Wadgaon Pimpla 33 2,419 72. Wadgaon Sinnar 69 1,439 Group Total 1107,995 (63.09) Taluka (Rural) Total 1 , 7 1 ,1 5 2 (1 0 0 .0 0 ) Notes ; * Sample Villages. Figures i^ brackets are percentages to taluka rural population. Source : Nashik District Census Handbook, 1931. I I I I I I I o o «A f - N to I ^ I f 3 l I o to s t H O 0 , •:8 gS ' o o g ON to Os CN O' I O t I On I I o•^ X4H X w O0l, ( I 2 ' I I I I I I I I I I I I I I H Q h- lA f*-M r « t o I M ' O I O'r*. t o t O » A r A O ' f ^ ' O Ck S * h o * * I I'i -^O Ht>. C^O f^eo to M *AM tO«t -# t I 'O'^ f*V-^ O—On^ I I tO ^ I I H 1 5 h <2^ Htp o n f^'O Hto oo lOO I I Ov—. I (M --. I ov^ o —*► *-4-^ w — * » p —^ aw—* I O'— t cv— I o — ^ • I Ofv< . vO _ M .. ------»Tk I iH I I o I « 8 8 OI g 8 8 § 8 8 8 8 8 .8 '8 0 I «> • • • • I • I o 1 F* I 8 8 8 8 8 8 I 8 ■8 .8 '.8 •H I I vO r>, I 3 4 »H O' ’ S I O bO I =0 £ - C 4 ;1 t g d I 4 M I bd s ; 5 4 9 4 I k£ '3S 3 P 4 O d 1 1 5 ; : I o 4 « I a I 4 H O t ^ z > ■8 f rH 2 d d «> I I •H 4 4 eS 4 :: s X 1 to flu >s I I ^ I I I • 3 'O 4 O a •H *H 4 4 < I u o (Ml 'O O' 3 Q. 4 d u I & O CONDITIONS OF THE HOUSEHOLDS DURING THE FAMINE 1970-73 For the purpose of detailed inquiry into the condi tions prevailed during the scarcity years 1970-73, a total of 499 households were randomly chosen from the 1971 Census house list of selected eleven villages. Of the total 499 sample households, 1S2 households were chosen from Group ’A’ villages and remaining 317 households from Group ’B’ villages out of the total of 905 and 1,269 households respectively. Ratio of sample to the total households was kept at 1:5 for Group *A' villages and 1:4 for Group ’B’ villages. The villages and sample] households were decided upon in advance and not after having visited the villages. It might, there fore, be said that the conditions of villages and households on which the present report is based were representative of the conditions prevailing in the taluka as a whole. I could, however, contact only 436 households during the first phase of inquiry because remaining 63 households were not found in the villages at the time of my investigation for one reason or the other. Certain general items of information from 1961 and 1971 Census are given for villages and sample house holds in Chapter VI. In Table 7*1 population characteristics of sample households are given. 230 231 Table 7«1 : Population Characteristics of Sample Householda 1 9 ^ Census Information for 11 Selected Villages Sr. Item of Information »A» »B> Sample No. Group Group Total 1. Number of villages from which the sample households is drawn 11 2, Total number of households in the sample villages (1971 Census) 905 1269 2174 3« (a) Households selected for detailed inquiry 1S2 317 499 (b) Percentage to the total households in selected villages 20.10 24.9S 22.95 4. Households actxially covered 152 284 436 5. Percentage of households covered to total households in the sample 22.33 20.05 6. Total population in the selected villages (1971 Census) 5490 8567 14057 7. Population covered 1028 1898 2926 Percentage of population covered to the total population in selected villages (of Item 7 to 6) 18.72 22.15 20.82 9. Sex Ratio surveyed households 9 U 953 939 10, Percentage of literate j>opulation to total population covered 32.23 33.82 33.28 11. Percentage of Agricultural households to total 90.79 84.15 86.46 232 7.1 Population Characteristics (i) Age and Sex Composition; In Table 7.2 is given the age and sex composition of the sample population. Table 7.2 : Age and Sex Composition of the Sample Population Males Females Total No. Percent No. Percent No. Percent 1. Below 6 276 IS.29 250 17.65 526 17.98 2. 6-14 373 24.72 356 25.12 729 24.92 3. 15 - 59 759 50.30 700 49.40 1459 49.86 4. 60 + 101 6.69 111 7.83 212 7.24 Total 1509 100.00 1U7 100.00 2926 100.00 (11) Working and Non-working Population; It will be seen from the above Table that 50.14 per cent of the sample population is in the non-working age groups; 42.9 per cent are children below the age of 14 years and 7.24 per cent are old age persons. Villagewise break-up of population by age groups and sex is shown in Table A-y.2, Above Table shows working age population as 49.^6 per cent, but mere working age does not mean that all the persons in the age group were actually working. It is the common feature of rural economy that a number of persons in the working age do not find any gainful employment whereas the children and even old persons are found In the farm activities or other miscellaneous works and support the earnings of other working members in 233 the family. Table 7.3 shows the classification of working and non-working population, as was found at the time of my investigations in May-June 1973. Working population was deemed to be of the persons, males or females, engaging themselves in the economic activity either in their owned occupations, etc., or in the employment of others for economic gain at least for a fraction of year. Children and females supporting the works in agriculture or any other occupations owned by the households concerned were deemed to be ’working’ for economic gain. However, females exclusively looking after domestic duties were excluded from the working category. At the time of my field investigation, agricultural activity was almost closed. Most of the persons were employed on the scarcity works of the Government or other agencies. Even the school-going children and old aged persons were found working on the scarcity works. With a negligible exception of few school-going children who were found on scarcity works mainly during vacation, others Including old persons showed under the category of ’working population’ were also workers during the normal crop years. Villagawise break-up of working and non-working population is given in Table Ay.3, (ill) Literacy and Educational Standards : Every village in our sample had at least a primary school. Even then a large number of children in the age group 6-lZ», did 234 ff I ITS O M s o I r-l U\ o V/N VO rH - » 1 O I cU O v -4- to CNJ CM O s O X I +> • rH •• 1 M • o I O (V o CO fl 1 E-* -d- 1 o o 1 rH •H 1 1 +> 1 o rH § (« 1 ® o o c< \ 1 H o 1 H s o -i- to - t o n 3 1 SJ •• • 1 rH • a a. 1 i f - Q 3 o 1 ® -4- 1 O (X, 1 —' rH e 1 1 o tH 1 OS fH O s « 1 r-f I/s O O O' 1 O o « 43 1 o vO o C^ c>y H so »rs o bO O 1rH • » • 1 fH • < H 1 roi O so o 1s lA 1 o 1 rH £ 1 n o 1 CNi ■CO hO d 1rH w ifs o O (« o 1 Of c^i ■00 a S ir\ O * rH •H 1 43 • • n r-i 43 1 O to o Table 7.4(a) : Literacy and Educational Standards of Sample Population by Sex Males Females Total No. Percent No. Percent No. Percent 1. Illiterates 774 51.30 1178 33.13 1952 66.71 2. Educated upto IV Standard 374 24.79 162 11.43 536 18.32 3. Between IV and VII Standards 219 14.50 62 4.38 231 9.61 4. Between VIII and II 102 6.76 14 0.99 116 3.96 5. S.S.C.and above 40 2.65 1 0.07 41 1.40 Total 1509 ’lOO.OO ’’ ’l4 1 7 ’ looloo " "2926 100.00 Out of the total population of 2,926, 66.71 per cent is illiterate, or literacy is 33.29 per cent which is above the average for all-India according to 1971 Census. But out of a total of 729 children of school-going age, 326 or roughly 45 per cent of them did not join schools for their education. Illiteracy among the females is as high as 63.13 per cent of the total female population. Literacy among the females as a per cent of total literates is hardly 24.5 per 236 X 0) CO x> c C0 f l - - O C ^ « •rl -f *>CJ ^ O 'O (iv) Occupational Distribution: Summarized occu pational distribution of all the 436 households from sample villages is given in Table 7.5 and a statement showing villagewise occupational distribution is at Table A^.5. (v) Distribution of Households by Castes; Slnnar taluka has a relatively higher proportion of backward class population as compared to the other talukas of Naslk district viz., Malegaon and Yeola. A proportion higher than the taluka average has been represented in our sample households because of the selection of more villages from Dubere circle In which backward class population is con centrated. Table 7.6 gives the classification of house holds by caste. Villagewise classification of caste is shown in Table A^.6. 23B Table 7.5 : Occupational Distribution of Sample Households Number of Percentage to households the total households I. Agriculture (Total) 377 86.46 1. Mainly cultivators 139 3 1 .3 8 2. Cultivators with allied occupations or Agricultural labour 173 39.68 3. Mainly Agricultu ral labourers 65 14.90 II. Non-Agricultural Occupations (Total) 40 9.18 1. Labourers 9 2.06 2. Trade and allied occupations 21 4.82 3. Artisans 10 2.30 III. Services (Total) 19 4.36 1. Village 7 1.61 2. Others 12 2.75 Total Sample Households 436 100.00 (vii) Distribution of Households according to Size of Holdings : Distribution of land between the farming families has an important bearing on the fanning practices, and also on the distribution of income and wealth among the individuals in the rural areas. During famines, big 239 Table 7«6 ; Distribution of Households by Caste As per cent As per cent Castes Households of the broad of the class total concerned households (households) !♦ Non-Backward (Total) 321 100.00 73.62 Maratha 251*. 79.12 53.26 Banjara 24 7.47 5.50 Mohraedan 19 5.62 4.36 Mali 7 2 . i a 1.60 Sonar 4 1.25 0.92 Shimpi 3 0,94 0.63 Brahmin 2 0.62 0.46 Lingayat 2 0.62 0.46 Rajput 2 0.62 0.46 Others 5 1.56 1.15 II. Backward (Total) 115 100.00 26,33 Mahar 43 41.73 11.00 Mang 4 3.43 0.92 Chambhar 4 3.43 0.92 Koli 23 20.00 5.27 Bhil 30 26.09 6.39 Mangarudi 4 3.43 0.92 Others 2 1.74 0.46 Total Households 436 100.00 2 4 0 land-holders are, perhaps, the worst sufferers as will be seen a little later in this chapter. However, their capa city to withstand the temporary crop failures is relatively higher than those of small farmers. Furthermore, big land holders can create irrigation facilities and apply improved farm practices, which increase the productivity of their farms during normal crop years, and can accumulate resources to face any temporary scarcities. Whereas small farmers can have no resources to fall back upon during the years of scarcity. They had to rely solely on the relief operations of the Government. In this sense, impact of a scarcity or famine is different for big and small fanners. Table 7.7 shows the distribution of households according to size of their holdings. Table 7«7 : Distribution of Sample Households according to Size of Holding Total Households Farming Households Size of Holding ------Number Percent Number Percent Landless 103 23.62 -- Land Holders: Below 5 acres 125 28.67 125 34.54 Above 5 but less than 10 acres 113 25.92 113 33.93 Above 10 acres 95 21.79 95 28.53 Total *436* " 100.00 ’ * 333 ’ 100.00 241 Table Ay.7 shows vlllagewise distribution of house holds accordlQg to size of holdings. (vlll) Distribution of Households according to Value of Property and Assets Held; Since our Investigation relat ing to the impact of scarcity conditions was not limited to farming households alone, it was thought that mere land holding may not present the real picture of economic back ground of the households. We, therefore, collected informa tion about the property and agricultural as well as business assets (including agricultural land as well) held by the sample households, and valued it in terms of rupees. Valua tion of assets was not an easy task. I do not claim that the values calculated are based on some scientific principles. They are very rough estimates based on some common criterion just for the purpose of getting some Idea about the degree of inequality among the sample households. For example, we valued land per acre on the criterion given below: Dry land with light soil Rs. 750 per acre Dry land with better soil Rs. 1,000 per acre Land under well irrigation Rs. 2,000 to Rs. 2,500 (depending upon the per acre quality of soil and period of irrigation) Land under canal irrigation Rs. 3,000 to Rs. 3,500 per acre Values of wells were not separately taken into account but were included in the value of land Itself. Values of residential houses and cattle-sheds depended upon the type 242 of construction and values of similar dwellings in the locality. Local persons, especially village officers or Sarpanch of the village concerned, were consulted in esti mating the values of properties and assets. Gold and other ornaments were considered at the market rates prevailed at the time of inquiries. Agricultural implements, electric motors, oil engines, bullock-carts and other types of business assets were valued at procurement prices rather than the current market prices. No depreciation of such assets was taken into account for the puirpose of simplicity. Values of land and houses are, in fact, under-estimates if we consider current market prices. But, since the common criterion is applied in all the cases, our purpose of getting the degrees of inequality can be served. In spite of these limitations, I feel that the values of properties will present a fair picture of the economic background of the sample households. Table 7.8 shows distribution of households according to the values of the property and assets held. Table A^.8 gives villagewise and classwise picture of the values of properties and assets held. It may be pointed out that the values of livestock are excluded because of the differences in types, qualities and the ages. However, separate account has been given of the livestock holdings by the sample households. As can be seen from the Table about 19 per cent of the households had little or no property at all. Only 243 Table 7»^ : Distribution of Households by the Values of Property and Assets Held Values of Property and Assets Number Percentage to (Rs.) of the total households households 1. No property and assets 30 6.88 2. Upto 1,000 52 11.92 3. Between 1,001 and 5,000 69 15.82 4. 5,001 and 10,000 97 22.25 5. « 10,001 and 25,000 123 28.21 6. tt 25,001 and 50,000 50 11.47 rt 7. 50,001 and 1,00,000 13 2.98 8. Above 1 ,00,000 2 0.45 Total 436 100.00 two out of 436 households had property and assets valued above Rs. 1 lakh, but these are Joint families consisting of 36 and 13 persons. Hence per capita property of these families can be on par with upper middle class farmers. Detailed statements of classified property and assets and distribution according to class of landholders are given in Table Ay.3(a) and Ay.d(b). With this socio-economic background, I shall analyse the impact of the scarcity conditions on sample households from the selected villages. 7.2 Crop Failures As stated earlier, I could not get reliable data 244 about crop conditions from the sample households for the three years of scarcity. I could gather from my inquiries that the year 1970-71 though a scarcity year as compared to the normal crop years, was relatively satisfactory as compared to the following years 1971-72 and 1972-73. On account of good seasons in 1963-69 and 1969-70 scarcity was not seriously felt during early 1970-71. Grain and fodder was available locally at reasonable prices. But situation turned adverse since the failure of monsoon in 1970-71. Scarcity of food and non-food articles began to be felt and reflected through rise in the prices. In 1972-73, there was a total failure of rains. Even the kharif sowing was held up for long and ultimately could not be done at all. Overall scarcity of food, fodder and drink ing water, never seen in the recent history of famines in Sinnar Taluka was experienced. Extent of crop failure has, however, been estimated by comparison of farm income in 1972-73 with that of the income in an year with normal crops. Farm income for the present purpose includes wages of the owners and services of their owned cattle. From the gross receipts, only cash payments for purchase of seed and fertilizers, wages paid to hired labour, marketing expenses, etc., are excluded. Balance is considered as ’farm income’. Table 7.9 shows the extent of decline in farm income during 1972-73 as compared to any year of normal crops. 245 Table 7«9 : Changes in the Farm Income of Sample Households in 1972-73 Over the Years of Normal Crops Sr. Name of the No. of Approximate farm Income in No. Village farming income per year 1972-73 a! house per cent holds During During of normal Normal the crop year crop year income years 1972-73 (Rs.) (Rs.) ’A’ Group Villages 1, Vadangli 57 1,20,150 16,750 13.94 2, Khadangli 17 30,250 4,400 14.54 3. Dodi Kh. 22 55,650 9,900 17.73 4. Nirhale 26 42,350 1,600 3.78 Total 122 2,4^,600 32,650 13.24 ’B' Group VillaRes 5. Saradwadi S 29,500 3,450 11.69 6, Malegaon Id 20,625 1,150 5.57 7. Mohodari 4 4,000 - - Pandhurli 53 62,900 17,200 20,75 9> Sonambe 60 1,00,250 21,500 21.45 10. Konambe 44 93.750 24,600 26.24 11, Kolgaon Mai 24 39,200 9,900 25.25 Total 211 3,70,275 77,800 21.01 Grand Total 333 6,ia,875 1,10,450 17.64 Average income per farming household (Total Sample) 1,796 301 16,76 ’A’ Group Villages 2,036 266 13.15 ’B’ Group Villages 1,755 369 22,27 246 It may be pointed out that the three villages in Group which had above 20 per cent of farm income in 1972-73 as compared to normal years are those with first or second class irrigation facilities and others are dry villages. Hence impact of scarcity on farm incomes differed in Group ’A’ and Group villages. 