H.u.•io:.'-u.""·"' stage was active in New York i 918. It ceased a year after the United States declared war on in oertc>rnnaino~s were again in i 919, but several attempts at seasons operas, and plays were frustrated violent anti-German reaction. German American theater revived in the i 92os after anti-German dice had but it of decline and, ~·c,, ... ~L-~· ceased regular point, between I 1918, at least one professional troupe offered an extensive season each year as a resident company in a fixed theater in Manhattan.2 Between l and there were usually two and sometimes three
3 7 active there. Professional troupes also in '""..-'"'"' "'.,, Bronx at various times. German amateur dramatic groups existed
1 1 out the New York area. After World War I, German pr1oh~ss1011al rn.rn """' nu'" moved frequently between commercial theaters and German social clubs and union halls throughout New York and and cit ies. German-language sound films generally replaced live German theater in the 1930s, though during that decade and after World War II actors periodi- gave dramatic performances in German in New York City. A conservative estimate of the extent of the repertory and activ in Manhattan between and 1940 suggests 40,000 to 50,000 separate events of about 4,000 individual works, if not more.4 This includes Adolf Philipp's American works, which were given about 3,000 performances from 1893 to 1918 and in the i92os. However, it does not include German operas or operettas performed in German or English outside the German American community or context, or the more than 3,500 performances of eleven operas Richard Wagner given the Metropolitan between its establishment in i883 and 2009. Nor does it represent the huge number of concerts for the German American community, or concerts of German repertory m New York's principal concert venues such as Hall or Hall. Professional German stages existed in other American cities as well. For exam ple, Orlando Faulkland Lewis's 1900 work on the German drama in Philadel- 2 INTRODUCTION
titles of individual works and 1 performances given during parallel operetta and dramatic ense: period between and i 898. The figure for Manhattan was some of the principal performers w much the longer time period covered and New York's huge German employed continental German touri American population. A estimate of all the German theatrical activity in sons and attract audiences. the United States approaches 200,000 performances; the true number might The influence of German music < been greater. This vast amount of theatrical is recognized in even longer-lasting than that of Gen literature outside of German American studies, and in that field it has theatrical life (other than Wagner'1 6 ~AA~ ..~,., viewed as peripheral. appendix man-speaking communities such as 1 of the German immigrant stage, audiences in New York's a new, American context. Througho Klein Deutschland (Little attended German-language performances cians championed the works of Gem '-''JAAH~""'"-''" musical revues, folk plays with music, Bach, Handel, Haydn, Mozart, Beetl acts, and tableaux vivants (living pictures) such as the New York Philharmonic German, Austrian, and local German American authors, as well as Ger Theodore Thomas Orchestra, the 1 7 man translations of American, French, and English works. The use of "Klein the Liederkranz and Arion Societie1 Deutschland" in the later nineteenth century to refer to the German American mance styles. The American system < ,..,.·mv~,,,.,,..,,,_.., in New York is somewhat ironic since at that time New York in music owes much to German cons was the third-largest German city (after Berlin and Vienna). Klein Deutschland ican musicological developments c;:: in this book refers to the German American community as an entity, as well as influences and individuals, or to tho to German residents and establishments in Manhattan's Lower East Side in the Sonneck, Otto Kinkeldey, and many second half of the nineteenth The term "German" to German- turn of the twentieth century onwar uv·~~·-'AA''"" H.Hi•CHJ"~UAH~'-' in the United or their American descendants. It also tions is not the focus here, however, 1 .:.-e1,man-sp,eaKn1g people and their culture. In addition to the several thousan German Americans' dramatic ""7 ~"'.,...,,,.,,,,~,," were as diverse as or even more European works in German translat varied than those of their neighbors. As part of a bilingual posers and librettists also wrote a m embraced both German and American theatrical traditions. Lokalstucke, populist plays and mus Klein Deutschland's theaters were not closed to outsiders, and non-German visi- gic, comic, or satirical popular songs there was not a consistent to attract them, tears and evoked were< except for of opera and operetta, Philipp's immigrant-themed an alien land, America's pror HH..<•H·~<.u..,, and some of the Place Theater's productions. and playwrights combined German 1 German opera was a part of the repertory of New York major references in order to create a theatr houses and theaters such as the of Music and the Metropoli- audiences and profitable to artists an New York's theaters such as the Stadttheater in had moved away from the Lower and i 86os offered individual performances or seasons of returned to Klein Deutschland's sta. German opera or French and Italian opera in German translation. their children in the traditions of the But and comic German works and translations of French New York was not the only city wi bouffe-and German Possen and Volksstucke and folk with tradition, though it was the principal German American stage than More than 80 American cities with l costs and the musi- Chicago, New Orleans. To put on regular (to name a all had active of opera, operetta, and theater separate of these disappeared or after ,. ....,,,.,...q,_,,,.. and theatrical ensembles an expense that most a on a basis. in the between i918 and about i920-wer1 some German American managers maintained traditions for more than a decade 3 INTRO N
IJUU.UH.,.J. operetta and dramatic vH.c.>v.
