Indigenous Knowledge on Development and Management of Shallow Dug Wells of Dodoma Municipality in Tanzania

Applied Water Science (2018) 8:59 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-018-0697-7 ORIGINAL ARTICLE Indigenous knowledge on development and management of shallow dug wells of Dodoma Municipality in Tanzania C. Shemsanga1,3 · A. N. N. Muzuka2 · L. Martz2 · H. Komakech1 · E. Mcharo4 Received: 26 June 2015 / Accepted: 18 October 2017 / Published online: 19 April 2018 © The Author(s) 2018 Abstract Dodoma city, central Tanzania, seats in a semi-arid region of East Africa with limited rains and surface water resources. Consequently, the area largely depends on shallow and deep aquifers for its freshwater needs. Owing to harsh climatic conditions, chronic lack of year-round surface water bodies and, limited development of water distribution infrastructures, over year’s local people have nurtured, developed and, passed on important indigenous knowledge (IK) on exploiting and managing shallow aquifers (SAs). However, there is no clear documented administrative plans for the SAs and the roles of IK, which is widely practised in developing SDWs and managing SAs, are not properly documented. This study intended to assess the extent of shallow dug wells (SDWs) utilization and contribution of IK on management of SAs of indigenous people of Dodoma Municipality. The methods followed include critical feld observations, measurements and, focus group discussions done during both the dry season (Sep.–Oct. 2013) and wet season (Dec. 2013–Feb. 2014). The results show that SDWs occur widely in the city, particularly in the suburbs, where they often serve as the only sources of freshwater and heavily dependent by the populace. It is clear that there is rich IK on management of SAs including on groundwater exploration, digging, water allocation, pricing, and even on water quality and, water treatment skills. The aforementioned IK clearly contribute to water sufciency to the populace and general management of groundwater such as enhancing recharge mechanisms where about 1% of local rainfall is recharged through a network of SDWs compared to ~ 5–10% that is natu- rally being recharged by rainfall through the vadose zone. Thus, as much as the current policy framework and groundwater managers do not recognize the roles of IK and contributions of SDWs as key water sources, it is clear that IK contributes to the groundwater management and SDWs already support large part of the society. While it is globally appreciated that vital skills on SDWs management are vanishing, local people in Dodoma still retain them and should, therefore, be preserved. It is further recommended that IK are strengthened, improved and most importantly, incorporated in the local water resources management plans that already advocate on integrated approaches but which clearly ignores the IK and the local people’s eforts to explore and manage water resource, particularly SAs. Keywords Shallow aquifers · Indigenous knowledge · Management · Dodoma Background information * C. Shemsanga Introduction [email protected] 1 Department of Water and Environmental Sciences Owing to the lack of year-round surface water bodies, low and Engineering, Nelson Mandela African Institution rains, and poor quality of the available surface water bodies, of Science and Technology, Arusha, Tanzania in Dodoma city, reliability of fresh water supplies for various 2 Department of Geography and Planning, University uses has largely been met by groundwater (Salama 1979; of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada Rwebugisa 2008). In recent years, however, per capita fresh- 3 Department of Environmental Engineering and Management, water availability has further been reduced by population School of Environmental Sciences and Technology, increases and ongoing impacts of climate change (Kashaigili University of Dodoma, Dodoma, Tanzania 2010; Rwebugisa 2008). Yet, the negative climate change 4 Water Resources Division, Ministry of Water, Dodoma, impacts on surface water resources and increasing pressure Tanzania Vol.:(0123456789)1 3 59 Page 2 of 20 Applied Water Science (2018) 8:59 on groundwater for agriculture, construction and, domestic guidelines and collection of the fees (Baumann et al. 2005). use will likely exacerbate the problem of freshwater supply This remains the case while locals have plenty of skills on further (Shemsanga et al. 2016). many of these aforelisted challenges, yet the current water Generally, groundwater is considered less sensitive to management strategy does not recognize/include them. short-term climate variability and even pollution sources Moreover, over generations harsh climatic conditions (Chen et al. 2004). According to Wurzel (2001), ground- coupled with poor water quality and/or lack of surface water water is protected from evaporation