7.3 Scarcity of Food Scarcity of food began to be felt from 1971-72 but it was more acute in 1972-73, on account of total failure of crops. Number of fair price shops and households taking ration from Government fair price shops increased consider ably. However, adequate supplies of foodgrains could not be available in 1972-73 and in 1973-74 till the kharif harvests. Table 7.10 shows the self-sufficient households and households depending either on supplies from Government fair price shops or from open markets. Number of self- sufficient farmers declined sharply by May-June 1973* It appears from Table 7.10 that percentage of house holds self-sufficient in respect of foodgrains declined from 51.2S in normal years to 10.73 in 1972-73, and a correspond ing increase in the proportion of households depending on supplies through market or fair price shops. Fall in number of self-sufficient households is more sharp in case of Group ’A’ villages. Therefore households depending on supplies of foodgrains other than the products of owned farm were 92.1 per cent in Group *A’ villages and 37.63 per cent in Group villages. Sample total aterages at 39.22 per cent. 247 I c I I I (D 9 I—I 1 O' to CfN so CNi CM to C«i I O J3iH ^ 8 8 I i-i to c^ 8 rN C»N P- t - 'O « CM n I +3 (8 t • • • 1 • •••• • • • « o I a I >4 ■to - i ’ CM I CM to o rH UN ITN c^ 1 O' a Impact of food scarcity on prices has already been discussed in Chapter VI. 7.4 Scarcity of Fodder Almost all the households having cattle had to face a serious shortage of fodder. There were hardly any reserves of fodder with the owners of cattle due to three consecutive years of drought. As has been pointed out in the previous chapter, any variety of fodder, by May-June 1973 can be had only at nearly thrice the prices in 1970-71. As a relief measure, taluka administration arranged transfer of about 5,500 working cattle outside the taluka for grazing. Limited quantities of fodder were imported and distribution through the cooperative marketing was arranged. But this help was meagre considering the magnitude of requirement. As a result there had been considerable distress of working and non-working cattle. 7.5 Livestock Position There had been a considerable distress of working cattle and other animals during the three years of scarcity. Yearwise figures of distress could not be available. However, the information regarding livestock owned by the sample households at the beginning and at the end of scarcity years was collected along with the reasons for decrease in the number of livestock during the period under consideration. Table 7.11 shows livestock position at the beginning and at the end of scarcity period. 249 Table 7.11 : Livestock Owned by the Sample Households in June 1970 and at the Time of Inquiry in May- June 1973, According to Type of Animal Livestock Per cent Type of animal ---—--— reduction In June On the day 1970 of Inquiry 1. Bullocks 712 512 22.47 2. Cows 539 439 25.42 3. He-buffaloes 15 9 40.00 4. She-buffaloes 118 106 10.17 5. Young Stock 306 242 20.92 Total Cattle 1,742 1,348 22.62 6. Goats 599 491 18.03 7. Sheep 186 144 22.58 Poultry 696 590 15.23 Total Others 1,461 1,225 17.28 Grand Total 3,223 2,573 20.17 An immediate consequence of scarcity of fodder and consequent difficulty of maintaining the livestock leads to sale, free transfers, death or migration of cattle. Such dislocation might be called as distress of cattle. It appears from the Table 7.11 that dislocation of all animals was above 20 per cent and that of cattle was about 23 per cent. Distress of bullocks and cows in absolute terms was really serious. Villagewise reduction in the number of 250 livestock according to the type of animal is given in Table Ay.11. About 52 households from Group *A’ villages (or 34.21 per cent) and 65 households from Group *B* villages (or 22.88 per cent) reported distress of cattle either through death, sale or transfer elsewhere for grazing. Among the various reasons for reduction in the number of live stock, sales accounted for 9.03 per cent and livestock sent out amounted to 8.69 par cent of the initial livestock before the emergence of famine. Deaths accounted for another 2.45 per cent of the initial stock. But excepting the cases of bullocks, cows and young stock, it is difficult to distin guish between natural deaths and deaths on account of scarcity induced starvation. In some villages, goats died of epidemic disease. Therefore, a high death rate of this type of animal could not be attributed to scarcity condi tions. Table 7.12 gives details of reduction in the number of animals according to reasons and type of animal. It was also observed that a considerable number of land owner households did not possess any or adequate working cattle required by them for carrying out the normal agri cultural operations even during normal years. Death and sale of working cattle during scarcity years increased further the number of such households in spite of the assump tion that cattle sent out for grazing shall return home for kharif operations of 1973-74. The number and proportion of such households to the total land owner households is given 251 O I ^ I I a 0^ to Q to to I CM C^ CM M O I (D VN t\i O <0 O t c o I • • • • • I • • • • O O , ' 2 -4- Q ON O r - - 4 CM ON p - O P ^ fci I 4) I >5 to I p>* t o t o I fl m *o ^ I Oi Cvj cfl © I I I I r - t > ® o * I • CVJ 0\ ON vO Oi to -4- O vr> o CJ I O I UN O -4- I ON - 4 CJN CM C>- I CQiH 4 3 ^ I 2 WN - i ” iH CVi t*N rH ITN CM I I rH CM I I 4> o I a In Table 7.13, and villagewise details according to size of holdings are given in Table Ay.13* Table 7.13 : Land Owning Households Who Did Not Possess Any or Adequate Working Cattle on the Day of Enquiry Total Households Households Households No. of with no with with Size of Households cattle inadequate adequate holding (Working) working cattle (acres) cattle No. Per No, Per No. Per No. Per cent cent cent cent 0 - 5 126 100.00 57 45.24 7 5.56 62 49.21 5- 10 112 100.00 25 22.32 17 15.18 70 62.50 10 + 95 100.00 19 20.00 25 26.32 51 53.63 ciisses 100.00 101 30.33 49 14.71 1^3 54.96 It is evident from the Table that 30.33 cent of the households holding lands did not possess any working cattle, and about 15 per cent of them possessed inadequate working cattle. Even the top group with holdings 10 acres and above had no cattle to the extent of 20 per cent of its households, by the end of scarcity period. Position of other groups with smaller holdings was still worst. While estimating the adequacy or otherwise of the working cattle, it is assumed that a pair of bullocks is necessary for a holding between 5 to 10 acres of dry land and between 3 to 5 acres of irrigated land. Holders of land 253 less than 3 acres can possess a single bull and exchange it with other farmers during the season. Thus lack of working cattle or its inadequacy can explain the extent of relief requirements by the farming households towards purchase of cattle. In case sufficient relief is not provided to the affected farmers, agricultural operations are most likely to suffer in the immediately succeeding years. 7.6 Sales and Purchases of Property and Aasets One of the consequences of chronic scarcity condi tions is that affected households are f o r c e d to sell at least a part of their property and maintain themselves out of the sale proceeds during the period of scarcity distress. A few economically sound households can purchase such property assets. But in our inquiries with the sampl# households we did not find any significant transfers of property. In seven out of 11 villages, there were no sales of property. Only ^ sample households from the remaining 4 villages sold a negligible quantity of gold and agricultural land, which hardly constituted 0,233 per cent of the total value of property held at the time of inquiry. As such the sales so executed cannot be attributed to chronic scarcity conditions. Some transfers on account of sale are common even during the normal years. It appeared to us that relief provided through scarcity works has saved the distress sale of property and assets especially during the chronic scarcity year 1972-73* 254 Purchases of property assets were also negligible. Only 7 households purchased 4 oil engines, 2 electric motors and constructed one residential house during the three years of scarcity. All the purchases constituted 0.34 per cent of the value of property and assets held by all the 436 households at the time of our inquiries. It may be mentioned here that excepting the construction of house, all other purchases were possible only on receipt of loans from Land Development Bank or other banks. In absence of loans, such purchases out of personal savings were not possible — at least under the full Impact of scarcity conditions. 7.7 Indebtedness Rural households, particularly agricultural house holds often borrow money from cooperative societies, banks, money-lenders, friends and relatives, etc., during slack season and pay back the same at the time of harvests. But during famines or chronic scarcity period, the households might resort to excessive borrowing mainly to meet their current consumption needs. Loans taken in the past and due for repayment during scarcity years are to be renewed because of the inability of the affected to repay. This increases total indebtedness of the borrowing households. The distress during the affected years can therefore be judged by comparing the levels and purposes of borrowing during affected years with that of the previous years. Tha relevant information about borrowing is given in Table 7.14. 255 Table 7.14 : Borrowings, Repayments and Indebtedness During 1970-71, 1971-72 and 1973-74 Item of Information 1970-71 1971-72' ’1972-73 Number of borrowing households 39 95 122 Number of loans contracted 104 114 150 Total amount borrowed (Rs.) 1,28,700 1 ,42,525 1,64,410 Percent of borrowing house holds to total households 20.41 21.79 27.98 Amount of loan per report ing household (Rs.) 1,446 1,500 1,348 Percentage increase in the amount of loan over previous year 10.74 15.35 Amount of loans repaid 50,450 52,130 5,390 Balance indebtedness at the end of year 78,250 90,395 1,59,020 Percentage of balance debt to total loans 60.80 63.42 96.72 Over the period of three years from 1970-71 to 1972-73, percentage of borrowing households to the total increased from 23.65 to 27.9^ and the amoiint of borrowing by reporting households increased from Rs. 1,23,700 to Rs. 1,64,250 recording an Increase of 27.62 per cent over the year 1970-71. One important feature of borrowing over the period was that repayment of loans declined and the proportion of recoverable debts to total loans at the end of the agricultural years rose to roughly 97 per cent in 1972-73 as compared to 62 per cent in 1970-71 and 64 per cent 25 6 in 1971-72. This was mainly due to inability of borrowing households to meet the liability on account of scarcity conditions. Thus, throughout the years of scarcity, absolute amount of fresh loans increased, but recovery of debts was rather poor. This resulted in an abnormal incr ease in the indebtedness of the households at the end of scarcity period. Position of increased indebtedness is shown.iin Table 7.15. Table 7.15 : Increase in the Indebtedness of Sample Households Amount of Per cent Item of Information debt Increase over previous year 1. Debts outstanding at the beginning of 1970-71 6,250 2. Unpaid debts in 1970-71 73,250 3. " "in 1971-72 90,395 15.52 4. " "in 1972-73 1,59,020 75.92 Total indebtedness by June 1973 3,33,915 Total amount of pending debt has been classified according to the purpose of borrowing in Table 7.16, It is evident that the major amount of loan was aimed at either meeting the needs of working capital In Agriculture and for creation of or purchase of capital assets. Villagewise details of indebtedness according to the purposes are shown in Table A^.l6. Indebtedness to the 257 Table 7»l6 : Classification of Indebtedness of Sample House holds as at the Time of Inquiry According to the Purpose of Borrowing Amount of As per cent Purpose of Borrowing debt of total debt 1. Normal agricultural operations 1,12,855 33.79 2. Creation of or purchase of capital assets 1,43»950 43*11 3. Consumption ; Normal consumption 60,460 Ceremonial consumption 16.650 77,100 23.10 Total ' ' 3,33,915 100.00 extent of 23 per cent on account of consumption do not appear serious on the face of crisis during scarcity period. In Table 7.17, outstanding credit against the sample households at the beginning, increase in debt during the scarcity years and the balance debt outstanding at the end of scarcity period is shown according to financing institu tions, The statement on page 259 shows the share of these institutions in total outstanding debt as observed at the time of inquiry. It will be seen from Table 7.17, that the absolute amount of credit has increased throughout the period of three scarcity years in respect of all the financing agencies But recovery of credit has gradually declined. During the 253 UN UN UN >o S 1 lA Amount of Percent of Financing Agency outstand- total debt Ing debt 1. Primary Credit Cooperatives 1,11,255 33*32 2. Land Development and Other Banks 1,30,900 39.20 3. Money-lenders, Traders, etc, 79,260 23.74 4. Friends and Relatives 12,500 3.74 " ’Total’ ’ ...... 3,33~9l5 100.00 year 1972-73, recovery of debts was almost negligible, i.e. hardly 3 per cent of the total credit granted during the year. If we consider total debt over the period, only 24 per cent of the total credit could be recovered and balance 76 per cent was pending recovery at the end of scarcity years. This excessive burden would be hard to reconcile even after few years of normal crops. It is interesting to note that through recovery of cooperative credit may appear to be fairly good as compared to other agencies, in practice, it is merely a continuous process of renewal of old debts year after year. Even then, about 58 per cent of the cooperative credit was outstanding over the period of three scarcity years. Bank loans were mainly land developfflient loans recover able over a longer period in small instalments. It appears that loan instalments could not be recovered in 1971-72 and 1972-73. About 85 per cent of bank credit (including Land 260 Development Bank) granted during the period under review was recoverable. In 1972-73, hardly 1,23 per cent of the credit granted during the year could be recovered. Recovery of credit granted by the private agencies like money-lenders, traders and commission agents had been rather poor and was practically zero in: respect of friends and relatives throughout the period. On the whole, percen tage of balance debt to total borrowings from all agencies which was roughly 61 per cent in 1970-71, rose to 64 per cent in 1971-72 and to 97 per cent in 1973-74. Villagewise details of borrowings, repayments and balance debt according to agencies of credit are given in Table A^.17. Distribution of households according to the amounts of balance debt is given in Table 7.13, and villagewise distribution of households is shown in Table Table 7»1^ ; Distribution of Sample Households According to the Amount of Balance Debt by May-June 1973 ■ 'of'De’b; • — • — ~ ~ ~ ~ • • • ' 1. Households not Indebted 250 57.34 2. Indebted upto 500 70 16.05 3* Between $01 - 1,000 39 a.95 4. " 1,001 - 2,000 27 6.19 5. " 2,001 - 5,000 36 8.26 6. " 5,001 - 10,000 11 2.52 7. Above 10,000 3 0.69 Total Indebted Households 166 42.66 436 ’ “ 100.00 261 It was observed that 69 out of 152 households (or 45.4 per cent) in Group ’A’ villages and 117 out of 234 (or 41.2 par cent) in Group ’B’ villages were found in debt by the end of scarcity period. From this point also the impact of scarcity conditions on Group ’A' villages was more severe than that of Group ’B’ villages. The share in the balance amount of credit per borrowing household works out to Rs. 690 in Group ’A’ villages and to Rs. 544 in Group •B’ villages. Average amount of total loans granted work out to Rs.1,126 per borrowing household in Group’A’ villages and to Rs.9^2 in Group ’B' villages. Thus there is clearly an excess burden of debt on Group *A’ as compared to Group 'B' villages. 