rofessional company. It dis- ty Leater in New York and throughout festivals reveal ~"~~~•-n· ... r'~ c er traditions-is tied to at least eight a ne1ces:sa1·v and accommodation: l) i11Jllo!.1au,u sense of ~~·m•~ .. ~~•hn orhoods, 3) the creation of institu ement of literacy language uage schools and newspapers, 5) the This could apply to the German American theater. Theater represents tistic, economic, religious and social a series of symbols, and rituals" that reflect the and the institutionalization of ritualized attitudes of its audience, as well as a temporary release from pupr,,rl~"' mainstream and, life." It preserves and helps create cultural memory and reveals and wishful thoughts" and "collective fears." One crucial difference between festivals and theater is that the festival tradition more or less active .S C>IJ•~\...l.UL<:.1.Hl this: amateur dramatic >me German communities beginning u,___,,__,.__.._.'-JH in the multitude of events that are its consitutent while the alized their cultural and artistic goals theatrical tradition requires the audience to be observers of the action. ions.11 The very active German-lan Performer-manager-impresarios determined the direction of New York's onal voices of the German American German American stage just as they did in other American and German cities. ,rted their activities to encourage eth Those who were most active included, in chronological birth order, Otto Adolf Gustav Amberg, Mathilde Cottrelly, Heinrich Conried, Adolf ng in the I the German Ameri ter alongside the work of countless Philipp, and Rudolf Christians. These seven leading managers were connected amatic and musical forms of theater through personal, artistic, and financial relationships. They alternately cooper >wth in German immigration during ated with each other and fought bitterly over power, repertory, audiences, and ', but were in decline by i918.12 The money. Each was exceptional in different ways: Conried, and Christians ferred from a German-speaking to an as actors and managers; Neuendorff as a composer, conductor, and 1mcnr"'"~'r"-.· Cottrelly as a singer, actress, and manager; Amberg as a manager; and sidents of America's many urban and as a singer, actor, author, composer, and manager. The combined span of their n a new country, and that the more American careers, from the i85os through the i93os, mirrored the growth, md community, the more they eased point, and assimilation of the German American community in New this maintained cultural practices of the is organized around their careers. The stages they controlled are listed in )dern American life. Conzen's model appe:p_dix B. The map of lower Manhattan given in plate I.1 shows the locations :an stage, which emulated that in Ger of most of the professional German theaters they directed from i853 to i918, represent and interpret the German with the exception of those located north of Union Square (Terrace Garden, sometimes following theatrical trends Wintergarten, Yorkville). This book presents the entire history of the German American theater n about the importance of the festival in New York, but emphasis is placed on the contributions of Neuendorff and blic, communal celebration was wide Philipp-especially the latter. Whereas Neuendorff sought to foster art mong all ethnic groups in the United was an early champion of Wagner's , Philipp's main goal was to cre- the most active social and cultural life ate up-to-date popular musical theater. Marx was the first modern writer nsity for establishing organizations for to recognize Philipp's importance. In a short article published in i977, Marx )pulation. As historian Heike Bungert noted that Philipp was the most prolific of all German American playwrights, cultural self-identification and collec and that his immigrant musical comedies were the most successful of their type. nan American festivals in Milwaukee is Marx stated that "Philipp is about the only German-American stage author of note before the arrival of the refugees from Nazi Germany in the and probably the only one who has end and to give to 'die schoenste langua Philipp's musical stage works m by German America: migration, etr ilation. Despite their importance, included today in the scholarly, crit ater, nor are the activities of the G historian George C. D. Odell ( i 86 dramatic activity in nineteenth-cer ume Annals of the New York Stage, pr performances, however.16 In this study, I analyze the nat1 imported European musical theat1 local German American immigrant careers and stage works. I also exa1 man American managers experienc theater companies, their relations lish-language press, and their corn American theater and music. Whil tory to the parallel world of the Bi in this study is on German traditio principal performers are given a ce the human, social, and economic ; and dramatic components.