and, in many regions; bodies and chronic water shortage have led to nurturing and volumes stored underground are immense, providing water passing on of vital IK on development and general manage- security during drought periods/years. Yet, the capital cost ment of SDWs. For meaningful and sustainable groundwater of groundwater development is also relatively low. Thus, management, therefore, there is a need to integrate these the aforested traits qualify groundwater as a major adapta- rich IK on management of the local water resources’ gov- tion option to the negative impacts of climate change on ernance. However, no proper documentation of IK exists water supplies (Chen et al. 2004). Local people in Dodoma locally and little is known on its roles in management of city have capitalized on these key groundwater traits from water resources. Nonetheless, water management must focus which they have survived ages of chronic water shortages via on total water resource; surface and underground, in various inherent indigenous knowledge (IK) associated with shallow states and places, and the people who live with, impact, use aquifers (SAs) exploration, development and management. and, manage it. This should consider everybody and every However, groundwater dynamics in Dodoma are not fully process that afects its quality and quantity or that is afected understood which undermines eforts for sustainable man- by various water projects. Specifcally, it must include IK as agement of local and regional aquifers. Yet, management of local people have enormous skills from older generations groundwater is generally complex as is viewed and as such, that have enabled them to survive ages of water stress. treated as a common pool resource (Troch 2000; Zealand However, it should be known that water shortage is a 2011), including within the study area (Kashaigili 2010). problem in the wider developing world particularly in semi- Poor understanding of groundwater is even more serious arid regions where more than 1.1 billion people do not have with shallow aquifers that are currently not of interest to reliable access to water for drinking (Nkonya 2011). Meet- local researchers, policy makers and, water resource man- ing regional water needs will thus depend on how water agers (personal communication with Mr. Mihale, Wami- resources are understood, developed and most importantly, Ruvu Basin, WRB). This remains the case when as much as managed (MacDonald et al. 2009, 2010). By 2005, it was 20–30% of Dodoma region is regarded suitable for shallow reported that to meet Millennium Development Goals dug wells (SDWs) development (Baumann et al. 2005) and (MDG) on water, Tanzania needed to drill 14 000 SDWs and where SDWs occur widely in the region. Likewise, local 1 500 boreholes per year (Baumann et al. 2005). For such a SDWs are not properly documented making it difcult to task to be sustainable, an understanding of available water estimate their contributions in the local water sufciency and resources, functional allocation systems and cautious bal- balance as is the case for the role of IK associated with their ancing of surface and groundwater abstractions are required development and utilization. However, deep aquifers par- (Taylor et al. 2012; Shemsanga et al. 2017). Many of these ticularly at Makutupora well feld (MWF), the main source aforelisted aspects are already practised by the local people of water supply of the city, remains strongly interlinked with in Dodoma city but lack proper documentation, coordination shallow aquifers (Shindo 1990) hence poor management of and policing. local SDWs may afect deep wells alike. A SDW in this con- Groundwater exploration is usually carried out using text mean a well that is ≤ 15 m deep (De Louw et al. 2013). lengthy and expensive methods namely geospatial tech- These, are often easy to dig and the wells themselves act as niques (Hammouri et al. 2012; Manap et al. 2014) and geo- own reservoirs hence making storage tanks unneeded (Tay- physical techniques (Muchingami et al. 2012), among many lor et al. 2009; Job 2010) and in many areas there are local others. For a long time, however, local people in Dodoma skills to develop and manage them (Wurzel 2001; Pritchard city have successfully explored for groundwater using tradi- et al. 2008; Hardjoamidjojo et al 2007). tional and locally available means and tools. These, however, The national water management plan advocates on holis- are also not well documented, coordinated and, recognised tic approaches such as integrated water resource manage- by existing water development and management framework ment (IWRM), creation of water user associations and, which undermines local eforts for water sufciency to all. issuing of water development and use permits. However, Classifying water quality is vital

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