7.3 Relief Works and Conditions of the Households A number of scarcity works were started simultane ously by different departments on massive scale particularly since September 1972. In almost all the sample villages, scarcity works were available to the persons willing to work only since October 1972. During the early period, very few works were started by the Soil Conservation Department and the St. Anne’s Church of Nasik Road, Irrigation Department stepped in relief works in late 1971-72 but these works were quite inadequate for providing relief to every person willing to work for a monetary reward. Thus loss of agri cultural employment on one hand and lack of adequate relief works on the other created a great scarcity of work and employment everywhere, and was, therefore, the most Important 262 problem which Gtovernment and Zilla Parishad had to attend. A number of medium and small works were started by the Zilla Parishad in 1972-73 along with the other Government departments with a view to create employment as far as possible near the homes of the affected population, (The list of such scarcity works has been given in Table A^,12.) In some cases, no works could be started in or near-the affected villages, where needy people were required to travel upto 5 miles every day to join the works and again walk down the same distance back to home. We could not gather day to day information of labour attendance of scar city works, but collected information about the persons on scarcity works by May-June 1973. The number of scarcity workers appeared to be fairly stable during the period from October 1972 to June 1973. At the time of our inquiries in May-June 1973, 953 persons from the total 436 sample households were working on scarcity works since October 1972 as and when the work was available. Average number of scarcity workers per house hold worked out as 2.1^. A substantially high proportion of working population was engaged on scarcity works. Table 7.19 illustrates the numbers and proportions of scarcity workers to working population and total population according to group of villages. It can be seen that about 79 per cent of the working population from Group ’A’ villages and nearly 60 per cent 263 Table 7.19 : Persons on Scarcity Works (From Sample Households) Group of Work- Sex Persons Percentage of Sex Villages ing ratio on scarcity ratio Popul- of the scarcity workers to of ation work- works -— - Scar ing Working Total city popul- popul- popul- workers ation ation ation •A' 550 315 434 7^.90 42.22 1,019 36a 705 519 59.79 27.35 837 Total^ 1,413 746 953 67.20 32.57 945 of working population from Group ’B’ villages was engaged on scarcity works. Excessive proportion of scarcity workers in Group ’A’ villages is the result of greater reliance of its population on agriculture. In villages Sonarabe, Konambe, Kolgaon Mai from Group ’B’, proportion of rich farmers to the total population is relatively high. Pandhurli from the same group is a big village with larger proportion of non-agricultural population. Hence, proportion of popula tion dependent upon scarcity works was less in Group *B’ villages. Villagewise distribution of scarcity workers by age and sex and their relative proportions to the working population and total population are given in Table Ay.19. Age and sex composition of the total scarcity workers is given in Table 7.20. Roughly 33 per cent of the total sample population was found on scarcity works. It was also observed that proportion of female population on scarcity 264 Table 7.20 ; Age and Sex Composition of Scarcity Workers From Sample Households . Percent of Total (Years) Scarcity Workers Scarcity Workers Male Female Total Male Female Total 6 - 1 4 40 4^ SB 4.19 5.04 9.23 15 - 59 422 402 824 44.29 42.1a 86.47 60 + 28 13 41 2,94 1.36 4.30 Total 490”” 463 ” ’953’ ’ ’ 51T42 48.58 100.00 works was more, though its absolute number was less than male population. This can be seen from an increase in the sex ratio of scarcity workers over the normally working population, I collected information about employment posi tion of the households for the period October 1972 to March 1973 in the month of May 1973 when labour attendance was on its peak. Actual presentee of the workers during the period under review was less than that we recorded at the time of inquiry. On an average, workers were unemployed for a period of two months out of six months under review. It was observed during the period of my inquiries that though a large number of works were started everywhere, there was lack of co-ordination and proper planning. Some times no new work commenced after weeks of completion of old ones resulting in unemployment of entire villages. In village Vadangli, a road work was completed and was to be followed by a new work of percolation tank. But on account 265 of some technical difficulty, the proposed work could not follow. As a result, all the scarcity workers in villages Vadangli and Khadangli remained unemployed during the week when our investigations were going on. Irregularities in weekly payments was an added trouble. We visited few scarcity works with a view to inquire into the working and living conditions of the scarcity workers. Some broad findings of the investigation are given in Table Ay.23. Need of the relief works was not only felt by the landless households or the holders of small farms. Persons from all categories Joined scarcity works in more or less proportions to the total and working population. Table 7.21 shows distribution of scarcity workers from sample house holds according to size of holdings. Landless population includes persons exclusively engaged in non-agricultural occupations or services. Hence proportion of scarcity workers to the working and total population in this group excluding landless agricultural labour was relatively less. Highest proportion of scarcity workers appeared among the landless agricultural labour class. Relatively more proportion of scarcity workers appeared in the size group of landholders upto 5 acres because of the sole dependence of this class on either farm income or income from agricultural wages. For higher size groups, viz. 5 to 10 acres and 10 acres and above, proportion 2 6 6 Table 7»21 : Distribution of Scarcity Workers by the Size of Holdings of the Sample Households Total Working Persons Percentage of Popul- Popula- on Scarcity Size Group ation tion Scarcity Workers to (Acres) Works Working Total Popula- Popul- tion ation i) Landless Agricultural Labour 2Sd 147 114 77.55 39.53 11) Other Landless 314 109 y i 33.94 11.73 ill) Holdings upto 5 acres 763 370 2 63 72.43 35.12 Iv) 5-10 acres 741 37S 251 66.40 33.37 v) 10 + S20 414 233 63.36 34.51 Total 2,926 1,413 953 67.20 32.57 of scarcity workers was relatively less than the smaller size groups. It Is, ho>'ever, clear that need for relief works was felt by all the categories of landholders and its intensity was more or less identical in all the groups. Even holders of 80 acres and above were also found on scarcity works. 7.9 Changes in the Income and Income Composition Decline in the farm income is a natural outcome of drought conditions and consequently need for agricultural labour also declines resulting in a fall in the Incomes of the labouring households. Table 7,22 shows changes in the 267 Table 7«22 ; Changes in the Income of the Sample Households by Sources During 1972-73 Over Normal Crop Years Income during Per cent Sources of Income Normal 1972-73 Crop Year 1972-73 1. Agriculture 6,1^,^75 1,10,450 - 32.16 (cultivation) 2. Agricultural Labour 1,23,190 42,110 - 65.31 3. Professional Income 69,110 60,920 - 11.85 (other than agriculture) 4. Services 42,270 45,230 10.70 5. Money received from relatives outside 4,620 7,150 ♦ 15.47 6. Scarcity works - 2,46,600 + 100.00 Total ' ~ 3 ,53,065’ ’5ll2,460 - 40.23 income and income composition of sample households during 1972-73 over the normal crop years. Farm income during 1972-73 was hardly 13 per cent of the normal year, and this small income also could be had by the holders of irrigated land mostly in three out of eleven villages. Majority of the farming households with dry land had either zero or negligible income from farm. Income from agricultural labour dropped to 34 per cent of what people would have earned during the years of normal crop. Professional income viz. incomes of village artisans and of other allied occupations also declined as 268 a result of an overall decline in the rural income. In 1972-73, farm and agricultural labour nearly ceased to be the main sources of income. Earnings from scarcity works could, however, compensate at least 2^.73 per cent loss of normal year income from all sources or 33.00 per cent loss of income from farm output and wages of agricultural labour during normal years. In fact earnings from scarcity wages constituted above 4^ per cent of the total income of the sample households in 1972-73 from all sources. One should admit that Government, Zilla Parishad and voluntary agency like St. Anne’s Church, Nasik Road, have played a very important role in making provision for work and income to the affected people through execution of relief works. In absence of such works on extensive scale, famine distress would have been far in excess of that what had been experienced by the people. Overall decline in money incomes of the sample house holds in 1972-73 was 41 per cent. If we exclude earnings from scarcity works during 1972-73, the decline in the total income would have been 68,30 per cent. But people were faced with a dilemma of decline in money income and a general rise in prices. We have seen in Chapter VI that prices of few selected essential commodities increased by 77.29 per cent over 1971-72. Under the circumstances, total money income of the households should have been Rs.15,21,350, in order to maintain their real income (purchasing power) at 1971-72 level. Actually, however, money income dropped 269 by 41 per cent. We, therefore, roughly estimate decline in real income of these sample households at 66.55 per cent as compared to the immediately preceding year 1971-72. It is either savings of the past or increase in the current debts that saved human lives from death by starvation though with a lower standard of living. We could not collect data relating to individual savings. But there is a good reason to believe that the farmers with holdings 20 acres and above must have released their past savings, estimated at Rs.1,000 each for 32 households in the category. Total savings released during 1970-71 are estimated at Rs. 32,000. In addition, whole of the credit for normal agricultural operations estimated at Rs. 65,000 in 1972-73 must also have gone to consumption. Private credit of Rs. 6,500 during the year was mainly for consumption. Thus we can assume that a total amount of Rs, 1,03,500 could be available for consump tion expenditure in 1972-73f in addition to the total income of Rs. 5,12,500 during the same year. Even then the total amount of Rs. (5,12,500 ♦ 1,03,500 «) 6,16,000 was less by Rs.2,42,000 as compared to normal year money income. This uncovered gap in money income, aided by sharp rise in the prices brought the standard of living of the sample house holds to miserably low levels. It will be interesting to note that on account of scarcity works being available, landless labour could be absorbed by and large. As a result money incomes of land less people do not decline during the scarcity year 1972-73. 270 Instead it increased by a small amount. Table 7*23 : Changes in the Income by Category of Landholdings Income from All Sources Re duction Category During During Amount Per cent normal 1972-73 crop year Rs. Rs. Rs. Landless Agri cultural Labour 39,610 43,650 (+) 4,040 (+)10.20 Other Landless 66,460 64,350 (-) 2,110 (-) 3.16 Landless (Total) 1,06,070 1 ,0a ,000 (+) 1,930 (+) 1.82 0.01 to 5 acres 1 ,54,320 1,11,265 (-) 43,055 {-)27.90 5 - 1 0 acres 2,03,125 1,24,205 (-) 78,920 (-)38.85 10 + « 3,94,550 1,68,990 (-)2,25,560 (-)57.17 8,53,065 5,12,460 {-)3,45,605 {-)40.28 One reason why incomes of landless people remained stable is relatively greater proportion of non-agricultural population, businessmen and servants, in this group, whose money incomes remained nearly constant. Losses in income were mainly found in farming households. Greater the size of farm, larger were the losses in income. Table 7.23 shows changes in the income in 1972-73 as compared to normal crop years by the size of holdings of the households. Money incomes of the landless agricultural labour increased by over 10 per cent because of the fact that they could get assured employment on scarcity works. 271 7.10 Migration In the first phase of our inquiry by r-tay-June 1973, 63 entire households out of 499 selected for detailed investigation were found migrated during scarcity years for various reasons given in Table 7.24. This constituted 14.44 per cent of the total 436 resident households. Table 7.24 : Migration of Entire Households Number of Percentage households to total Reason for Migration migrated migrated households 1. Settled elsewhere for reasons other than famine 7 11.11 2. Govarnment or other servants transferred elsewhere 11 17.46 3. Households temporarily present at the time of Census 1971 and left afterwards 9 14.29 4. Absconding 2 3.17 5. Households migrated on account of famine 34 53.97 Total 63 100.00 In addition to the above, some 206 individuals from 72 resident households were also found migrated. This con stituted another 16,5 per cent of the total resident house holds. Among the 206 individuals found migrated, 88 joined services or settled permanently elsewhere for reasons other than scarcity. But II8 left villages in search of work 272 mainly on account of famine conditions. Such a situation occurs when employment locally created is inadequate to absorb the entire idle labour force. Unless circumstances force migration the home-sick rural population would hardly be w illing to leave their homes. We have analysed m igration on account of famine with greater details in Chapter VIII, leaving migration on other grounds outside the purview of our present discussion as it has no relevance to famine conditions. 273 I t I 4 r s w^ > 0 ^ O (V I o I P r% to cv N ff-H C4 r \ 1.2 pH €^ tA t o • # N I Os O' I I a I o < • ts . O 'O o I-H I 4 I I M «H r \ i/N W% 5 pH •W I C •m <1a N « n »H I I I I • fNi n-v VN I I rH H iM I C4 r - to N I p^ I 4 12 I tn 1 I I O, 3 t 2 I W^ pH - # wTSCh tfN p •#H u Os% O I I I I I I • ♦ jO I 4 kc O nO «> O .O « 3 H < t s 27 i. I r 4 C^ f** WN N *H fM ^ kA fs . a MD C*» 'II ,5 C4 a I • I • 9 ■ i r ‘ I (M r\ kT\ ITS 0 » ^ I 4 WN t*\ iT\ to <-N UN 1 I 4> W> 3 • 4 o 0c rH z I ^ T5 I «c vO iH »* o 3 •I r S f - CM M I H 1 I « N w> lA -# Q (S N NO ^ »0 rN UN (N rH , s I • fH : | I I «H V \ »/> I i-i Il^S O I I ^ I • - t U> iA t UN O UN UN UN ^ 9 ^ t l3 I I i I ( M O N to to ^ M o to I W r \ NO s a N UN li 1-4 CV I *H N «0 O 'O trv f-1 UN O UN UN t o IS H O 10 d 5 •v4 Ji 0 . t« 3 a 9 O • 4 ^ f .H O I ?. 8 iH J < 1 H UN 3 f “i ' O M1 > a A tt fl1 - * i: A 5 1 X) 5 5 5 S 1 5 $ i • 2 i s 5 tiO O UN o < r H 3 • H 276 t o - * nO - -^ _ ^ sO«*^ «» r«<^ I •>-» 8 '"8 8 « • • '8 '^8 *^8 '^8 *8 '^8 *^8 ~88 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 *-« .H rH »H »H rH rS fM I I $ I I o *— I iH ^ vO M I « -CM « r> I #-4>0 I 4^ fH pH r- I O p ♦ i-t I H O » H w I I I I r I I I fVI —. I iH lA . ^ (M I w I ^ I I I I I I I I I w I e>» • 'O I • I I I ^ I > I I I r'V-* t o — I H — vO «-4»A ^ to I « * O s —. u> O S I iH I *>iH ♦ O • . g *H lA Os • O ' 15(3? i H t T> I ^ r - I .s u . I 8 I • « f i ON «A »A O vO « »> -o to r- to M I ^o o o 8 I H a ; I I I 8 I O (M Ok I I IVlOi't ' v£> I I (V I I 8 . 1 I I I I I I 8J«qiOt I I I » t I I I I « I • I I ^ I tpTUB3-3uirw* 3 I , t ; H I t ’> ! I M I • I TTna* s *> I I IS I ' , 5 i I Tj i TT05II § I o Ii *6 i I ^Y10i i 3 8* 8 I I I I I M I ^ndrvHI sO >0 I I I I I I Table A„.7 : Distribution of Sample Households According ---- -— t— to Size of Holding Size of holding Number of households in Landless Below Above 5 Above Total 5 but less 10 acres than 10 acres acres Vadangli 24 12 22 23 31 Khadangli - 5 4 3 17 Dodi Kh. 3 5 7 10 25 Nirhale 3 9 12 5 29 Saradwadi 1 2 1 5 9 Malegaon - 3 6 9 13 Mohadari 2 3 1 - 6 Pandhurli 23 24 19 10 31 Sonambe 19 35 13 7 79 Konambe 12 13 15 11 56 Kolgaon Mai 11 9 3 7 35 All Villages Total 103 125 113 95 436 Per cent of Total Households 23.62 23.67 25.92 21.79 100.00 Per cent of Cultivating Households - 37.54 33.93 23.53 100.00 279 I I I UN Os O to vO rH O >o UN sO TViOIi to I I I I - ♦ I I d to 1 s ^ g s R g R R •H O M II M 3 1A ^• !1 8• 'O Ps. <-« r* lA O C^ ^ ' s -t 1 N I • ■> ;l • § O M H «y fT to*oT -* • >o 1 « 1 I u-\ I I I I I I o J lA I fM §§ I N §§| I J ' W sO -# o I I (M I I il I f I t I I t I I O I a I R ' vr> O ' UN wr\ I III. :i M C4 I r \ 'O I ^ I ^ to M I M I I I I I I I I I I K I a < I -Hf-I I I t *0 I tt I t I U I • I a 3 A> ^ O I Q I H I • p a u w> I 4^ t 9«>4 • • t O I I «> 9 B d S lS IS li I ■) u cL ps. o <*N «o O iH iH iH to I H I ' g I • w j : C4 »H & C4 iH ^ i/\ {N. ^ (V I I ► U 3 * 0 o I • I TJ n I a M o* e 3 fNI I -o I M ^ 64 3 * I I «H I I O I I I x: I t • I • I I o I o o o 1 O 0 tn t 3 I s ; s to 3 H 1 8 g S§ S I rs o I a •t I I . 01 a I JB I • '.-s * 1 I I • I > 1 M ' I I «* m I I I oj; 2 ! ** i g - 3 I o I K I n 4^ I u I Xi I n • C3 I • I • b • : I K ^ S d il o t j i I I I «) t I I a 1 O 1 O O 1 I I I I 3 • »A 8 w^ R R ITS 8 s 3 I t) I I rH S | S | r 4 1 i l l to «0 o r> 1 e** 4 to I -♦ 4 I I 4 * • * * 1 • I I I > ^ lA ^ 1 -/ 1 1 s . 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I ,AJ .« . b :► s s - I N ^ I- Jj r* OM? -O 8ti* I . 6_» ^♦> ». « rv • I v< •o I R S^ & & ► I o d I H H f-( f I f f S I • 8 «> I *>gd — 3B a I 1 A K • a K • • I ^ W«H000Q<5*^ Ai*-' I -t »AC>OQOO'^N ■o• I *fl 4fi 4*»*■) • -:^ I -< • -< H -t'00000<^>0 ♦> * o« 006 ’>0 yO • • •* »rs M Ov0v ''.’ ■ ||ls^434J53JS5 5 O I I e ■ ' ^ 4 1 14„ dM 04M (K Q 4.^d d f IS HdJ CONDITIONS OF HOUSEHOLDS DURING THE SCARCITT YEARS 19S3-S6 3.1 Introduction I had interviewed 436 households, randomly chosen from Census house list of selected villages (1971) for detailed inquiry into the conditions prevailed during the previous scarcity years 1970-73: 152 households from Group ’A' chronic scarcity villages and 2^4 from Group Scar city prone villages. Now for the purpose of detailed inquiry into the conditions of households during scarcity years 1983-86 and changes, if any, in the condition and sufferings of the people over the period of time, I have randomly chosen 118 households; 38 from Group ’A' and 80 from Group 'B* villages from 1981 Census house list. Ratio of this sample to the sample in 1970-73 inquiry was kept at 1:5 for Group ’A' villages and 1:U for Group villages, same as was maintained in Chapter VII for sample households in 1972-73* In the present inquiry, I have covered over 2U per cent households and 25 per cent population of my original sample of 436 households in 1972-73. The sample now chosen is fairly representative of the conditions prevailing in the whole taluka at that time. I could, however, contact 105 out of 118 selected households. Thirteen households were either migrated or.transferred and some of them were 294 295 absconding or not found in the village at the time of inquiry. Table 8.1 gives certain items of Census (19^1) information of sample households visited during the recent scarcity year 1985-86. List of sample households is given in Table Ag.l. Table 8.1 ; Population Characteristics of Sample Households 1981 Census Information for Sample Villages Sr. Group Group Sample No. Item of Information •A» »B» Total 1. No.of Villages from which sample households is drawn 4 7 11 2, Total No. of Households in the sample villages (1981 Census) 1,029 1,672 2,701 3. No. of Households interviewed in 1972-73 152 284 436 4. No. of Households selected for detailed inquiry in 1985-86 38 80 118 5. No. of Households actually interviewed in 1985-86 31 74 105 6. Per cent of sample households interviewed in 1985-^6 to the sample households interviewed in 1972.73 20.39 26.06 24.08 7. Total Population in the sample villages (1981 Census) 5,971 10,638 16,609 8. Population covered by previous inquiry (1972-73) 1,028 1,898 2,926 9. Population covered by present 209 525 734 inquiry (1985-86) (3.5) (4.94) (4.42) Percent of total population (sample villages) 10. Percentage of population covered in 1985-06 to population covered in 1972-73 20.33 27.66 25.08 11. Percentage of Literate Popula tion to the total population covered in 1985-86 53.59 50.48 51.36 296 8.2 Soclo-Econoinlc Condition of Sample Households In order to examine the socio-economic condition of the people In Slnnar Taluka, 3^ households from Group ’A’ villages and 80 households from Group ’B' villages making a total sample of 118 households, were selected. Actually, however, 31 households with a population of with 209 p e o p l e from Group 'A’ villages and 74 households with a population o f 525 people from Group *B’ villages could be contacted. Remaining households were not found In villages for one reason or the other. Table 8,2 gives the classification of sample households not found in the villages by reasons. Table 8.2 ; Sample Households Selected for Inquiry But Not Found in the Villages on the Day of Inquiry ( 1 9 8 5 - 8 6 ) S r, G ro u p 'A* G ro u p *B’ S a m p le I te m No.» V i l l a g e s V i l l a g e s T o t a l 1 . No. of households selected 3^ 8 0 118 for inquiry (Total) ( 1 0 0 . 