Historiography of
The German American theater has arly studies since the birth of the p American press, especially the dail and annalistic periodicals, and the journals, published a large number As Werner Sollors reminds us, abot are listed in Karl Arndt and May ( Plate I.1. Map of New York showing locations of professional German theaters. guage Press in the Americas, IJJ2-I9~ 1 Adapted from Belden, New-York, Past, Present, and Future. (See appendix B.) American stage. 7 Essays 1 ais:cusserl developments in the Uni to Theaters: l. Mager's Conzert-Halle, 2. Deutsches National Theater, Europe. Retrospective articles cover 3. St. Charles Theater (Deutsches Theater), 5. Stadttheater, 7. Atlantic Garden, 8. Neues ater were published regularly in the Stadttheater, g. Thalia Theater (in Wood's Theater), 11. Neuendorff's Germania Theater and musical events were reviewed. (in Tammany Hall), 12. Thalia Theater, i3. Neuendorff's Neues Germania Theater, i4. Amberg Theater, i5. Irving Place Theater, i6. Germania Theater As was the custom in Europe, stag< published histories or annal DU ~ 7
one who has endeavored to capture the dialect of the and to to 'die schoenste currency."15 Philipp's musical stage works mirrored the steps to Americanization German America: ethnic maintenance, acculturation, and assim- ilation. their his musicals are not included critical literature on the American musical ater, nor are the activities of the German American stage in historian C. D. Odell (1866-1 , who chronicled in minute detail dramatic m nn:ie1:een ume Annals of the New York documentation on pertc)rrnanoes, however.16
musical theater repertory in the United States, and the local German American as seen careers and works. I also examine the conflict and accommodation Ger man American managers in their with rival managers and theater their relationships with the German American and lish-language press, and their connections with both ethnic and mainstream American theater and music. While I relate his- tory to the parallel world of the stage when IJV""''-'n~. in this study is on German traditions in America. The lives and careers of the principal performers are a central here since this is about the human, and economic aspects of the as well as its musical and dramatic components.
The German American theater has been the of many articles and schol- studies since the birth of the professional stage in the The German American press, especially the daily and newspapers, but also and annalistic periodicals, and the several New York German-language theater journals, published a large number of articles on the German stage in America. As Werner Sollors reminds us, about five thousand newspapers and perH)a1ca1s are listed in Karl Arndt and Olson's documentary study The German-Lan ; of professional German theaters. guage Press in the Americas, I732-I955, many of which included coverage of the 17 and Future. (See appendix B.) German American stage. on theatrical in these discussed developments in the United States and compared them to those in Deutsches National Theater, Europe. Retrospective articles covering the history of the German American the . Stadttheater, 7. Atlantic Garden, 8. Neues ater were published regularly in these newspapers, and thousands of theatrical eater), 11. Neuendorff's Germania Theater and musical events were reviewed. Jeuendorff's Neues Germania Theater, r, 16. Germania Theater As was the custom in Europe, stage managers, actors, prompters, and other indi viduals published histories or annals of individual companies, which document 8 ~ INTRODUCTION
German American theatrical detail.18 In their reviews of per American musical. For example, th toirmances, theater critics cast a backward-looking, historical glance in addition adaptations, arrangements, and mu: current They encouraged theatrical managers and and Austrian plays, operettas, and rr aure(:fH)rn~--n12"n art in opposition to or in con- tury, such as those set by Sigmund
~H~-A~ .. with popular art. From at least the until the i 92os, the numer- Student Prince. Some of the current -·--.---~~~, aueec:tones, and chronicles of the German stage this topic-Ganzl in an encyclopedi
1 "'"'h. ··"h,,,r1 in also documented the activities of the German theater in musical theater (both without musi America. In addition to this large of publications intended for a general fine history of operetta. 22 William protc~ss101:ia1 theatrical readership, the German American stage has been the of the German-derived operetta re1 of numerous studies since i goo. These include master's theses musical and Rom berg's output. 23 and doctoral book chapters, journal articles, and one book-Fritz Many recent writers on America1 Leuchs's (I pioneering work.19 is the second comprehen- ities in Klein Deutschland as inten sive book devoted to this but it covers both music and theater, whereas activities outside the German Amer Leuchs only examined prose drama.20 Though the bibliography of writings on them. But there are several not<1 individual theaters is extensive (at least sixteen cities and four states have been included substantial information al the focus of a comprehensive of the German American stage series Strong on Music, a detailed his throughout the United States has yet to be written.21 music scene. The "Music in Gotham Most of these geographically oriented scholars have had a personal connec- and John Graziano at the Graduate tion to the focused on the cities in which they were is continuing Lawrence's work, pick or studied because of the availability of original source material continuing it to I though it wi -"°'r'm·;•n-.•-...... ~-~,.,.