0 0 ) ( 1 0 0 . 0 0 ) ( 1 0 0 . 0 0 ) 2 . No. of households Transferred elsewhere ( 2 . 6 3 ) ( 3 . 7 5 ) ( 3 . 3 9 ^ 3 . No. of households Absconding 1 1 2 ( 2 . 6 3 ) ( 1 . 2 5 ) ( 1 . 7 0 ) U, No. of households Migrated 2 due to Scarcity ( 1 3 . 1 6 ) ( 2 . 5 0 ) ( 5. 93") 5 . No. of households actually 31 7 4 105 interviewed ( 8 1 . 5 8 ) ( 9 2 . 5 0 ) ( 8 8 . 9 8 ) Note : Figures in brackets show the percentages to total households selected for inquiry. 297 I could contact 33.9^ per cent of the selected house holds for detailed inquiry about socio-economic conditions of the people in normal time and during droughts and scar cities. Households actually interviewed constitute about 25 per cent of the population covered in the previous inquiry into 1970-73 scarcity years. Thus the sample now chosen is fairly representative of the conditions prevailing in the respective village groups and sample villages total. V ill- agewise classification of sample households not found is given in Table A^.2. 3.3 Population Characteristics I have covered 105 households with 734 people from both the Groups 'A' and 'B*. Characteristics of population in the sample households interviewed in 1935-36 are as detailed below; (1) Age and Sex Composition: Table 3,3 gives classi fication of sample population in 105 sample households by age and sex. Table 3.3 : Age and Sex Composition of Sample Population i n 1 9 3 5 - 3 6 Males Females Total No. Percent No. Percent No. Percent 1. Below 6 43 10.59 49 14.94 92 12.53 2. 6 - 14 31 19.95 53 17.63 139 13.94 3. 15 - 59 257 63.30 133 57.32 445 60.63 4. 60 + 25 6.16 33 10.06 53 7.90 Total 406 100.00 323 "lOO.OO ’ ” 734' 1 0 0 . 0 0 293 As compared to my observations in 1972-73 with those of the current observations in 1935-36, proportion of popu lation in the age group 15-59 has increased from 49.36 per cent in 1972-73 to 60*63 per cent in 1935-36, Sex ratio of sample population during the corresponding period decreased from 939 to 303, There is also a slight increase in the female population and total population in the age group 60+. Children population in the age groups 0-5 and 6-14 has shown significant decrease, during the period under consideration. This may be the result of successful family planning campaign of the government, Villagewise break-up of sample population by age and sex is-given in Table A^.3. (2) Working and Non-working Population; In general, population in the age group 15-59 can be considered as available supply of labour force. Actually, however, house wives mainly engaged in domestic duties, students, unemployed persons and few persons in the age group 15-59 voluntarily keep themselves away from any type of economic activity. Such persons, though of working age, are excluded from work ing population. Normally, persons above 60 are supposed to retire from work, and children below 15 years are not expected to work. In fact, such old persons and children, sometimes, required to work and supplement to family income, are accounted in the working population. From Table 3,3 it will be seen that about 60,63 per cent of sample population was within the working age group 15-59. Actual number of working population was, however, less than the population in working 299 age group. This is because, a number of persons in working age group do not find gainful employment in the rural set up. Table 8.4 shows the classification of working and non-working population as was found at the time of my investigations in 1985- 86. Villagewise and groupwise distribution of working population is given in Table A^.4. Even casual workers, seasonal farm labourers, EGS workers and housewives who work for a fraction of a year are also counted as workers, so as to make the observations in Chapter VII comparable with present observation. In fact, Census 1981 statistics considers such workers as ’marginal workers’ who are excluded from working population. Table 7.3 in Chapter VII shows that proportions of working population to total in 1972-73 was 53.81 per cent among males, 52,76 per cent among females and 48.46 per cent in all age groups. In the recent observation given in Table 8.4, proportion of working population to total shows improvement among males, females and total population. The respective percentages are 59.6, 43.6 for males and females and 52,45 for total population. If we compare working population by groups of villages, we find that proportion of working male population and total workers is greater in Group ’A’ villages than in Group ’B’ villages. For example, proportion of total male workers to total male population in Group ’A’ villages was r Table 8.4 : Working and Non-working Population in Sample Households by Age Group and Sex (19^5-86) Total Population Working Population Non-working Population fYears)^/'"'"''^ale Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total / 0-14 124 107 231 5 - 5 119 107 226 (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (4.03) (2.16) (95.97)(100.00) (97.^4) 15 - 59 257 188 445 213 132 345 44 56 100 (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (82.88) (70.21) (77.53) (17.12) (29.79) (22.47) 60 ♦ 25 33 58 24 11 35 1 22 23 ( 100. 00) (100.00) ( 100. 00) (96.00) (33.33) (60.34) (4.00) ( 66. 67) ( 3 9 . 6 6 ) T o t a l 406 328 734 242 143 385 I 64 1 8 5 3 4 9 (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (59.60) (43.60) (52.45) (40.40) (56.40) (47.55) Note : Figures in brackets indicate per cent of total population in the respective category. 301 66,93 per cent whereas for Group *B' villages, the propor t i o n w a s 56,38 per cent. Proportion of total workers to total population was 55.9^ par cent in Group ’A’ villages, a n d 51.04 per cent in Group ’B’ villages. This seeras to be natural because people in Group ’A' villages are required to work more in order to face chronic scarcity conditions prevailing in their villages. (See Table Ag.4.) (3) Literacy and Educational Standards; Every village in our sample had at least a primary school. One village from Group ’A' and two villages from Group ’B’ had high school leading to S.S.G. examination. Even then, 51 per cent of males and over 83 per cent of females from sample households were illiterate in 1972-73 [Table 7.4(a)], Overall literacy rate for sample households was 33.29 p>er cent. According to my recent observations of sample house h o l d s i n 1985- 86, there has been considerable improvement in the literacy ratio. Table 8.5 shows the state of literacy and educational standards of sample population in 1985-86, Over the period from 1972-73 to 1985, literacy ratio has improved from 33.29 per cent to 51.36 per cent among the sample villagei. During the same period, illiteracy among males has been reduced by 22,48 per cent and among females by about 10 per cent. Educational standard of the sample population is also proportionately upgraded. Maximum rate of illiteracy is still found in tribal population. Even today, 23 out of 139 children in the school age group 302 Table ^.5 : Literacy and Educational Standards of Sample Population by Sex (19^5-36) Sr. Males Females Total No • N o. P e r c e n t No. Percent No.:P e r c e n t 1 . Illiterates 117 2 8 .8 2 2 4 0 7 3 . 1 7 357 4 8 . 6 4 2 . Literates without formal education 59 1 4 .5 3 18 5.49 77 10.49 3 . Educated upto IV Std. 61 1 5 .0 2 3 4 10.37 95 12.94 4 . Educated between IV to VII Std. 77 1 8 .9 7 32 9 . 7 6 1 0 9 1 4 .8 5 5 . Educated between VIII to X Std. 75 1 8 .4 7 3 0 . 9 1 78 1 0 .6 3 6. Educated upto H.S.C. 6 1 . 4 8 1 0.30 7 0 . 9 5 ( X I I S t d . ) 7 . Graduates and above 11 2 . 7 1 - 11 1 . 5 0 ; T o t a l 4 0 6 100.oo’ 328 100.00 7 3 4 1 0 0 . 0 0 (6-14) or approximately IS per cent thereof are not going to schools, who are likely to be turned up into adult illite rates in future. Proportion of non-school going children in 1972-73 >fas (323 out of 729) approximately 45 per cent. (4) Occupational Distribution; In 1972-73, 86.46 per cent of sample households were either entirely or partly dependent upon agriculture (Table 7.5). The picture has slightly changed over the period upto 19^5-36. Table 8.6 shows the occupational distribution of 105 sample households inquired in 1985-86. Villagewise occupational distribution of households is given in Table A^.5. 303 Table 8.6 : Occupational Distribution of Sample Households (1985-86) Number of households in O c c u p a t i o n Group ’A' Group 'B’ Sample Villages Villages Total I. Agriculture and Allied 27 63 9 0 Activity (Total) (87.09) (85.13) (85.72) 1. Mainly cultivators 11 21 32 (35.48) (28.37) ( 3 0 . 4 8 ) 2. Cultivators with allied 15 38 53 occupations or Agricul- (48.38) (51.35) (50.48) tural Labourers 3. Mainly Agricultural 2 L a b o u r e r s ( 3 . 2 3 ) (2.70) (2.86? 4. Agricultural Labour and - 2 2 allied activity ( 2 . 7 0 ) ( 1 . 9 0 ) Non-Agricultural 8 Occupations (Total) (9.68) (6.76) ( 7 . 6 2 ) 1. Mainly traders - 2 2 ( 2 . 7 0 ) ( 1 . 9 0 ) 2, Allied Industry and 2 5 household services (9.6sf ( 2 . 7 0 ) ( 4 . 7 6 ) 3. Service and allied - 1 i n d u s t r y ( 1 . 35! ( 0 . 9 5 ) Services (Total) - 5 5 ( 6 . 7 6 ) ( 4 . 7 6 ) Non-working Households 1 2 ( 3 . 2 3 ) (I. 35I ( 1 . 9 0 ) T o t a l 31 7 4 105 ( 1 0 0 .0 0 ) ( 1 0 0 . 0 0 ) ( 1 0 0 . 0 0 ) Note : Figures in brackets represent percentages to the total households in the respective groups and total. 304 Dependence of sample households on agriculture has slightly reduced by 1 per cent for sample as a whole. But dependence of Group *A* villages on agriculture is relatively more, because in my sample, non-agricultural households were only 10 per cent of the total households interviewed. In Group ’B’ villages non-agricultural households constituted 13.05 per cent of the households interviewed, I have also recorded one non-working household from each of the ’A' and ’B’ Group villages. Two households in my sample or 1,90 per cent of households interviewed were non-working. Such house holds were not found during my previous inquires in 1972-73* As a result, percentage of households depending upon non- agricultural occupations has declined by approximately 1.56 per cent. Proportion of households depending upon services has shown slight improvement in 1935-36 over the year 1972-73. Except this minor change, we can infer that there is a little change in the occupational structure of Sinnar taluka over the period of 15 years from 1971-72 to 1935-86. So long as the proportion of population dependent upon agri culture is high, people w ill continue to suffer much hardship by droughts and scarcities. (5) Distribution of Households by Castes; As pointed out in Chapter VII, Sinnar taluka has relatively a higher proportion of Scheduled Castes population than many other talukas in Nasik D istrict. In 1972-73i distribution of sample households according to caste of the head of the fam ilies showed that non-backward households constituted 305 73*62 per cent of the sample households. Backward class households were 26.3S per cent. Among non-backward house holds, Marathas were in majority with 5^,26 per cent of sample households. Among backward households, Mahar (Harijan) households were in majority with 11 per cent of the sample. Present sample is approximately 25 per cent of the sample in 1972-73, distribution of households by castes of the family heads shows a different tendency. Table 6.7 shows distribution of sample households according to castes of the heads of households. Table 8.7 reveals that though there are slight vari ations in the proportion of various castes in 19^5-86, which might have been the result of change in the size of the sample, basic castes structure of the villages did not change over the period from 1972-73 to 19^5-86. Proportion of non backward households slightly increased from 73*62 per cent in 1972-73 to 77.14 per cent in 1985-86 with a corresponding decrease in the percentage of backward population. Village- wise distribution of sample households by castes is given in Table A^.6. (6) Distribution of Farming Households by the Size of Holding : Impact of size of farm on capacity of fanners to withstand crop failures during famines and scarcities has been discussed in Chapter VII. Table 8.8 gives classifica tion of farming and non-farming households, as well as the farming households according to size of their farms. Village- 306 Table ^.7 : Distribution of Sample Households by Castes (1935-86) No. of As per cent of Broad Group and Castes holds Broad class of Total house- the concerned holds in the households sample I. Non-Backward M a r a t h a 51 6 2 . 9 6 4 8 .5 7 B a n j a r a 9 1 1 .1 1 8 . 5 7 L i n g a y a t 4 4 . 9 4 3 . 8 1 M ohraedan 4 4 . 9 4 3 . 8 1 S u t a r 3 3 . 7 0 2 . 8 6 D h a n g a r 2 2 .4 7 1 . 9 1 T e l i 2 2 . 4 7 1 . 9 1 S h im p i 1 1 . 2 3 0 . 9 5 S o n a r 1 1 . 2 4 0 . 9 5 L o h a r 1 1 . 2 3 0 . 9 5 K um bhar 1 1 . 2 4 . 0 . 9 5 D hobi 1 1.23 0 . 9 5 R a j p u t 1 1 . 2 4 0 . 9 5 Broad Group Total ” i i "looToo 7 7 . 1 4 II. Backward M a h a r 9 3 7 .5 0 8 . 5 8 Mang 1 4 .1 7 0 .9 5 C h am b h ar 1 4 .1 7 0 . 9 5 B h i l 5 2 0 . 8 3 4 . 7 6 Mahadev Koli 5 2 0 . 8 3 4 . 7 6 O t h e r s 3 1 2 . 5 0 2 . 8 6 Broad Group Total ~2k "looroo 2 2 . 8 6 T o t a l 105 - 1 0 0 . 0 0 307 wise distribution of farmers/non-fanners and of farmers according to their size of land holding is given in Table A g .7 . Table ; Distribution of Sample Households between Farming and Non-farming Households and between Fanning Households According to Size of Their Land Holdings Category of Households in Households by land holding G ro u p ’ A’ Group ' B * T o t a l V i l l a g e s V i l l a g e s No. Percent No. Percent No. Percent I. Landless 5 16,13 13 1 7 .5 7 18 1 7 . 1 4 *11. Land holding 26 ^3.^7 61 3 2 .4 3 87 82.86 I I I . T o t a l 31 100.00 74 100.00 105 100.00 II. Land holders; a) Below 2 hectares 5 19.23 4 1 6 7 .2 1 4 6 5 2 .8 7 b) Between 2 to 4 11 42.31 1 4 2 2 .9 5 25 2 8 . 7 4 h e c t a r e s c) Above 4 hectares 10 3^.46 6 9 . 8 4 1 6 1 8 .3 9 Total 26 100.00 6 l ’ l0 0 r 0 0 87 100.00 It appears that average size of the farm is larger in Group ’A’ villages than Group 'B' villages. However, almost all the villages in Group *A' have dry and less fertile lands. Therefore, mere large size of holding in these villages does not indicate satisfactory economic condition of the farmer. Average size of farm in Pandhurli, Konambe and Sonambe from Group ’B* villages, though very small, their holders are 3oa relatively better off because of the rich fertility of land and sources of assured irrigation. Small holders, there fore, are in larger proportions in Group »B’ villages. A comparative study of the size of holding between 1972-73 and 1985-86 reveals the fact that average size of farm is decreasing in the sample villages. Over this period under review, holders of more than 4 hectares (or 10 acres) in the sample households declined from 28.53 per cent to 18.39 per cent. (Please refer to the Table 7.7 in Chapter VII.) On the other hand, holders below 2 hectares (or 5 acres) increased from 33»54 per cent to 52.87 per cent. During the same period, percentage of landless households decreased from 23.62 t o 17 . 14 . One of the reasons for decrease in the size of holding is partition of landed property among the legal heirs of deceased farmers, leading to sub-division of the holding. A period of 15 years is large enough to execute number of such partitions. Another possible reason is sale of land by large and medium holders to overcome financial crisis. Some of the landless households might have purchased the lands because of the prestige associated with land holdings in village community. (7) Distribution of Households According to Value of Property and Assets Held; In order to have some idea about the degree of inequality among the sample households, I have collected information about the property and assets including non-agricultural business held by them and approximately 309 valued them in current local prices in terras of rupees, in the same manner as is explained in Chapter VII, In between the period from 1970-71 to 19^5-36, general price-level increased by over 300 per cent. Values of land, property and assets also increased more or less proportionately. For example, dry land with light soil was valued at Rs, 750 per acre (or Rs. 2,000 per hectare). According to the current prices, such land is sold at Rs. 5,000 per acre (or Rs.l2,000 per hectare). Land under well irrigation was valued at Rs. 5,000 per hectare of which current local price is between Rs. 25,000 and Rs. 30,000 per hectare. Land under canal irrigation which was valued at Rs. 7,500 per hectare in 1972-73 is now valued between Rs. 45,000 and Rs. 50,000 per hectare. A tractor could be had at a price of Rs. 36,000 to Rs. 40,000, now costs over Rs. 1 lakh. Values of dwelling houses, electric pumps, other agricultural implements and business assets increased between three to five times over the period of 15 years under study. Though it was difficult to have valuation of property and assets, I have tried my best to estimate them approximately nearing to their real values on the day of inquii*y. Table 3.9 shows distribution of sample households according to the value of property and assets held in 1985-86. Table Ag.S gives villagewise classification of the households according to values of property and assets held. It can be seen from Table 3.8 that inequality in the distribution of property and assets is more in Group 'B’ 310 Table 8,9 : Distribution of Sample Households by the Value of Property and Assets Held in 19^5-86 Households in Values of Group ’A' Group 'B’ Property and Villages Villages Total A s s e t s N o. P e r c e n t N o. P e r c e n t N o. P e r c e n t 1 . No P r o p e r t y a n d A s s e t s 3 4 . 0 5 3 2 . 8 6 2. Upto Rs.1,000 1 3 .2 3 5 6 . 7 6 6 5 .7 1 3. Between Rs.1,001 and Rs.5,000 — - 3 4 . 0 5 3 2 . 8 6 4. Between Rs.5,001 and Rs.10,000 1 3 .2 3 7 9 . 4 6 8 7 . 6 2 5. Between Rs.10,001 and Rs.25,000 2 6 . 4 5 14 1 3 .9 2 1 6 1 5 . 2 4 6. Between Rs.25,001 and Rs.50,000 7 2 2 .5 7 17 2 2 . 9 8 24 2 2 . 8 6 7. Between Rs.50,001 and Rs.1,00,000 10 3 2 . 2 6 1 6 2 1 . 6 2 2 6 2 4 . 7 6 8. Above Rs.1,00,000 10 3 2 .2 6 9 1 2 . 1 6 19 1 8 . 0 9 T o t a l 31 1 0 0 . 0 0 7 4 1 0 0 . 0 0 105 1 0 0 . 0 0 villages than Group 'A’ villages, where 36 per cent house holds held property and assets below Rs.50,000, another 32 per cent possessed property and assets between Rs.50,001 and Rs.1,00,000 and top 32 per cent households possessed property and assets over Rs,1,00,000. In Group ’B’ villages, over 66 per cent of households held property and assets below Rs.50,000, next 22 per cent held property between Rs.50,001 311 and Rs.1,00,000 and only 12 per cent of them held property over Rs.1,00,000. For sample total as a whole, 34 out of 105 households (or 32.38 per cant) had properties below R s . 25, 000, 50 households (47.62 per cent) had properties between Rg.25,000 and Rs.1,00,000, remaining 19 households or little over 18 per cent of them had properties over Rs.1,00,000 on the day of inquiry. It may, however, be noted that in 1972-73 only two out of 436 households or Just 0.45 par cent had properties above Hs.1,00,000. But the values in 1972-73 and 1985-86, both in current year prices, are not comparable as prices of various properties and assets increased by 3 to 5 times over the period. Approximately, an asset of Rs.1,00,000 at 1985-86 prtces might have been valued at Hs.20,000 to Rs.25,000 in 1972-73 prices. As such, rise in the value of properties and assets is mainly the result of Inflationary price rise rather than real increase in the holdings of property and assets. The households with properties above Rs.1,00,000 were mostly joint families, with per capita property holding on par with middle class families. I did not see more than 2 out of 19 such households who were really better off in spite of repetitive scarcities. Remaining 17 household, though holding property more than Rs.1,00,000, were in trouble due to scarcity condition. Process of social change has been started in the sample villages reducing, to some extent, the hardship of rural life. 312 However, it has yet to gather momentum. With this socio economic background of sample villages and households, I shall now analyse the impact of recent scarcity 19^3-36 on sample households. S,4 Scarcity In 1983-34, two villages from Group *A’ and three villages from Group ’B’ experienced crop failures and un satisfactory paisewari. In 1984-35 and 1935-86 scarcity was declared in all the sample villages due to zero or to unsatis factory paisewari. Sample households suffered due to short age of drinking water, food and fodder, loss of employment and income during scarcity years 1933-86, (1) Scarcity of Drinking Water; Extent of drinking water scarcity in the sample villages is discussed in Chapter VII. Taluka administration has relieved 10 out of 11 sample villages from drinking water scarcity through excavation of new tube wells, hand pumps, electric pumps with cement tanks and systematic tap water. Twenty-two sample households from village Sonambe were the only sufferers of drinking water scarcity, who were supplied water by tankers continuously for three years from 1983-84. There was, how ever, shortage of drinking water for cattle which resulted to some extent in sale or migration of cattle. Position of the households in other sample villages was relatively satisfactory* (2) Scarcity of Food; Due to continuous scarcity 313 Table ^.10 : Classification of Sample Households According to sources of Food Supply S r . H o u s e h o l d s No. of Households No. Group/ V i l l a g e C u l t i L a n d Total Self- Purcha- Total v a t o r s l e s s suffi- sing cient food- I n g r a i n s f 00 d - fro m grains FPS/ m a r k e t GROUP ’ A' 1 . V a d a n g l i 14 3 17 1 16 17 2. Khadangli 3 - 3 - 3 3 3 . D odi Kh. 4 2 6 1 5 6 4 . N i r h a l e 5 - 5 3 2 5 G ro u p " 26* ’ 5 ’ '3 1 ’ ' ’ ‘ 5" ’ 2 6 31 T o t a l ( 8 3 .8 7 ) ( 1 7 . 1 3 ) ( 1 0 0 . 0 0 ) ( 1 6 . 1 3 ) ( 8 3 . 8 7 ) ( 1 0 0 . 0 0 ) GROUP »B» 5 . M o h a d a r i 2 - 2 - 2 2 6 . M a le g a o n 4 - 4 1 3 4 7 . S a r a d w a d i 2 1 3 1 2 3 8 . P a n d h u r l i 14 4 18 3 15 18 9 . Konambe 15 1 1 6 5 11 1 6 1 0 . Sonam be 18 4 22 1 21 22 1 1 . K o lg a o n M ai 6 3 9 2 7 9 G ro u p 61 13 7 4 13 61 7 4 T o t a l ( 8 2 .4 3 ) ( 1 7 . 5 7 ) ( 1 0 0 .0 0 ) ( 1 7 . 5 7 ) ( 8 2 . 4 3 ) ( 1 0 0 . 0 0 ) S a m p le 87 18 105 18 87 105 T o t a l ( 8 2 .8 6 ) ( 1 7 . 1 4 ) ( 1 0 0 .0 0 ) ( 1 7 . 1 4 ) ( 8 2 . 8 6 ) ( 1 0 0 . 0 0 ) Note ; Figures in brackets indicate per cent of total households. 3 U during 19^3-36, there was overall scarcity of food in all the sample villages. Very few sample households were self- sufficient in respect of foodgrains. Even small and marginal farmers had to buy food from weekly markets or fair price shops. Table 8,10 shows the number of households with whom foodgrains were available for self-consumption and those depending upon market purchases. In none of the sample villages foodgrains were locally available for sale with the sample cultivating households.People had to buy from weekly markets or from fair price shops to which these villages were attached. Market prices of foodgrains were too high. Therefore, people preferred to purchase from fair price shops. Fortunately, adequate and timely supplies of foodgrains were available from fair price shops. Only complaint I heard during my investigation was from the three sample households at MalejEnaon and seven households from Kolgaon Mai that food supply from their fair price shops at Sinnar and Pathre Bk,, respectively, was very irregular and inadequate. Sample households from Mohadari, Malegaon, Saradwadi, Sonambe and Kolgaon Mai had to travel a distance of 3 to 6 kms. to reach their fair price shops. Unless new fair price shops are not granted to these villages, sufferings of the people for getting food supplies during scarcities will not be minimized. It should, however, be mentioned that position of food supply during 19^3-86 drought years was much satisfactory than that prevailed in 1970-73 scarcity years. 315 I would like to add that even during the noraal crop years, fanning households with a land holding less than two hectares are not self-sufficient in respect of foodgrains. Such households are 19 per cent in Group villages, 6?.21 per cent in Group ’B’ villages and for sample as a whole, 46 o u t o f 87 farming households or about 53 per cent thereof are not self-sufficient in production of foodgrains. In other words, only 47 per cent sample farming households can produce quantities of foodgrains sufficient for self-conaump- tion during normal crop year. My inquiries in 1985-^6 revealed that only 5 out of 26 farming households from Group •A’ villages (19.23 per cent) and 13 out of 6l farming house holds from Group villages (21.31 per cent) averaging o n l y 20.69 per cent for sample as a whole were self-sufficient in production of foodgrains. Remaining 79.31 per cent of farming households had to depend on m arket/fair price shop supplies of foodgrains. In 1972-73, only 10.73 per cent of the sample households were self-sufficient, and 89.22 per cent depended on market supplies of foodgrains. This indi cates that scarcity of food was more serious in 1970-73 scarcity years than the recent scarcity years 1983-86. Impact of food scarcity on prices has already bean discussed in Chapter VI. (3) Scarcity of Fodder; Scarcity of fodder was felt by all the sample households having cattle. None of the cattle owning households had any reserves of the fodder due 316 to three consecutive years of drought, a situation similar to that of 1970-73 scarcity years. With growing scarcity and rising prices of fodder, households were obliged to dispose off the cattle through sales or sending them away for grazing elsewhere. It is observed that in 19S5-S6, 23 out of 67 farming households or over 32 per cent in the sample were practically without working cattle. Many of them have disposed off the cattle only during recent scarcity years. Few working animals died of starvation where owners were not in a position to buy fodder at abnormally high prices. Now, when the normal rainfall w ill be restored, these households shall be required to buy cattle at much higher prices than the distress sale prices at which they have disposed off. Taluka administration has distributed fodder taccavi in cash and kind but none of the sample households I have visited have received taccavi for fodder. It is, therefore, possible that needy farmers might have diverted a part of their crop-loan or bank loans to purchase of fodder. (4) Livestock Position; An immediate impact of scar city of fodder led to a considerable amount of sale and migration of cattle. Few cattle died of starvation, I have collected information about cattle owned by the households at the beginning and at the end of scarcity years with reasons for changes in the livestock during the period under consideration. Table 8.11 shows position of livestock with sample households in 1985-86. 317 1 t 1 1 1 1 o o ' v> ' 8 »A . f: 8 S • VN 1 Jv , »A 1 v O 1 - t 1 «H • a s N O WN 1 $ 9 Pv 1 w 1 1 2 IT\ 5 ^o o o w> ao I *i o o • • 1 • « 1 • 1 • 1 S I o O » -» u O I f*^ nC « «0 8 I* V)X * * 5 31S Though taluka adminiatration has denied the possibi lity of reduction in the livastock due to starvation, death and distress sales due to scarcity, my investigations into the sample households revealed altogether different informa tion. Table 8.11 shows that total reduction in the live stock owned by sample households during scarcity years was of the order of 26.83 per cent. Loss of cattle directly useful for agriculture was of the order of 29 per cent, leaving farmers with 71 per cent of working cattle they held in June 1983. Loss due to cattle sent out for grazing may be temporary. Excluding the loss on this account, permanent loss on account of sales or death of cattle worked out to 14.27 per cent for all types of animals and about 12.77 per cent for animals directly required for agriculture. To this loss, we may say, effective displacement of working cattle due to scarcity. Such loss was little less than 10 per cent in 1970-73 scarcity years (Table 7.12, Chapter VII). Such displacement of working cattle was greater in Group ’A’ villages than Group *B’. Against the overall permanent loss of working cattle (columns 4 and 5 of Table 8.11) at 12.77 per cent, cattle permanently lost by Group ’A' villages was 18 out of 92 or 19.56 per cent, whereas Group •B’ villages lost 41 out of 370 working cattle or 11.08 per cent of the working cattle in June 1983. It is evident from the statistical analysis that loss of livestock during 1983-86 scarcity years was greater than 319 that of during 1970-73 scarcity years. Loss of working cattle in Group ’A', ’Chronic scarcity villages’, was more than Group ’B’ villages during both the scarcity periods. Taluka administration could not provide sufficient relief for saving livestock from sales or death during scarcity years. Even the two cattle camps opened in 1935-^6 were not availed by a single household from our sample. As a result, at the end of June 1936, 35 out of d? or 40.23 per cent of farming households were without working cattle required for normal agricultural operations. The number and proportion of such households to total cultivating households by the size of holding is given in Table B,12, Table ^.12 ; Cultivating Households and Possession of Working Cattle by Size of Holding of the Sample House holds in 1935-86 Size of Total Cultivators Cultivators Cultivators holding cultivators with with no with (hectares) adequate working Inadequate cattle cattle working c a t t l e N o. P e r c e n t N o. P e r c e n t N o. P e r c e n t N o. P e r c e n t 0 - 2 4 6 1 0 0 .0 0 31 6 7 .3 9 1 4 30.43 1 2 .1 7 2 - 4 25 1 0 0 .0 0 15 6 0 . 0 0 10 4 0 . 0 0 - - 4 + 1 6 1 0 0 .0 0 6 3 7 .5 0 4 25.00 6 3 7 . 5 0 T o t a l h ' 1 0 0 .0 0 ~52 59. 77" 23’ 3 2 7 l i ’ ~ 7 i . 0 5 Groupwise distribution of sample households according to the position of livestock holding is given In Table Ag.9. 320 It will be seen from the above Table that 14 out of 31 cultivators in the size group of 0-2 hectares or 30.43 per cent were without working cattle on the day of Inquiry. Percentages for the size groups 2-4 hectares and above 4 hectares were 40 and 25 respectively. In aggregate, 26 o u t o f 87 o r 32,18 per cent farming households were without working cattle. Another 8,05 per cent (7 out of B7) f a r m i n g households were with inadequate working cattle, 6 of whom were large land holders in the groups above 4 hectares, who have disposed off the excess cattle during scarcity years due to heavy cost of maintaining them. If we analyse relative livestock position from Group *A’ and Group *B’ villages, we find that loss of cattle in Group ’A' villages is more. As given in Table A^.9, only 50 per cent of farming households in Group *A’ villages had adequate working cattle. Respective percentage for Group ’B’ villages is 63.93* Nearly 35 per cent of farming house holds in Group ’A' villages had practically no working cattle, whereas for Group ’B» villages little over 31 per cent households were without working cattle. Finally, 15*38 per cent of farming households in Group 'A’ villages had inadequate working cattle for agricultural operations. For Group ’B' villages, such households were only 4.92 per cent. If we compare the present livestock position with that prevailed in 1972-73 (Table 7.13i Chapter VII), we find that present position is somewhat better than that of 1972-73 321 scarcity years when about 45 per cent of farming households in the sample were either without working cattle or with inadequate cattle. In 19^5-S6, about 40 per cent of such households ware without working cattle or with inadequate cattle. The difference, however, is marginal. The fact that a prolonged scarcity reduces the livestock holding of t h e fstrmers to a large extent can be established with the help of inter-tem poral studies between 1970-73 and 19^3-36 scarcities, when displacement of cattle was found on exten sive scale. (5) Crop Failures and Loss of Agricultural Income; I could not gather reliable data about crop condition during the scarcity years I 9S 3-S 6 from the sample households. In fact, most of the farmers do not maintain records of income from and expenses of agricultural operations. Even the distribution of cultivable area under different crops explained by farmers was a mere guess. They do not remember different elements of explicit costs of cultivation, Imputed costs are never thought over by them. What the sample households tried to do was to explain underestimated output with underestimated prices and overestimated elements of various costs by mere guess work. I had to make certain adjustments in the values of reasonable output at the market prices prevailed in the year concerned to work out gross income from agriculture. Standard cash expenditure for different crops and standard labour cost per acre per harvest for the family labour was deducted from the gross income to 322 arrive at the net income from each of the crop taken. Imputed costs like rent of the ownership land, depreciation of capital assets, etc., were ignored. Thus, on the basis of cropping pattern normally adopted by the farmer, the technique of production adopted by him and source of irrigation, gross and net income during the normal crop year was first worked out. Output for the scarcity years was adjusted according to paisewari of the village concerned, elements of costs remain ing unchanged, except where no-crops and zero paisewari was reported. In case of zero paisewari and no-crop reports, cash expenses and imputed labour costs were added upto sowing operations only, or approximately 50 per cent of the normal crop year costs. This gave me reduced income during scarcity years when paisewari was 60 or less. In case of zero paisewari, particularly in 1985-^6, when there was total crop failure, net income of the farmers worked out was negative in many cases. As a result, total income from cultivation in 19^5-36 for all the sample households also worked out to be negative. This exercise w ill give us rough idea about the crop condition and farm income during the years 1933-^4 to 1935-36. Table 8.13 shows changes in the farm income of the sample households in 1983-34, 1984-35 and 1935-36 over the years of normal crop separately for Group ’A' and Group ’B’ villages and for sample total. In 1933^34, farm income of both the groups of villages as well as the sample total was reduced between 51 to 52 per cent of the normal crop year 323 ^ 8 S 8 gt s: I C4 * 0 ^ • =? O M I A -< m cn « • 9 • o I to bO bO a. 4 a. 4 D . 