~ newspapers. Most of the studies were writ her chronological organization. Ew OA.,.,,,,~. ,, .. in German. Not surprisingly, German the- I840-r900 was an offshoot of the " 1n\1es1t11r;lted the most, followed by that in Milwaukee. Diary Project, based at the Nationa ~~,~,,·~~r,,_ and Lewis were written when the tradition ian Institution, is in the process o and they were documentary and statistical in facturer William Steinway's (1835· nature. Most studies, were published well after the decline of the tradi- will expand knowledge about the of these authors seemed to the high art of Schil- American musical life. Since SteinVI and often the importance of popular plays and America, a patron of the German A musical even these were the portion of the repertory. concert life with Steinway Hall, and Since most of these writers have worked within the fields of German literature, German American Liederkranz sin~ German American social or, to a lesser theater history, important details about artistic life i the musical component of their studies is much less substantial than the docu~ The Yiddish immigrant theater, e this was a theatrical tradition that used of several books and a recent resean '"'Tnn•,_,...,,., and in addi- Americanjewish Music, which is sup] on the Naxos label.25 The Yic discussion of musical matters, in studies of the American musical tl most writers on the American musical theater nent. The Spanish-language musical German American stage, its ubiquitous the focus of attention.26 On the othe1 UUJL~LA~ re1atJlor1sIJLIP between mainstream American theater is a forgotten stepchild, as is also th< and the German in German and in the United ater traditions (e.g., Italian America current scholars of the American musical are u~'~'"'"!"' some scholars, immigrant musical tl
~A•.C>L'--JlH .. ~ of the except the Yid- unrelated to the history of the Amer to the of the amount of cross-fertilization. 9 ctensive detail.18 In their reviews of per American musical. For the Shubert brothers a-1100Kn1g, historical glance in addition arrangements, and musical versions of a number of German , encouraged theatrical managers and and Austrian and musical comedies in the twentieth cen- s--mg:n art in opposition to or in con tury, such as those set Blossom and The until the i 92os, the numer Student Prince. Some of the current s, and chronicles of the German stage this in an manner and Lamb in his overview of the :he activities of the German theater in musical theater (both without musical , and Richard Traubner in his of publications intended for a general fine of operetta. 22 William A. Everett frames an discussion ~ German American stage has been the of the German-derived operetta within the of the American :e igoo. These include master's theses and output. 23 s, journal articles, and one book-Fritz recent writers on American music have tended to view musical activ- 19 is the second comprehen ities in Klein Deutschland as and notable when led to overs both music and theater, whereas activities outside the German American or 'hough the bibliography of writings on them. But there are several notable Lawrence sixteen cities and four states have been included substantial information about German musicians and music in her : history of the German American stage series Strong on a detailed of New York's )e written. 21 music scene. The "Music in Gotham" project, headed l scholars have had a personal connec and John Graziano at the Graduate Center of the xused on the cities in which were is Lawrence's up where her availability of original source material continuing it to 1 though it will adopt a thematic approach rather than spapers. Most of the studies were writ her chronological organization. European Music and Musicians in New York ;erman. Not surprisingly, German the 1840-1900 was an offshoot of the "Music in Gotham" The M(~InwaLv h.e most, followed by that in Milwaukee. Diary based at the National Museum of American Lewis were written when the tradition ian Institution, is in the process of editing German American manu- ey were documentary and statistical in facturer William Steinway's ( i 835-96) extensive diaries ( 1 , which ished well after the decline of the tradi will expand knowledge about the commercial aspect of nineteenth-century refer the high art of Shakespeare, Schil American musical life. Since Steinway was the leading piano manufacturer in l the importance of popular plays and America, a patron of the German American theater, a promoter of New York's ·e the largest portion of the repertory. concert life with Steinway Hall, and a long-time member and of the , within the fields of German literature, German American Liederkranz singing society, this project promises to reveal v, or, to a lesser degree, theater history, important details about artistic life in the United States. is much less substantial than the docu.:. The Yiddish immigrant theater, especially in New York, has been the subject ras a theatrical tradition that always used of several books and a recent research project funded by the Milken Archive of ore synthesis and interpretation in addi American Jewish Music, which is supporting the release of recordings of the rep ct. ertory on the Naxos label.25 The Yiddish theater is increasingly being included lvoided discussion of musical matters, in studies of the American musical theater, of which it was an important compo riters on the American musical theater nent. The Spanish-language musical theater in the United States has also been ;tage, despite its longevity, ubiquitous the focus of attention.26 On the other hand, the German American musical stage between mainstream American theater is a forgotten stepchild, as is also the case for the other immigrant musical the din German and English in the United ater traditions (e.g., Italian American, Finnish Polish . To aerican musical are seemingly unaware some scholars, immigrant musical theater in America has seemed foreign and nguage stage, except perhaps the Yid unrelated to the history of the American musical, and yet there was a significant irect importance to the history of the amount of cross-fertilization. 10 ~ INTRODUCTION