4 I 3 *H 3»-4 eo I S^:i e:5 9 ^ C5 o > o> I -o(« I &< o I- I cn X 324 income. Fall in farm income of Group villages was little more than that of Group 'B' villages. In 19^4-85 farm income fell by 83.09 per cent for sample as a whole, by 101.54 per cent in Group ’A’ villages and by 72.5 per cent in Group ’B* villages. In the year of severo-most scarcity, 1985-86, farm income was almost negative for both the groups and sample as a whole; when reduction in farm income in Group 'A' villages was as sharp as (-)120 per cent of*th« normal crop year income. Income of Group *B' villages fell by 112.02 per cent and of sample total by 114.93 per cent. This simply means that farmers not only could gain anything from agriculture, but they could not also recover costs of production equal to about 15 per cent of their income during normal crop years. Thus, farming gave a negative return during 1985-86. Approximate average farm income per farming household for sample as a whole fell from Rs.4,710 to Rs.(-)?05 shows a negative return of 14.97 per cent in 1985- 86. During the same year, fall in average farm income per farming household fell by 20 per cent in Group ’A’ villages and by little over 12 per cent in Group *3' villages. This again substantiates the fact that Group ’A’ villages are worse off in respect of evil effects of scarcity. It is interesting to note that only one village from Group 'B’, Konambe, out of the total sample of 11 had positive farm income in 1985-86 due to irrigation through Konambe Dam. This Village was supplying drinking water to nearly one-third villages from Sinnar taluka suffering scarcity of drinking 325 water. Villagewise details of change in farm income during scarcity years are given in Table A^.IO. Change in farm income per hectare between a normal crop year and scarcity year 19^5-36 represents exactly sim ilar tendency as is seen in the income per farming h o u s e h o l d . (6) Changjes in the Total Income of Sample Households; Three continuous years of scarcity have not only affected farm income but income from agricultural labour, allied occupations, trade and households service was also adversely affected. Income from services and money received from outside remained more or less unaffected. Loss of income from agricultural labour was partly compensated by increase in wages income from EGS works and services. In some villages, people received more remittances from family members working outside the village due to scarcity condi tions. However, total income from all sources also showed a declining trend. Since the income of farming households decreased due to crop failures, there was a general decrease in the demand for non-agricultural goods, allied occupations and household service. As a result, households engaged in occupations other than farming received less income during scarcity years. For example, income from allied industries, trade and household services decreased by about 12 per cent in 19^5-36. Agriculture received negative income. Income from EGS works increased by more than five times the normal 326 year income. During the same period, income from services increased by 7.5 per cent and from inward remittances by 10 per cent. However, fall in the farm income and agricultural labour was so sharp that total income of sample households from all the sources reduced to 43.12 per cent of the normal year income. Table 8.14 shows changes in the total income of the sample households through all the sources of income during the scarcity year 19^5-^6. It can be clearly seen from the Table that loss of income of the households from Group *A’ villages was more than those in Group ’B’ villages. In s p i t e o f 6.7 times increase in income from SGS works and 1 . 5 times increase in service income, total income of Group ’A’ in 19^5-86 was equal to 32.81 per cent of normal crop year income. Corresponding percentage of Group ’B' was 47*60 and income of all sample households was just 43«1 per cent of normal crop year income. In 1985-86, lowest average income per household Rs.1,995 was received by village Vadangli from Group *A’ and highest by village Pandhurli from Group ’B’ at Rs.5,235. Villagewise changes in income of the sample house holds through all sources are given in Table Ag.ll. It will be clear from above analysis that droughts and scarcities can also adversely affect income from non-agricultural occu pations, trade, agricultural labour, etc., resulting in a large fall of income from all sources. An analysis of farm income during scarcity year 1972-73 327 sO 1 - 0 lA O I 0 « H ! ^ O 0 I d w ^ 3 I S i 3 r \ I bO^ a O I (3 bC«-< « i . I a u o • u • * C p • to I ^ • aso uo ►> 9 r - I O CO O NO • I • • I I ► *0 8 >0 • m K *H ^ § to 'A M I \ i u i Z i s <-( M 1 1 ITS t t>4 S 8 to C I CD K t I I I •H 8 8 «. u • CO « o I o « 1“ S !S n I I I -O I o I • n • »/\ to a I ^ a - • o O s • t I iH * 6 K -# sO O »A to s N to -4- > 0 to a 0 t I t . 8 o l i d :) lA h o o # w ♦> o o <0 O' Xi t o a CJ HM •D R to • • I I ► "O , K -r4 8 O I a • • a » given in Table 7.9, Chapter VII, shows that gross farm income of the sample farming households from Group ’A' and *B' villages respectively was 13.24 per cent and 21.01 per cent of the normal crop year income which was inclusive of the cost of family labour of owners and their owned cattle. If these costs were excluded, net farm income would have been either zero or even negative as has been seen for the year 1935-86, (7) Change in the Income Composition; Droughts and scarcities bring about change in the income composition of rural households, apart from decrease in the size of total income. People try to compensate fall in farm income and wages of agricultural labour through other sources of income like EGS works, non-agricultural services, etc. Change in the income composition and size of income from the main sources during the scarcity year 1985-86 over a normal crop year 1985-86 over a normal crop year are shown in Table 8.15. During the scarcity year 1985-86, share of agricul tural income was negative but of agricultural labour nearly doubled though absolute amount was little over 83 p e r c e n t of the normal year income. Similarly, absolute amount of income from allied industry,trade, etc., was less than normal crop year but its relative share in the total income was more than double in 1985-86. Share of service income and transfer money received from outside increased in absolute as v/ell as in relative terms to compensate at least 329 Table 8.15 : Changes in the Size and Composition of Income of the Sample Households by Sources During 1985-86 Over Normal Ci*op Years In c o m e d u r i n g In c o m e i n Sources of Income 1985-86 as N o rm a l ” 1985-86 percent of C ro p normal crop Y e a r year income 1. Agriculture (Net) 4, 09,900 ( - ) 6 l , 2 0 0 ( - ) 14.92 ( 4 9 . 4 1 ) ( - 8 7 . 1 0 ) 2. Agricultural Labour 2,26,500 1 , 8 9 , 5 0 0 83.47 ( 27. 29) ( 5 2 . 8 5 ) 3. Allied industry, trade 7 4 , 0 0 0 6 5 , 1 5 0 8 8 . 0 4 and household services (8. 29) ( 1 8 . 2 1 ) k. E.G.S. Works 8 , 5 0 0 4 5 ,4 0 0 5 3 4 .1 2 ( 1 . 0 2 ) ( 1 2 . 6 9 ) 5. S e r v i c e s 9 3 , 6 0 0 1 , 0 0 , 6 0 0 1 0 7 .4 8 ( 1 1 . 2 9 ) ( 2 8 . 1 2 ) 6. Transfer money received 1 7 , 0 0 0 1 8 ,7 0 0 1 1 0 . 0 0 from relatives outside ( 2 . 5 0 ) ( 5 . 2 3 ) 8, 29,500 3 , 5 7 , 7 0 0 T o t a l 43.12 ( 1 0 0 . 0 0 ) ( 1 0 0 .0 0 ) Note : Figures in brackets indicate per cent of vertical t o t a l s . a part of agricultural Income lost during scarcity. Income from works under employment guarantee scheme (EGS) which is normally between 1 to 1.5 per cent of the total income raised to 12.69 per cent in 1985-86. During 1972-73 scarcity years, share of income from scarcity works was 48.12 of the total income, when ample of scarcity works were supplied in almost every village. Number of relief works (EGS) during the present scarcity years 1983-86 was relatively much less. 330 In 1985-86, scarcity works were available to sample house holds from 5 out of 11 sample villages. There was not a single EGS worker in villages Nirhale (Group ’A’)» Sarad- wadi and Malegaon (Group 'B')« From remaining 8 villages, persons in need of relief had to join EGS works outside the village, occasionally whenever works were available in the close vicinity. Therefore, share of EGS works in the total income during 1985-86 was much less than that of 1972-73. 8.5 Indebtedness It is common experience during scarcity years in the rural community that indebtedness goes on rising as the scarcity condition progresses. Households are obliged to borrow excessively mainly to meet their current consumption requirements. During the years of zero paisewari, even the productive loans like crop loans granted by the cooperative societies and investment loans granted by bfiuiks are utilized for satisfaction of consumption needs, purchase of fodder or some other unproductive purposes. As a result, repaying capacity of borrowers is exhausted and amounts of unpaid debts by the borrowers keep on mounting. Main agencies supplying credit and finance to rural community are primary credit cooperatives in the villages concerned, land develop ment bank and nationalized banks. Non-institutional sources of credit are money-lenders, friends and relatives. Insti tutional finance is expected to be utilized for the specific productive purpose for which the same is granted. Therefore, whenever credit is required for normal consumption or 331 or ceremonial consumption like marriages, etc., needy households approach non-institutional agents in money supply who are interested in the interest Income rather than the purpose of loan. Rural households generally obtain crop loans (working capital) on short term contracts from credit cooperatives. Investment capital is obtained from land development bank or from nationalized commercial banks. Consumption loans are invariably obtained from money-lenders, friends and relatives. Credit obtained through non-insti- tutional sources is very difficult to assess. Borrowers are, in general, reluctant to pass on true information about the amount of loan, rate of interest and terms of repayment, etc., about such non-institutional firnance. Our sample households gave me information about non-institutional finance with great reservations. Assessment of credit from these sources done by me is likely to be an underestimation to the extent of 10 to 20 per cent. Summary of indebtedness of the sample households during the scarcity years 19^3-34, 19^4-35 and 19^5-86 is given in Table S.l6. Between 1983-84 and 1984-85, number of borrowers, amount of loan and borrowing per household decreased, not because the need for credit decreased, but because of the increase in the number of defaulting borrowers. However, due to lack of repaying capacity of borrowers during scarcity, amount of balance debt progressively increased at the end of each year under review. Year to year position of indebtedness is shown in Table 8.17. 332 Table g.l6 ; Borrowing, Repayment and Indebtedness of Sample Households During 19^3-86 Particulars of borrowing, Years r e p a y m e n t a n d b a l a n c e ------debts 19S3-S4 1984-35 19S5-S6 1 . Total sample households 105 105 105 2 . Borrowing households 57 42 55 3 . Per cent of borrowing households to total 5 4 .2 9 4 0 . 0 0 5 2 .3 3 4 . Number of loans contracted 69 43 61 5 . Total amount borrowed 5,65,400 2,24,400 2 , 3 6 , 0 0 0 6. Average borrowing per reporting household 9 ,9 2 0 5 ,3 4 5 4 , 2 9 0 7 . Average borrowing per loan proposal 3 , 1 9 5 4 , 6 7 5 3 , 6 7 0 3 . Amount of loan repaid 2 , 3 7 , 3 0 0 1 , 4 6 , 7 0 0 4 7 ,3 0 0 9 . Balance indebtedness at the end of the year 2 , 7 3 , 1 0 0 7 7 , 7 0 0 1 , 3 3 , 7 0 0 1 0 . Balance debt as per cent of loan granted 4 9 . 1 3 3 4 .6 3 7 9 . 9 6 11. Balance debt per reporting h o u s e h o l d 4 ,7 9 5 1 , 9 4 0 4 , 3 9 0 Table 3.17 : Increase in the Indebtedness of Sample Households during Scarcity Years 1933-34, 1934-35 and 1935-36 Number of Unpaid debt Average debt Years defaulting at the end of per reporting households 30th June household 1933-34 43 2,73,100 5,795 1934-35 54 3,55,300 6,590 1935-36 63 5,44,500 3,645 333 Classification of outstanding debt according to the purpose of borrowing is given in Tables 8.IS and 3,19. Table S.18 gives details about loans granted and balance debt during each of the scarcity years according to purpose. In all, 110 loans were due for repayment out of 173 loans granted during three years viz, 1983-34, 1934-35 and 1935-36. Total outstanding loans as on 30-6-1936 amounting to Rs.5,44,500 were recoverable from 63 defaulting borrowers. Table 3,l3 : Classification of Loans Granted to Sample House- holds During 1933-34, 1934-35 and 1935-36 and Loans Outstanding as on 30 June 1936 Number of loans Number of loans g r a n t e d outstanding as on 3 0 - 6 - 1 9 3 6 Purpose of B o r r o w in g G ro u p G ro u p T o t a l G ro u p G ro u p T o t a l ’A’ ’B’ •A' ’B’ V i l l V i l l V i l l V i l l a g e s a g e s a g e s a g e s 1, Normal agri c u l t u r a l operations 35 3 0 115 19 35 54 (crop loans) (100.00)1100.00)(100.00) (54.29)(43.75)(46.96) 2, Investment in a) Agriculture 3 13 2 6 7 16 23 b ) N on- agricultural occupations 3 1 4 3 1 4 3. Consumption; a) Normal 10 19 29 7 13 25 b) Ceremonial 1 3 4 1 3 4 57 1 2 1 173 37 7 3 1 1 0 (100.00)(100,00)(100,00) ( 64. 91)(60,33)(61.30) Note; Figures in brackets indicate per cent of horizontal totals. 334 I P r H I I f l CO I I (D P ir\ ■eo to C>i I I O O UN 8 I P P I 9 I (4 4 3 vO i/\ I o s : I (D *H ® -4- o I p n I CL, O T3 I .H -I J I B (0 I I O 05 P I O 0 I J 3 T3 O I -p p 8 O 8 8 I o o r-l E-* I ax> rH —* u > - O N - ^ 0 \ - U N ----- o I O • - i ’ « U N I «o a x : I ga o C^Oi O w C\J CNi -*• .H I (D O'-* U \ ^ CM I - 4 - rH m •% I 3 I o (Vi Number of outstanding loans for agricultural purposes as well as for *^11 purposes were more in Group ’A’ villages than Group ’B’ villages which suggests that repaying capacity of sample households in Group ’A* villages was weaker than that of in Group ’B’ villages. Table S.19 classifies the total amount of outstanding loans by groups of villages and by the purposes for which the loans were granted. It can be seen from the above Table that proportions of outstanding debts in Groups 'A* and ’B’ are approximately the same of the population in the respective groups of villages. Over 32 per cent of the total indebtedness was due to non-payment of loans obtained for working capital requirements and investment in agriculture. About 10 per cent of indebtedness was due to normal consumption, 4.57 per cent due to ceremonial consumption especially for marriages of daughters, and little over 3.5 per cent was due to investment in non-agricultural occupations. All these indebted households were unable to repay loans because of reduced purchasing power during scarcity years. Apparently, there is no difference in the structure of indebtedness in Group ’A’ and Group ’B’ villages, except that proportion of indebtedness due to non-payment of productive loans in Group •A* villages was 92.S3 per cent as against 82.71 per cent in Group ’B’ villages, which shows relatively poor position of farming and non-farming households in Group *A’ villages. Furthermore, average balance due per loan proposal works out 336 to Rs. 5,3^5 in Group ’A’ villages (1,99,300/37) as against Rs. 4,225 in Group 'B' Villages (3,45,200/73). We can thus confirm our opinion that burden of indebtedness is more on the households from Group ’A’ than from Group ’B*. Village- wise and yearwise details of indebtedness according to purposes are given in Table Ag,12, Details of borrowing, repayment and balance debt outstanding against the sample households according to agencies supplying credit during the years 1933-34, 1934-85 and 1935-36 are given in Table 3,20. The Table shows that proportion of unpaid balance to total loans granted by all the sources of finance was 49.72 per cent in 1933-34 and 34.63 per cent in 1934-35. In 1935-36, when scarcity was acute for the third consecutive year, nearly 30 per cent of total debts remained unpaid. Proportion of unpaid debt to total appears lowest in cooperatives because unless old debt is cleared, no fresh crop loans are granted by the societies. As a result, these societies are priority claimants in repayment. Even then, proportion of unpaid debt to total for cooperative societies increased from 20 per cent in 1934-35 to nearly 43 per cent in 1935-36. Highest proportion of unpaid debts was found in respect of non-institutional loans from money-lenders, friends and relatives, which gradually increased from 66 .60 per cent in 1933-34 t o 39.37 per cent in 1935-36. It may, however, be mentioned here that proportion 337 «0 I o a vO C4 I r \ H I £ 6 o «-H 3 *6 I I o I • sO 8 o 1 o O flo WN M5 $ a d * ? 1 to t « «» 0 ^ 0 » A WN -4- r% o 1 iH £ 1 8 i 3 Ov UN 1 1 « • « o I'i 1 m (5 4 CM M »A t o f 1 O 1 o 1 r-\ 1 TJ 8 '« 'O O 8 fVJ 1 1 n u 8 o X i WTN 5 § 8 8» 8 r s S 8 § 8 :s• 8M « a <*> W WN t ^ (A S'? g «* e f c s ! O O s s 10 4>U X) e *» u • • • d u >■ 53 4> -8 . O -H O • d > «i « S »S •H K * > f i # H » ► t ? 2 a K * o « c « M u • d to S2L J« T3 I d a • 4 d • O 'H f H -■I 1-^ SI IJI ii s i n s CO f - 33S of unpaid debt to total from all the sources in 1970-73 scarcity years was larger than during the present scarcity years. Unpaid debts debts from all sources (total) during 1970-73 were 75*57 per cent of total loans. In 1933-^6 scarcity years, the proportion of unpaid debts to total was 5^.03 per cent. This shows that people in 19^3-36 scarcity years, though greatly affected, were relatively better off than during the early scarcity years 1970-73. It can also be seen that relative share of cooperative societies and banks in total debt has slightly increased over the period and that of non-institutional agencies decreased. For example, share of cooperative societies in total outstanding debt during 1970-73 was 33.32 per cent and of banks was 39.20 per cent. During 1983-^6 period, share of cooperatives and banks in total outstanding debts was 36.75 per cent and 45.67 per cent respectively. As against this, share of non- institutional agencies during the same period decreased from 27.43 per cent to 12.08 per cent (see Table 7.17 in Chapter VII). Distribution of sample households against whom debts were outstanding during scarcity years 1933-36 according to size of holding is given in Table 3.21. Proportion of indebted households was largest in the size group 0-2 hectares because of poor repaying capacity and lowest amongst landless households because of non eligibility to get institutional credit. However, in 339 Table 3.21 ; Distribution of Indebted Sample Households According to Size of Holdings No. of indebted households by size of holding Villages Land- 0-2 2-4 4 + Total less hectares hectares hectares Group *A' 2 4 10 8 24 (8.33) (16.67) (47.67) (33.33) (100.00) Group ’B’ 1 28 6 4 39 (2.56) (71.80) (15.38) (10.26) (100.00) 3 32 12 63 Sample Total ( 4. 