ponder the words uttered. Most pfa and not declamatory. A play made many English-speaking Americans perceived German Americans as a Germans. They want to hear the on uLi.v~Jti::.c:u to diverse and sometimes fragmented com the street in good, well-pronounced of German heritage were separated many factors: religion (as ishment how rapidly they pick up tr and other or those oflittle or no ""'"'""~'""''"'""belief or affiliation, such as the "Freidenker," or "Freethinkers"), national But as this study demonstrates, in ad (from Switzerland, the Austro-Hungarian em braced English-language mainstn Russia, and other , regional affiliations within those nations (as Bavarians, gent supported the continuance of<
"-'"'""'-''H• .,,~..,, "'"',""""''h"' north language speakers of the United States. and Low German as well as numerous other regional dialects), diverse eco nomic levels and areas of employment, all political affiliations (including socialist and of interest in maintaining the German language, and different economic, cultural, and artistic aspirations. After more than a century of assimilation, the influence of German and Ger Chinese, French, Italian, Yiddish, S] man American musicians in the United States, who helped in large measure to in New York City as they did elsewh create the infrastructure for the current American art music scene and music man traditions it was the Yiddish sta§ 27 '-''"·uuuLJJ.i.u.1._,,,,L, has mostly been forgotten by the general public. This It supplanted its German cousin ow presence of tens of millions of Americans of Ger- Lower East Side, Yiddish troupes mo who represent a significant portion of the population, man relation by several decades, anc most are not involved with their ethnic heritage, a continued wars by the Yiddish film industry-~ sense of ethnic self-identification. As Cora Lee Kluge points nity never created, though it eagerly out, 2004 census records indicate that more than million Americans identi The relationship between the Klein fied themselves as of German heritage, out of a total figure of complex, and sometimes contested 286 or almost i 7 percent of the total (this figure does not represent the Christians also appeared on the Yid< entire of the United .28 H. L. a descen- formers such as Rudolf Schildkraut of German wrote in pot has swallowed guage stages in Europe and America the German-Americans as no other group, not even the Irish."29 Andrew P. in New York City was essential to thei Yox verifies the of German American immigrant identity and its era- Comparative study of the very la1 sure from American memory when he writes that "German Americans ... States demonstrates the immense a1 left one of the best and least treasures of and a half. These traditions wen of immigrants from all parts of Euro and reflected their concerns and ex1 desire land as well as musical stage CJ The paper on local experiences made up the I EnL!ll:tsh-langua1re theater to learn English-language musical stages. Wl such as Turn Halle and to outsiders, it primarily functioned ~~.oH.~~,,~~~~ 1 " German tion of multiple generations of immi Imported works were the earliest< ater for immigrants. Certain types of ater-especially French, German, a1 ~r•~"'=r=r•~= for the that attracts them so much as it is the larig-tiag:e couched .... The is an for operetta-were particularly well re1 those who have not mastered go to it and sit and listen and these were representative of INTRODUCTION
the words uttered. Most you know, are nowaoavs conversational and not A play made up of is not desired the German Americans as a Germans. want to hear the of the home the Street in good, VVCU-1-.11 U•Hl.,JUll\..,\:,U ~,.,_,,._,,,., ishment how rapidly
demonstrates, in addition to the many German Americans who embraced mainstream another gent the continuance of a German theatrical and musical culture in ers, VH~n11es,e the United States. :ms other dialects), diverse eco ll political affiliations (including socialist st in maintaining the German language, istic aspirations. tion, the influence of German and Ger Chinese, Italian, Spanish, Cuban and other stages flourished States, who helped in large measure to in New York as they did elsewhere in the country. these non-Get- Lt American art music scene and music man traditions it was the Yiddish stage that was the most active in New York n forgotten by the general public.27 This It its German cousin over and as German left the )f tens of millions of Americans of Ger Yiddish troupes moved 32 The Yiddish mt portion of the country's population, man relation by several decades, and was "'"'1-'fJ'..,'·H'L·HCcu ir ethnic heritage, despite a continued wars the Yiddish film industry-something the German American commu- . identification. As Cora Lee Kluge points nity never created, though it eagerly attended films. more than million Americans identi The between the Klein Deutschland and Yiddish stages was Titage, out of a total reported figure of complex, and sometimes contested. Leading German actors such as Rudolf ~ total (this does not represent the Christians also appeared on the Yiddish stage, and major per , however) H. L. Mencken, a descen- formers such as Rudolf Schildkraut appeared on the German- and Yiddish-lan "The melting pot has swallowed guage stages in Europe and America. attendance at the German theaters group, not even the Irish."29 Andrew P. in New York was essential to their survival for much of their American immigrant identity and its era Comparative study of the very large number of ethnic stages in the United en he writes that "German Americans ... Statas demonstrates the immense amount of activity that occurred over a cen lored treasures of immigrant interpreta tury and a half. These traditions were designed and for successive ,o of immigrants from all part'l of Europe, as well as from Latin America and Asia, nigration to the United States, the Brook and reflected their concerns and experiences.· Theatrical works from the home r, commented on the immigrant's desire land as well as musical stage pieces created in the United States that commented y involved with American life. The paper on local made up the repertory of America's many non o the English-language theater to learn English-language musical stages. While the immigrant theater was open halls in Brooklyn, such as Turn Halle and to outsiders, it primarily functioned for the entertainment and cultural educa- age plays for a predominantly German tion of multiple generations of immigrants. appendix .se the transition to American life. Imported works were the earliest and most frequently performed form of the ater for immigrants. Certain types of transplanted foreign-language musical the ater-especially French, German, and Italian opera, and French and German ish play that attracts them so much as it d .... The playhouse is an academy for operetta-were particularly well represented in the United States. But while glish. They go to it and sit and listen and these were representative of foreign cultures, did not reflect the ;~.~·~··~~ 12 ~ INTRODUCTION experience and instead were geared for ethnically diverse audiences that spoke Some performers on mainstream, En a variety of languages and came from multiple social classes and origins. non-English-language contexts, sud The earliest imported traditions were French and Spanish. French opera was speaking communities. a dominant theatrical fon:n in New Orleans from at least i796 until i919, and Besides those European nationalit Spanish-language theatrical performances in places such as New Mexico were ian, French, German-other immig1 first given in the early seventeenth century. While musical stage repertories were ported the performance of the stand; mostly imported to New Orleans or Santa Fe, the French- and Spanish-speaking into their own languages. This intere residents of Louisiana and New Mexico were more frequently part of long German, French, or English continw established communities than they were recently arrived immigrants. Chinese uanian Opera Company, Armenian< opera in San Francisco, New York, and other American Chinatowns was almost scene in the United States, which is g entirely an imported tradition. is rich and complex. Immigrant-themed works were primarily designed for recently arrived immi Musical theater performers and re grant audiences. Among the dominant groups in this category were the Spanish lines of migration throughout the ' language (Mexican), German, Italian, and Yiddish musical theaters. Aires, Montreal, London, Cape Town Foreign-language musical stages flourished from the nineteenth century up Merida (Mexico), Manila, Managua, to World War II. They mirrored the Broadway musical theater tradition with its Havana, Portuguese Macau, French ] main components of operetta, revue, variety/vaudeville, and musical comedy, zil, Russia, the Baltic countries; Frem but also added in certain instances opera, as well as politically oriented musical New Orleans; and Italian opera thro revues, comic plays and farces with songs, and folk plays with extensive music. many of Europe's overseas colonies. the end of the nineteenth century, a rather strict division between opera and As Conzen demonstrates, the m< other forms of musical theater was made in major venues such as the Metropoli tural memory, the more easily they r tan Opera. This was not the case in the ethnic theater, and opera was presented Swede Town (Chicago) ; Little Gem in the German immigrant theater alongside other forms. While the spoken nati), and the German Athens (Mih drama (classic or popular, comic or serious) was common, musical theater in its les), Tucson, and San Antonio; tht: various guises attracted large audiences. York); Finn Town (Astoria, Gregor In the German, Mexican, Chinese, Yiddish, Italian, and French communities, Los Angeles); and Little Italy (New' professional performers dominated theatrical life. Other immigrant groups such all.el theatrical world that was hidde: as the Portuguese, Norwegians, Franco-Americans (people of French-Canadian from the individual ethnic commun background living in the United States), Armenians, Slovaks, and Balts primar in that community's drama and mi ily supported an amateur or semi-professional theater tradition. Appendix A is barriers. But exceptions did occur. a representative, but not exhaustive, listing of some of the main ethnic theater traditions, demonstrating a wide geographic spread. This vast amount of musical theater activity requires a comparative analysis in Recurring Patterns i this introduction to the topic. An expansive rather than a restrictive definition is also required, given the hybrid nature of the repertory, which, among other ""'--U'LJ,1Lc support of the immigrants theatrical forms, all with extensive instrumental and vocal music, included: Ger and generational divides. The first man Volksstiicke and Possen, music hall, cabaret, operetta, and opera; French theater in the language of th grand opera, opera lyrique, opera bouffe, opera comique, and vaudeville (comic sometimes conflicted relationship: it or farces with songs); Italian opera, operetta, caffe-concerto (music hall), of mainstream theater and other fo1 macchiette (comic sketches with songs), and puppet plays; Spanish, Mexican, radically. The third generation, with and Cuban zarzuela (operetta) and revista (musical revue); Finnish and Swed of the first generation's homeland, c ish musical comedy and folk plays; and Chinese opera. Late-nineteenth-century tradition. However, waves of immigr: variety/vaudeville