76) (50.79) (25.40) (19.05) (100.00) Note ; Figures in brackets indicate per cent of horizontal t o t a l . Group 'A' villages, 81 per cent of total indebted households were in the holding size groups 2-4 and 4+ hectares. In Group ’B* villages, on the other hand, households in size group 0-2 hectares alone shared almost 72 per cent of outstanding debt. This difference is due to the fact that indebted sample households in Group *A’ villages had rela tively more area per household than Group ’B' villages. VillageWise details of Indebted households aro shown in Table A^.13. Distribution of indebted sample households by size of debt is given in Table 8.22. Highest proportion of defaulters was found in the group Rs.1,000-5,000 followed by another group Rs.5,000 to Rs.10,000. Proportion of indebted households in Group 'A' 3 4 0 4^ *0 o sO C Q> ■p c\» O ■00 O *i • O O JD ® mrH • rH ® C O T ) r t (V I TI 3rH ir\ 9 a O O O I OtM W iSE-. O O v ^ a tM O O vO o O (4 O• 0) •P O (tf O p 1 bO 1 1 ___ x> c 1 a> 1 *H 1 1 o • tJ 1 IT\ ,—^ VO 1 rH 1 1 to vO cn d CNJ h£) cv» •H villages to total was 77.42 per cent as against 52.70 per cent in Group ’B’ villages. Defaulting households for sample as a whole were 60 per cent. In 1972-73 only 42.66 per cent of households were defaulters, which suggests that total indebtedness and loss of repaying capacity was greater i n I 9S 3-86 period than during 1970-73 scarcity years. Relatively excess burden of outstanding debt continued to be on Group ’A' villages. S.6 Scarcity Relief Works (EGS) During former scarcity years 1970-73, scarcity relief works were started in almost all the sample villages and o v e r 67 per cent of working population was employed on scarcity works, as and when the works were in progress. During recent scarcity years 19^3-^6, however, relatively less works were started in the taluka. There were practi cally no EGS works in villages Khadangli and Nirhale from Group *A* and in Saradwadi and Malegaon from Group ’B’ villages in any of the scarcity years between 19^3-84 and 1985-36. In other villages, works were made available but there was considerable gap between completion of one work and starting of another, sometimes for a period of 2 to 4 months. In villages Konambe and Sonambe, not a single work was provided when scarcity was acute and people were greatly in need of relief works. In Vadangli, two works in progress were stopped compelling suffering people to remain unemployed for an indefinite period. As a result, number of scarcity 342 workers was too small during scarcity years 19^3-36 as compared to scarcity years 1970-73* Table 8,23 gives details of age and sex composition of scarcity workers and « their proportion with the total working population. It may appear paradoxical that proportion of EGS workers in total workers was less in Group ’A’ villages than Group ’B'. But this could happen only because of the fact that availability of works and their frequency was greater in Group *B* villages as can be seen from Table 6.15(b) in Chapter VI. Complaints of non-availability of works were more common in Group ’A* villages than Group ’B’ villages. As a result, people from Group ’A’ villages could not compensate as much loss of farm and farm labour income through EGS works, as was possible in Group ’B’ villages. This might have been resulted into high degree of indebtedness among the households from Group ’A’ villages. If we compare proportion of EGS workers to total population and to all working population, we find that these proportions were less in Group ’A’ than in Group ’B'. Table 8.24 shows propor tions of scarcity workers to total population and total workers in sample households. It can be clearly seen that proportions of scarcity workers with total workers in Group ’A’ villages was 35.90 and 41.56 per cent in Group 'B’ villages. Proportion of scarcity workers to total sample population was 20.10 per cent in Group ’A’ and 22.48 per cent in Group 'B' villages. 343 •P d n n o c * \ VO ® CQ u O o O o fH © n CO1 \s1 s 1 1 • 1 CM vO 2 1 •H 1 I T \ 0 \ -4 - U > « 1 H V fN 1 P 1 n o 1 (4 1 E-* • ^ o> 1 rH 1 1 1 (U 1 O o 1 M d e o 1 n CO 1 - f O 1 t 3 1 O H c 1 vO 1 ( fl 1 1 1 (D O 1 1 CM f CM « 00 O) ■eo o to 1 fH 1 > o . C 1 4 1 g O 1 ^ o 1 « • 1 %A 1 fH ' - s 1 5 f*\ 1 K o 1 I t 1 w 1 1 1 .S'S 1 • i <^ 1 WN « u t <-H rsi f * » O 0 14 • « ly t i WN * xO 1 w 1 5 1 ' I I .H o O 1 sO I ft ® 3 to I I ♦ W • • 1 •? ■ O o #H fs< - s s r \ I H CJ (M 1 <>( 1 00 I w O I 1 I I 1 tr I • Proportions of scarcity workers were then larger in Group •B’ villages. During 1970-73 scarcity years, however, pro portions of scarcity workers to working population and total population for sample as a whole were 67.20 per cent a n d 32.57 per cent respectively, but at that time, more works were rightly provided in Group ’A’ villages. There fore, proportions of scarcity workers to working and total population were greater in Group ’A* villages. Reversing the proportions in 1963-^6 scarcity years, thus, suggests more sufferings of the people in Group ’A* chronic scarcity v i l l a g e s . In 1972-73 relief works were available, though with irregular intervals, to all the households willing to join. During recent scarcity years 1983-36, however, very few of the households willing to join EGS works were able to get employed. Table 8.25 shows households involved in EGS works and their proportions with the sample households. Table 8.25 : Distribution of Sample Households Involved in Scarcity Works (1983-86) According to Size of Holdings Group of Total Households on Scarcity works Per cent Villages House------of house holds Land- 0-2 2-4 4 + Total -----h o l d s o n l e s s h a . h a . h a . s c a r c i t y w o r k s t o t o t a l G ro u p ’ A’ 31 4 5 2 11 3 5 .4 8 G ro u p ’ B* 7 4 6 19 7 1 33 4 4 .5 9 Sample Total * 105’ ' ’ 6 " ' ’ 23 ’ 12 3 44 4 1 .9 0 346 Tabla 8.25 leads to same results obtained from T a b l e 6,Zk regarding proportions of scarcity workers to total and working population in the sample households. Now, in order to assess the need for scarcity works by the people of different economic position, we would compare the proportions of households involved in scarcity works to total households in each class of land holding given in Table 8.26. Table 8,26 shows the inverse relationship between the size of holding and need for scarcity works* Fifty per cent of households in the size group 0-2 hectares were involved in EGS works, followed by 48 per cent in the size group 2-4 hectares. Only 18.75 per cent of the households in the size group 4 hectares and above were found on scarcity works. Larger the size of holding, lower was the involve ment in EGS works during 1983-86 scarcity years. In 1970-73 scarcity years, more or less even proportions between 34 to 35 per cent of households from all size groups were involved in scarcity works (Table 7.21, Chapter VII). During 1983-86 scarcity years, sample households from all castes were involved in scarcity works. Table 8.27 gives distribution of sample households engaged in scarcity relief (EGS) works by broad categoiTr and castes. In all, 44.44 per cent of non-backward castes house holds and 33.33 per cent of backward households were e n g a g e d o n EGS w o r k s . 347 _ _ 1 I r-( c r^ ' 0 I • I I CO i r \ 1 - ♦ I 4^ • • 1 Q> I I O -» 1 rH 0 f-H • H -4 - 1 bp. a I I 1 I 1 •P § I I 1 CO CO I I CM O C ^ r \ »/N 1 0 I I ■P O vO 1 P' 0 I O • • • 1 ® I -H I (D o vO 1 t » > *3 I -d-jc CM i- l rH 1 •H I •O I 1 P H (D n I 1 0 > I I 1 ® O fH ti I I UTN 0 cv a ©►O I *> to I -d- 0 1 H 8 ’ cn >3e I I o ® • . • 1 ® « a ( <9Li I irv 0 r 00 •H CO I CM J3 CO » r\ 1 o I I 1 a CO u I 1 f t •O I 1 ^ ^ •H I CNi I O -J- 0 I m O -P I CO I O r<^ 1 Table g.2? Distribution of Sample Households Involved in Scarcity Works by Castes (1933-86) Broad Group T o t a l Households Per cent of a n d C a s t e s households engaged in households i n t h e EGS w o r k s i n EGS w o r k s s a m p le i n t o t a l I, Non-Backward 1 . M a r a th a 51 26 5 0 .9 8 2 . B a n j a r a 9 1 1 1 . 1 1 3. Mohmedan 4 2 50.00 4 . S u t a r 3 1 3 3 .3 3 5 . T e l i 2 2 1 0 0 . 0 0 6 . S o n a r 1 1 1 0 0 . 0 0 7 . L o h a r 1 1 1 0 0 . 0 0 8. Kumbhar 1 1 1 0 0 . 0 0 9 . D hobi 1 1 1 0 0 .0 0 10. Others a -- Total Non-Backward 81 36 4 4 . 4 4 B a c k w a rd 1 1 . M ahar 9 4 4 4 . 4 4 1 2 . B h i l 5 2 4 0 . 0 0 1 3 . O t h e r s 1 0 2 2 0 . 0 0 Total Backward ’ '24 ’ f 33.33 ------ Sample Total 105 4 4 4 1 . 9 0 As and when works were available, wages to scarcity workers were fully paid according to scheduled rates prevailing from time to time, but workers complained about delayed payments, sometimes by about two to three weeks. 349 Regular weekly payments on bazaar days might have consider ably reduced sufferings of the people. 3.7 Mljgration At the time of my inquiry, 5 sample households from Group ‘A* villages and 2 from Group ’B' villages reported to have migrated along with families mainly due to scarcity. In addition, a number of individuals also moved out of villages in search of employment elsewhere. Table 3,28 gives account of total migration from the sample. Table 3.23 : Migration of Sample Households and Individuals from Sample Households, 1933-36 Group of Total House- Percent No. of working Migrants Villages sample holds of individuals migrated due to house- migrated m igrated ------S c a r - holds with house- Male Female Total city families holds only t o t o t a l Group >A’ 33 6 15.79 17 6 23 3 (20.43)(17.64)(19.66) (6.33) Group »B» 31 2 2.47 3 6 2 4 60 1 3 (22.64)(22,02)(22.39) (4.35) Sample 113 3 6.73 53 30 33 21 Total (21,90)(20.93)(21.56) (5.45) Note ; Figures in brackets indicate per cent of migrated workers to total working population. Table shows that 6.73 per cent of total selected sample households moved out of villages along with fam ilies and 5.45 per cent of individuals in sample population migrated purely on account of scarcity conditions leaving their families in 350 the villages concerned. Most of the migrated households went at such a long distances as Bombay, Pune, Nasik Road and Nasik industrial areas in search of Jobs, some of whom have settled permanently with no desire to return in the home villages. Migration of entire households is greater in Group 'A’ villages whereas migration of individual workers was slightly lower in Group ’B' villages. Migration of over 20 per cent working individuals during scarcity years can be considered as a great failure of famine/ scarcity policy of the State which has compelled people to migrate out of their home villages. It may, however, be pointed out that during scarcity years 1970-73» 7.80 per cent of entire households (3^^ out of 436) were migrated purely on account of scarcity. Percent of migrated households to total has been marginally reduced t o 6.78 per cent during recent scarcity years 1983-36. Thus, we can arrive at a conclusion which suggests that though drinking water, food and work was made available to the suffering people, the State machinery could not check migration of drought-affected people in Sinnar Taluka. Usually small rate of population growth during decade 1971-81 supports this proposition. 351 Table Ag.l ; List of Sample Households Selected/Interviewed GROUP VILLAGES 1. Vadangll 1. Kule Rarakriahna Pundlik * 2. Sanap Balu Walu (Transferred) 3. Khule Waman Vishram 4. Bhuje Madan Raghu 5. Loharkar Ti^ambak Kondaji 6. Waghmare Gongadhas Sovliram * 7. Adangle Dhanaji Ramji * Sonawane Shankar Bandu (Transferred) 9. Khule Ragunath Ramji 10. Laherkar Basuappa Ramling 11. Loharkar Bhartruhari Shankar 12. Gite Babubai Tukaram 13. Khule Runja Govind 14. Kulthe Narhari Punja 15. Shaikh Lofit Sk Osman 16. Suryavanshi Nana Ganpat 17. Kandalkor Kondaji Bhagaji Id. Khule Tryambak Narayan *19. Pawar Maroti Kisan 20. Pawar Shivram Tulshiram 21. Khule Rangnath Raojl 2. Khadangli 1. Thok Bhaskar Shivram 2. Ghavauke Gangadhar Pandurang 3. Kokate Sukdeo Bhau * 4. Kokate Santu Barku (continued) 352 \ Table Ag.l ; (continuad) 3. Dodl Kh. 1. Avhadh Murlidhar Ravji 2. Avhadh Tryambak Ramchandra 3. Mali Deoram Kisan 4. Elag Ganpat Tulaji 5. Darade Mahadu Vithoba 6. Kamble Deoram Sakharam 4 . N l r h a l e 1. Kokad Naryan Rakhma 2. Kokad Suryabhau Murlidhar 3. Kokad Balwanta N ivratti 4. Kakad Keru Pandharlnath * 5. Kakad Pandharlnath Bhlma * 6. Kakano Ashok Ganpat (Migrated) 7* Kakane Deubai Harl * 8, Sangle Tukaram Deoba (Migrated) 38 Group ’A’ Total * Less 7 Households Not Found 31 Households Interviewed. GROUP VILLAGES 5. Mohadari 1. Jadhav Sahadu Ranu 2. Binnar Kisan Doda 6. Malegaon 1. Sangle Kisan Kachru 2. Andhale Baban Hari 3. Ghuga Ghima Sakharara 4. Jadhav Dada Dharma (continued) 353 Table A^.l : (continued) 7. Saradwadl 1. Shirsat Namdeo Govinda 2. Kharde Gangadhar Shankar 3. Sheike Fakira Rama 8. Pandhurli 1. Waje Murlidhar Kisan 2. Kasar Kachru Balaji 3. Waje Ramchandra Dada 4. Gavli Deoram Narayan 5. Gadhve Janardhan Bapu * 6. Waje Jivram Bhiva (Transferred) 7. Sk. Chand Abdulbhai S. Mogle Bahlru Bala 9. Kedar Rambhau Bala 10, Shelar Karbhari Sahadu *11. Sid Laxman Ranu (Dead) 12, Gaugurde Chander Shaukar *13. Bhalerao Ananda Amruta (Transferred) 14. Pawar Rakhmaji Mavaji 15. Pawar Mogal Sambhaji 16. Pawar Babanbai Vishnu 17. Pawar Vijay Gokul IS. Bhalerao Dhondyabai Gopal *19. Pawar Bansilal Mahadu (Transferred) 20, Bhadane Ashok Bandu 21, Waje Rajaram Pandurang 22, Pelde Sukdeo Bhaurao 23, Mengal Dagdu Dhandipa (Transferred) 9 . Konam be 1. Davre Vithal Tukaram 2. Davre Kashinath Murlidhar 3. Davre Shankar Tukaram (continued) 354 Table Ag.l ; (contlnuad) 4. Pachve Pandhari Tryambak 5. Devre Vithoba Keru 6. Davre Pandurang Bahlra 7. Borade Dhondlrarn Ramchandra S. Davre Rangnath Rauji 9. Gavari Bhagwant Narayan 10. Lahauge Shankar Balu 11. Pardeshi Babu Manilal 12. Davre Baban Tryambak 13. Davre Kachru Raoji 14. Davre Dattatraya Raoji 15. Mundhe Pandurang Govinda 16. Davre Jagannath Piraji 10. Sonarabe 1. Jagtap Bansi Lola 2. Jagtap Maroti Hari 3. Waghe Datu Manaji 4. Pawar Vitthal Tukaram 5. Kadbarie Tryambak Pucya * 6. Deshmukh Bhaskar Pandurang (Transferred) ^ 7. Kodke Arjun Tukaram (Absconding) S. Pawar Raj aram Kachru 9. Warungae Vitthal Sakharam 10. Bodke Pundlik Nana 11. Pawar Tukaram Mahipat 12. Suryavanshi Bhockor Janardhan 13. Pawar Sanjay Bhaganta 14. Pawar Kashinath Malhari 15. Pawar Tryambak Shankar 16. Dagle Navsa Savliram 17. Dagle Govinda Kanhu 18. Dagle Shrawan Vithoba 19. Dagle Bahiru Rama (continued) 355 Table Ag.l (continued) 20. Sonawana Vrsha Dashrath 21. Bhagwat Keshov Savliram 22. Suryavanshl Bharat Anant 23. Ghode Nivrottl Karbhari 11. Kolgaon Mai 1. Walgade Bahurao Mahadu 2. Shaikh Bashir Sk, Fattu 3. Bhatekar Bashir Fattu 4. Dhokrat Dasrath Mahipat 5. Pathan Magid Nasirkhan 6. Mokal Banshi Gangaram 7. Ghandre Changdeo Laxman 8. Kadam Rambhau Shivaji 9. Kumawat Anna Kashiram 80 Group ’B' Total * Less 6 Households Not Found 7U Households Interviewed ABSTRACT H o u s e h o l d s Households H o u s e h o ld s S e l e c t e d N o t F o u n d A c t u a l l y G ro u p Interviewed A 38 7 31 B 80 6 7 4 Sample Total 118 13 105 356 Table Ag.2 ; Villagewise Sample Households Selected for ------— Inquiry But Not Found in the Villages on the Day of Inquiry (1985-86) Sr. Village T o t a l Households not found in N o. o f N o. N o. o f village due to H o u s e H o u s e h o l d s h o l d s Trans- Abscon- Migra- Total A c t u a l l y S e l e c t ferred ding ted due (Col. I n t e r - e d f o r else- to 4+5+6) v ie w e d I n q u i r y where Scar ( C o l . 3 c i t y m in u s 7) (1 ) (2 ) (3) (4 ) (5 ) (6 ) (7 ) (8 ) GROUP »A» 1, Vadangli 20 1 - 2 3 17 2. Khadangli 4 - - 1 1 3 3. Dodi Kh. 6 - - - 6 4 . N i r h a l e 8 - 1 2 3 5 ’ ■ “ - ■ Group Total ’ 38 ’ 1 ’ ' 5 ’ ’ ’ 31 ’ ( 1 0 0 .0 0 ) ( 2 . 6 3 ) ( 2 . 6 3 ) ( 1 3 . 1 6 ) ( 1 8 . 4 2 ) ( 8 1 . 5 8 ) GROUP »B» 5. Mohadari 2 - --- 2 6. Malegaon 4 - - - - 4 7. Saradwadi 3 ----- 3 8. Pandhurli 23 2 1 2 18 9 . K onam be 16 ---- 16 10. Sonambe 23 1 -- - 22 11, Kolgaon Mai 9 - - - - 9 ’ - - “ 6* ■ Group Total " 80 " 2 ’ "74 ( 1 0 0 .0 0 ) ( 3 . 7 5 ) ( 1 . 2 5 ) ( 2 . 5 0 ) ( 7 . 5 0 ) ( 9 2 . 5 0 ) Sample Total ’ l l 8 ’ " 4 ' 2 * ‘ 13’ " ' 105 ( 1 0 0 .0 0 ) ( 3 . 3 9 ) ( 1 . 7 0 ) ( 5 . 9 3 ) ( 1 1 . 0 2 ) ( 8 8 . 9 8 ) Notea ; 1. Compiled from primary data collected from sample v i l l a g e s . 2. Figures in the brackets indicate percentages to total households in Col. 3. 357 I fH i I I I CtJ 60 -d- (n O ' I O r-4 O O' wr\ CA CNJ t r \ I I 0\ iH vrs -4- O I iH -♦ iH (V *-l - t vO I CM ' jO (V w^ • I H I I a I I o I + iH » »r\ O ' I t o>^ ON OO CV I o> CO VO •H H I (O *3 I I cS I I I I I 1-1 I I » « ^ I 4^ U^ < ^ O #-< 0 \ (V I I I O M *H ^ 4 »> X «> r-4 U 5 A a 0 . % I % Qi to I^ «H ^- 9 4 • « - j ^ _ 3 r-« i a( *o X iS u d d d r-( t L t$ z > 5 a s 5 2 ^ a. « <55 iS jO *•••«•• <« u o f»N - i »A *0 to O' o V) as 359 I I I I 1 ^ 1 —. I I 1-4 t «0 I -# w^ 00 . p*-o I NO O fH f-( CO O < I 1 3 5? 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I « S § S 3 • •3^ 4 “O -S w 2 J3 M i< q c c <-i £ ’ I ►- 5 5 I O « I _ *o I u *0 «H a • o « 8 I • 0 x : *» t u J3 • o S V 5 5 - ' I I r I » t H I t 4 I I P I I O O to »A IV r I H I - t I t I I I ♦ I I - j - I I o I t f f f-4 I O I (V f t I (M I I I I 1 I I I 3 I N I ”0 f -o a O X iJ I I iH o H t « vO fs/ I «H a I o I r - I u I 9 3 I *o t s I N I w flf «> <« p p Z N) «H H • iS ■i ^ fi ^ tx S 5 § a a (« < 3 => S I & 3 o. 5 ^ ^ t 2 S C 3 d n ^ 9 <« O. n I? a a s “ S ^ >2 u o I c o s 371 I .-I I o o I n) 8 ' o o I P 'O CV fsj Ht I I I to rH - t O x . • t>o • S> (V O 0 ^ 0 vO O a I H • Q I o o •H I f—I TD I I a I rt I I I • n •P I I I 00 vO ♦> I ? 