had a strong impact on most non-English-language theaters. more (Germans, Mexicans, ar INTRODUCTION ~ 13 r ethnically diverse audiences that spoke Some performers on mainstream, English-language vaudeville came from mltiple social classes and origins. non-English-language contexts, such as the and Yiddish- e French and Spanish. French opera was speaking communities. leans from at least i 796 until i 919, and Besides those European nationalities traditionally associated with lCes in places such as New Mexico were ian, French, German-other immigrant groups (e.g. Polish and Finnish) sup ury. While musical stage repertories were ported the performance of the standard operatic repertory translated Lta Fe, the French- and Spanish-speaking into their own languages. This interest in opera in languages other than co were more frequently part of long German, French, or English continues today in some cities (e.g. '-'H''-'<>'"'-'-' re recently arrived immigrants. Chinese uanian Opera Company, Armenian opera in San Francisco). Thus the ~"'·~L~L'"~ other American Chinatowns was almost scene in the United States, which is generally unified around a common canon, is rich and complex. arily designed for recently arrived immi Musical theater performers and repertories were highly mobile, and followed groups in this category were the Spanish lines of migration throughout the world: Yiddish theater in Buenos md Yiddish musical theaters. Aires, Montreal, London, Cape Town, Tel Spanish zarzuela in Mexico lrished from the nineteenth century up Merida (Mexico), Manila, Managua, Montevideo; Chinese opera in Vancouver, oadway musical theater tradition with its Havana, Portuguese Macau, French Indochina; German theater in Mexico, Bra variety /vaudeville, and musical comedy, zil, Russia, the Baltic countries; French opera and operetta in Hanoi, ra, as well as politically oriented musical New Orleans; and Italian opera throughout the Americas, North Africa, and in igs, and folk plays with extensive music. many of overseas colonies. rather strict division between opera and As Conzen demonstrates, the more immigrants maintained their own cul e in major venues such as the Metropoli tural memory, the more easily they moved into American life in places such as ethnic theater, and opera was presented Swede Town (Chicago); Little Germany York), Over-the-Rhine ( Cincin mgside other forms. While the spoken nati), and the German Athens (Milwaukee); Mexican Sonoratown (Los Ange [ous) was common, musical theater in its les), Tucson, and San Antonio; the Yiddish-speaking Lower East Side York); Finn Town (Astoria, Oregon); Chinatown (San Francisco, New York, iddish, Italian, and French communities, Los Angeles); and Little Italy (New York). The ethnic stage represented a par atrical life. Other immigrant groups such allel theatrical world that was hidden, in plain view, from outsiders. Those not -Americans (people of French-Canadian from the individual ethnic community were often unaware of or uninterested ) , Armenians, Slovaks, and Balts primar in that community's drama and musical theater, partly because of language ~ssional theater tradition. Appendix A is barriers. But exceptions did occur. :ting of some of the main ethnic theater tphic spread. :ictivity requires a comparative analysis in Recurring Patterns in Ethnic nsive rather than a restrictive definition re of the repertory, which, among other Audience support of the immigrant stage varied according to linguistic, cultural, umental and vocal music, included: Ger and generational divides. The first generation of immigrants generally sup lll, cabaret, operetta, and opera; French ported theater in the language of the homeland. The second generation had a e, opera comique, and vaudeville (comic sometimes conflicted relationship: it alternately embraced or rejected it in favor ·a, operetta, caffe-concerto (music hall), of mainstream theater and other forms of entertainment, or supported it spo •), and puppet plays; Spanish, Mexican, radically. The third generation, with the frequent loss of ability in the language rista (musical revue); Finnish and Swed- of the first generation's homeland, could be unaware of or uninterested in the Chinese opera. Late-nineteenth-century tradition. However, waves of immigration lasting over several decades or a cen on most non-English-language theaters. tury or more (Germans, Mexicans, and Chinese, for example) created continued 14 ~ INTRODUCTION interest in ethnic theater. Many traditions lasted 50 to 1 oo years, and reflected of commercial radio, immigrant grour: the growth and assimilation patterns of the individual immigrant group. Most but they also listened to English-lang1 were in decline or defunct by the time of World War II, if not earlier. Only a few television programs, music videos, film of the earlier. live theatrical traditions exist today, for example, the Spanish-lan tainment often take the place of live r guage stage (Chicano, Latino, and Puerto Rican/Nuyorican), the Yiddish Folks programs are imported from Korea, biene Theater (New York) and Gilbert & Sullivan Yiddish Light Opera Company guage television programs, such as s of Long Island, New York, and Chinese opera clubs (California, New York). New are also produced in the United State~ theatrical experiences have emerged that reflect the lives of immigrants and immigrant-themed and imported (Eu their children (albeit usually in an English-language context) such as the Asian lier age is mirrored in contemporary p American theater companies active in California. groups-Thai, Indian, Filipino, and ot The ethnic stage was primarily a performer-oriented theatrical tradition, with change, but the principal themes of n a star system similar to that of the English-language counterpart. At the same and assimilation/ accommodation do time, most of