8 •00 c<\ -d- • s , o o I I I ITv • I I I rH CM vO • r-l • O •O I o vr\ rH O I C I CVJ I (m I o O I I I I a> O I C I — I N I +> 3vO I -o ^ 00 I © O •H ON I p U rH I x> CM CNJ ~t I -4- • I rH rH I to rH O • ■P I I o OJ f^CM vO (OnO I TJ I I •H I I a QO I M I cn I <0 I n a I ' o ' o I I—I I O I o I OJ vO I—I • CNJ -j- 00 NO CNJ ON • u^ o n I P I cr\0 I rH rH CM ^ o o t>0 < I o O o rH (0 I El I rH I rH r^ *5 I ' iH X> I I »-H rH rH eO (« CO rH t P «H s P CtJ CQ C3 "Vzi rH O P o rH bO ® I ^ O <« tl « O a f-< O to bo a rH (fl (« 3 o E- OJ a, a a CQ I O . a. T3 W) 'Ois s fi c8 cu S3 (d ’O Jp 3 cd ® (0 =9 (0 3 hO ® ■o (« X3 rH a a o rH p rH § to x; ’ 2 § (d rt o O D. <9 o > a Z I o C3 CO a. CO iid C3 iH § • » • • • • • • CO o rH OJ -* ir\ vO <0 On o rH CO a rH rH CHAPTER IX MIGRATION AND RETURN BACK TO VILLAGES Towards tha end of previous chapter, while describing migration from the villages, a distinction was made between migration on account of scarcity conditions and on the grounds other than scarcity conditions. We shall confine our attention to the former type of migration which has a relevance to our investigation. We also distinguished between cases where only one or more members of the house holds migrated and where entire households migrated. This distinction w ill be maintained while describing the effects of migration. A substantial part of the sample population had left the villages and migrated to other places during the period of scarcity. In Table 9.1 is shown the extent of migration observed during the period under investigation, i.e. 1970-73. It w ill be seen that above 10 per cent of the popula tion had migrated of which roughly 6 per cent was in the form of entire households and U per cent in the form of one or few individuals from the family moving out of villages. Out of the total of 293 persons who migrated out of villages, nearly 60 per cent had migrated with entire fam ilies. By the time of second phase of my inquiry in September-October 1973} hardly 52 par cent of the migrants had returned to 372 373 Table 9.1(a) : Data on Migration due to Famine, Size of Migration, and Proportion of Members Who Returned Back to Their Villages During Scarcity Years 1970-73 Size and proportion of m i g r a t i o n Item of Information Indivi- Entire Total duals house- migra- h o l d s t i o n 1 . Number of households reporting migration 3S 34 72 2 . Proportion to resident h o u s e h o l d s a . 7 1 7 . 7 9 1 6 . 5 3 . Persons found migrated due to scarcity 118 1 7 5 2 9 3 4 . Proportion of migrating persons to total resident population 4 . 0 3 5 . 9 8 1 0 . 0 1 5 . Households in which migrated persons found returned (wholly or p a r t i a l l y ) 2 9 15 44 6 . Proportion to the migrated households 7 6 . 3 1 4 4 .1 2 6 1 . 1 1 7 . Number of persons r e t u r n e d 7 2 7 9 1 5 1 d . Proportions to the migrated persons 61.02 4 5 . 1 4 5 1 .5 4 9 . Persons still outside their native villages due to famine 46 9 6 142 1 0 . Proportions to the persons migrating due to famine 3 8 .9 3 5 4 . 8 6 48.46 yiK Table 9.1(b) : Persons Migrated and Returned Home or S till Outside Villages by October 1973 by Category of Migrants and Sex Individuals Entire Total migrations families migrants Item of migrations Male Fe- Total Male Fe- Total Male Fe- Total male male male 1 . P e r s o n s migrated 74 44 96 79 175 170 123 293 2 . P e r s o n s r e t u r n e d home by O c t o b e r 1973 44 2a 72 43 36 79 37 64 151 3 . P e r s o n s s t i l l o u t s i d e v i l l a g e s 30 16 46 53 43 96 83 59 142 their villages. Sex ratio of the migrated population was 723 females per 1000 males, which was considerably less than the normal sex ratio of the sample population. This implies proportionately more migration of males. By the time of my inquiries during second phase, less than 43 per cent of migrated males had returned homes and 52 per cent were still at the places of migration; whereas about 56 per cent of the migrated females had returned homes and 44 per cent were found outside the villages by October 1973. Table 9.2 classifies the migrated population into working and non working by sex and category of migrants. 375 I rH to «rv I (H On 8 I .p CM I o I E-« I I I I (D o I «V o (T5 I CD •P O (I It is evident from the above Table that nearly 75 per cent of the migrants were working and only 2 5 p e r c e n t were dependents, mostly children. If we confine our atten tion to working population, extent of migration would appear well above 1 5 per cent of the total working population of the sample households. It would, therefore, be clear that the migration during the scarcity years was of high magnitude and that in spite of the satisfactory rains in 1973-74 season, about 50 per cent of the migrants could not return homes, which is really serious and needs further investigation as regards scarcity distress faced by such migrants. I feel that it must be lack of confidence on the part of the migrants that they w ill get any remunerative employment after returning home, and therefore, preferred to stay at the migrated places where some jobs are available. The migrants travelled to various distances from their native villages in search of work. Table 9.3 gives the data regarding distances travelled by migrated households. Most of the migrants moved within taluka at the scarcity work centres. But many of them travelled upto Bombay, Thana, Nasik, Nasik Road, Bhagur and various sugar factories in Kopargaon Taluka. Classification of house holds and population according to places of migration are given in Table 9.4. y i i Table 9«3 : Distribution of Migrating Households According to Distances Travelled from Their Native V i l l a g e s Households Households Total from which few migrating households individuals with entire reporting Miles migrated family migration Number Percent Number P e r c e n t Number P e r c e n t 5 - 1 0 10 26.32 4 1 1 . 7 7 1 4 1 9 . 4 4 11 - 2 0 13 3 4 . 2 1 6 1 7 . 6 5 19 2 6 . 3 9 21 - 50 5 1 3 . 1 6 11 3 2 .3 5 1 6 2 2 .2 2 51 + 3 2 1 .0 5 5 1 4 . 7 0 13 1 3 . 0 6 Unspecified 2 5 . 2 6 S 2 3 . 5 3 10 1 3 . 8 9 T o t a l 33 1 0 0 . 0 0 3 4 1 0 0 . 0 0 7 2 1 0 0 . 0 0 » « w » «» « « « « « » w « « « M M « Nearly 33 per cent of the migrants migrated within the taluka, above 14 per cent each at Nasik Road and Bombay, and rest of the migrants travelled to different places outside the taluka. Persons migrated to urban areas could get unskilled works either in factories, public or private construction works, etc., just sufficient to maintain them selves out of their villages. None of them could support their family members left behind in the villages. Migration within the taluka was mainly on account of attending the scarcity works of the Government or of the Church. Distribution of migrated households by caste is given in Table 9.5. 37S n I n t o — * o - - - »T\^ On— I r ^ — o> I c ; OnO -^ttO rHrH rHOi C^rH On q o I o iH -4- r H cr\ I 3 «J I n • r H I u c<^ v O l/N O, I Table 9.5 : Distribution of Migrated Households by Caste Percent Household migrated households ------Caste in the Number Percent to total the total sample migrants I. Non-backward (Total) 73*62 49 63.06 Maratha 5^.26 31 43.05 Banjara 5.50 7 9.70 Mohmedan 4.36 1 1.39 Mali 1.60 3 4.17 S o n a r 0 . 9 2 Shimpi 0.63 Brahmin 0.46 1 1.39 Lingayat 0.46 Rajput 0.46 2 2.73 Others 1.15 4 5.56 II. Backward (Total 26.33 23 31.94 Mahar 11.00 14 19.44 Mang 0 . 9 2 Chambhar 0.92 2 2.73 Koli 5.27 5 6.94 Bhil 6.39 1 1.39 Mangarudi 0.92 1 1.39 Others 0,46 Total 100.00 72 100.00 Among the non-backward class, proportion of migration was relatively higher among Banjara, Mali and Rajput castes. In case of backward class migration in almost all the castes, excepting Bhil, was found in greater proportion to the total population. 3 a o Since we are aware only about the conditions of migrants who had returned home, the statements made hence forth are relating to those 44 households from which indi viduals or entire fam ilies were migrated and returned wholly or partly by the time of my investigations during second phase in Septeraber-October 1973* Among the 44 households migrated during scarcity and returned during the kharif season of 1973-74, 15 were entire fam ilies migrating who locked their houses In villages and left. Nine households out of 44 left with their cattle. Arrangements made by the households about their land and cattle while leaving the villages are shown in Tables 9*6 and 9.7 respectively. Table 9.6 ; Arrangements for Land Made by the Migrating H o u s e h o ld s * ‘it'e; o’f'lnr^^aU ^n ...... S L sf I r i l l i 1. No arrangements needed (landless) 5 11.36 2. Land rented out 2 4.54 3. Left under the supervision of relatives 6 13.64 4. Left barren 31 70.46 Total 44 100.00 The migrants had to make their arrangement for resi dential accommodation particularly by those leaving with families and cattle. Individuals moving out made their 3S1 I t I p Table 9.^ : Arrangements for Residential Accommodation Made by the Migrated Households at the Places of their Migration Niunber o f P e r c e n t t o Item of Information h o u s e h o l d s t h e t o t a l h o u s e h o l d s 1 . Owned h u t s 19 4 3 . 1 3 2. Rented houses 12 2 7 . 2 7 3 . Government camp arrangements 1 2 . 2 7 4 . Stayed with relatives 10 2 2 . 7 3 5 . No arrangements (open space) 2 4 . 5 5 T o t a l U 1 0 0 . 0 0 In all 151 migrants from UU households returned homes by October 1973. In Table 9.9 is shown the distri bution of migrated persons according to their period of stay outside the villages. Above three-fourths of the migrants returned home within a period of 6 months. During this period, the 333 Table 9*9 : Distribution of Migrants According to Their Period of Stay at the Migrated Place Until the Time of Inquiry Migrants who returned homes Number of Months —-— Number Per cent Upto 1 month 20 13*24 2 - 3 mo n th s 32 2 1 . 2 0 4 - 6 ” 61 40*40 7 - 9 ” 20 13*24 1 0 - 1 2 " Id 11.92 Total Migrants Returned 151 100.00 working membei^^among them had mostly worked as daily labourers on small or large relief works, temporary un skilled labour in factories, or constructional works in some cases of migration to urban areas. The continuity of work during the period of stay outside was not guaranteed. Many of them were unemployed for a fraction of period of their stay at migrated places. 9*1 Rehabilitation Of the 44 households so migrated during scarcity and returned homes during kharif season of 1973-74, 15 had to sell their cattle and three had to sell their assets partly because maintenance of cattle was difficult and partly because of their consumption expenses* One house hold sold its entire land and cattle holding and was forced 334 to join the array of landless agricultural labour on return. Forty households were mainly cultivators before leaving villages and five were landless labourers. Thirty-nine out of 40 resumed agricultural operations on their return in kharif season of 1973-74, when arrangements for working cattle and agricultural finance were necessary. The arrange ments made by the migrated households for working cattle for kharif operations are shown in Table 9.10. Table 9.10 : Arrangements for Working Cattle Made by the Migrated Households on Return to Villages H o u s e h o ld s Item of Information -—— — —— ------Number Per cent 1. Existing working cattle was s u f f i c i e n t 9 2 0 . 4 6 2. Cattle purchased 1 2 . 2 3 3. Borrowed from friends, relatives 5 1 1 . 3 6 4. Cattle hired 19 4 3 . 1 8 5. Land rented out 5 1 1 . 3 6 6. Landless households 5 1 1 . 3 6 Total 44 100.00 Only one household could purchase cattle during the kharif season of 1973-74. More than half of them had to borrow or hire cattle. About 23 per cent were not at all in need of cattle because they were either landless or rented out their lands. 3S5 As regards financial arrangements for kharif season of 1973-74, only 34 households who engaged themselves in cultivation were in need of agricultural finance. Various sources through which these households made financial arrangements could be seen in Table 9*11* Table 9.11 : Financial Arrangements Made by the Migrated Households for Kharif Operations of 1973-74 After Return to Villages H o u s e h o ld s Sources of Finance Number Per cent 1. Savings out of income earned at migrated places 4 1 1 .7 7 2. Loans from Government 5 1 4 . 7 0 3. Loans from credit cooperatives 3 S . 32 4. Sale of assets 1 2 . 9 4 5. Loans from private agencies 2 1 6 1 .7 7 T o t a l 3 4 1 0 0 . 0 0 About 62 per cent households had to resort to borro wings from private agencies. Government or cooperative finance did not come forth on required scale. £ven the households borrowing from Government and cooperative societies had to supplement it by additional borrowing from private agencies or through the sale proceeds of the assets, cattle, etc. From this small sample of 34 households, it appears that rehabilitation of households returned to home was not properly attended to by the relief administration. 3S6 Above analysis would prove that migration was forced i n on a fraction of rural populatioa/sinnar taluka during the scarcity years 1970-73 due to a variety of reasons. Lack of employment at home, scarcity of drinking water, food and fodder compelled people to move out of their own villages in search of work and food. Those who were migrated at work site along with the families were not provided with temporary sheds. Migrants had to make their own arrange ments for residential accommodation by raising temporary h u t s . In the agricultural year 1973-74 when the prolonged drought of three years was over, three-fourth migrants returned to their home villages but no care was taken by the taluka adninistration for their rehabilitation as a post-scarcity measure. As a result, the migrated households had to make their own arrangements for credit, mainly through costly private credit agencies for their kharif operations in 1973-74. Some of these households had to. fall back upon their private property, assets and cattle for financing their normal agricultural operations. Even consumption was required to be financed out of credit. We can, therefore, arrive at a conclusion that the State machinery did not pay attention to the problem of post-scarcity rehabilitation of the affected population to the extent it attended drought years 1970-73* In fact, post-scarcity rehabilitation operations are essential to build up morale of the affected p e o p l e . 387 In recent drought years 1983-86 also I have observed as high a rata of migration as 6.66 per cent households (180 out of 2,701) and 6,30 per cent of total population (1,046 out of 16,609) of sample villages. Villagewise information of migration is given in Table 9»12. Migration from Group villages was much higher than those of Group ’B* villages. 15.74 per cent of house holds and 16.13 per cent of total population from Group ’A' villages was found migrated due to scarcity on the day of my inquiry. Highest migration was recorded in village Nirhale, affecting 51.8 per cent households and 48.83 p e r cent of village population. Rate of migration from Group *B’ villages was almost negligible at 1,08 per cent house h o l d s and 0.78 per cent of the group population. No migra tion was found in 5 out of 7 villages from Group *B*. A small fraction of population from villages Malegaon and Pandhurli was found migrated. Rate of migration for sample villages as a whole worked out to 6.66 per cent of the total households and 6.30 per cent of the total population. Migrating households leaving home villages along with fam ilies were mostly working on scarcity works within Sinnar taluka. Some of them were absorbed in Nasik-Ambad-Satpur industrial area. Few migrants from village Pandhurli travelled a long distance upto Dang district of Gujarath State for grazing their cattle and finding some petty works for themselves. Individual male migrants leaving their 388 1 1 1 I I vO 1 1 to (4 1 c« 1 r ^ ON 1 1 t o • CO I o I © 1 H O t o fH -4- r - fXr^ 1 3 fl 1 « 1 • • 1 • 1 1 • 1 . I • t o ed 1 fX O CM C\J vO o Almost all the migrants mentioned above wera expected back in their home villages after rainfall in June 19^6. Unfortunately, scarcity did not end in June. Drought continued for fourth year in succession in 1936-^7 and the hopes of migrants to return home vanished. Table 9.13 : Villagewise Information of Sample Households Migrated During Drought Years 19^3-^6 Sr. Group/ Total Households found migrated No. Village Sample due to scarcity holds Number Per cent GROUP *A» 1. Vadangli 20 2 1 0 . 0 0 2. Khadangli 4 1 2 5 . 0 0 3. Dodi Kh. 6 1 1 6 . 6 7 4 . N i r h a l e 8 2 2 5 . 0 0 Group Total 6 1 5 " 7 9 GROUP »B» 5. Mohadari 2 6. Malegaon 4 • 7. Saradwadi 3 • P a n d h u r li 23 2 3 . 7 0 9. Konambe 16 10. Sonambe 23 11. Kolgaon Mai 9 - - Group Total SO 2 2 . 5 0 Sample Total ’ ’ I l 5 " i 6.7^ Source; Primary data collected from sample hou.qeholds. 390 My sui-vey of sample households from 11 sample villages revealed similar information about migration as shown in Table 9.13* Table 9.13 supports the results of sample villages shown in Table 9.12 that the proportion of migration from Group ’A’ villages is substantially higher than Group *B’ villages. This time, a follow-up survey of migrated house holds could not be undertaken because of prolonged drought condition in the taluka. We can, however, conclude that chronic scarcity conditions from Group villages results in a high rate of migration during scarcity years. ■p m - i - CM 0 o o o 3 •H O n O n •b •k d -O +3 NO o C m t O '^ CNi -4- © Qj *H ON •k jC +> ® I CNJ NO 43 O ct3 S ' I I C CO I O o T3 ® 4J I i r \ 5 to CM O > ® I r>^ NO o •H > o I <7n ON 0k u I -d-vO NO o © +3 (It I • e o '^ CNi CU ■o nJ o I o •« •* a CO I (V NO NO I to .-1 G . *3 I 1 d I o o o «M O ® I -* CM to o o L) I to o o L. I ^ *> •k 1—1 c «*; 3 NO o o O I to — CNi r - d •H • • I ON •k •r-l (0 I rH CM NO C o T3 ® 3 d a a i CM 0^ CO n ® I C trs r4 rH '5 IS 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 I 'l 'T 'f'? 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