these theaters had a core group of resident performers, or relied politicized today as they were 50, lOO,' upon both resident and touring companies or performers. Many leading actors and musicians visited from abroad, such as Austrian operetta superstar Marie Geistinger and Mexican zarzuela and operetta performer Esperanza Iri& ( 1884- 1962). Quite a number of the principal performers of the ethnic stage were resi dent in the United States, such as Boris Thomashefsky (ca. 1868-1939),Jacob P. Adler (1855-1926), Bertha Kalich (1874-1939), and Molly Picon (1898-1992) in the Yiddish theaters on New York's Bowery and Second Avenue; Romualdo Tirado (1880-1963), Rodolfo Hoyos (1896-1980), and Beatriz Escalona ( 1903-80) on the Mexican American stage in Los Angeles; Eduardo Migliaccio (1882-1946) in New York's Little Italy. Audience attendance was always crucial to the survival of the ethnic stage, since it did not receive formal subsidies, except for the rare support of a few wealthy individuals such as bakery and restaurant owner Louis Fleischmann, piano manufacturer William Steinway, and restaurant owner August Liichow, who financially supported German stages in New York (Thalia and Irving Place Theaters), and brewer Frederick Pabst, who supported the Pabst Theater in Mil waukee. Because there was often a relatively limited audience base from which to draw, in comparison with English-language theater, most communities usually supported one or just a few professional companies. The largest communities naturally had the greatest number of troupes. This was true of the Yiddish stage in New York, with its many venues on the Bowery and Second Avenue (the Yid dish Broadway), the Mexican stages in Los Angeles (that city's Broadway was the site of the Spanish- and English-language theater district in the 1920s and i93os), and the German spaces in New York and Chicago. The interest in the theatrical and musical impulse was never lost by immi grants or their descendents. From the earliest days of the American film indus try, immigrants, like other Americans, eagerly attended American motion as well as plays and musicals, which provided them with insights into their new homeland, albeit viewed through the lens of a dramatic experience. English-language vaudeville was also a powerful attraction. From the early days INTRODUCTION <6' 15
)ns lasted 50 to 1oo years, and reflected of commercial radio, immigrant groups had their own musical radio programs, •f the individual immigrant group. Most but they also listened to English-language shows. For many immigrants of World War II, if not earlier. Only a few television programs, music videos, films, and other forms of popular mass enter ~xist today, for example, the Spanish-lan tainment often take the place of live musical theater. While numerous musical rto Rican/Nuyorican), the Yiddish Folks programs are imported from Korea, China, or Japan, many non-English-lan i\c Sullivan Yiddish Light Opera Company guage television programs, such as shows in Vietnamese, or Korean, opera clubs (California, New York). New are also produced in the United States. Thus the dichotomy between the that reflect the lives of immigrants and immigrant-themed and imported (European or Asian) live theater of an ear- ~lish-language context) such as the Asian lier age is mirrored in contemporary popular culture in more recent •.. "...... ~··c ~alifornia. groups-Thai, Indian, Filipino, and others. The languages and homelands may former-oriented theatrical tradition, with change, but the principal themes of migration, cultural maintenance, conflict, glish-language counterpart. At the same and assimilation/ accommodation do not. These issues are as immediate and : group of resident performers, or relied politicized today as they were 50, 1oo, or 150 years ago. mies or performers. Many leading actors ch as Austrian operetta superstar Marie peretta performer Esperanza Iris ( 1884- performers of the ethnic stage were resi Thomashefsky (ca. 1868-1939),Jacob P. 74-1939), and Molly Picon (1898-1992) Bowery and Second Avenue; Romualdo s ( 1896-1980), and Beatriz Escalona 1tage in Los Angeles; Eduardo Migliaccio
llcial to the survival of the ethnic stage, es, except for the rare support of a few d restaurant owner Louis Fleischmann, , and restaurant owner August Luchow, ~es in New York (Thalia and Irving Place who supported the Pabst Theater in Mil ltively limited audience base from which lguage theater, most communities usually ial companies. The largest communities ·oupes. This was true of the Yiddish stage he Bowery and Second Avenue (the Yid- 1 Los Angeles (that city's Broadway was riguage theater district in the 1920s and , York and Chicago. nusical impulse was never lost by immi earliest days of the American film indus- 1s, eagerly attended American motion which provided them with insights into ough the lens of a dramatic experience. powerful attraction. From the early days /[usic Division, Library of Congress ![ills Music Library, University of Wisconsin, tta Barbara
1. Browne, The Great Metropolis, I 2 9.
I. German drama was first introduced in the United States in English translation in the eighteenth century, and only later in the German language (Bauland, The Hooded Eagle; Becker, German Drama on the New York Stage to I830; Brede, German Drama on the Philadelphia Stage from I 7 94 to I 8 3 o). 2. The only exception to the unbroken performance history of New York's German stage was at the beginning of the Civil War, when the Stadttheater was temporarily closed. The professional theatrical companies active in Klein Deutschland from to 1918 were almost always associated with a particular theater building in New York whereas the many amateur groups performed in a variety of social halls or theaters. 3. Regarding the German-American stage in New York, see Conolly-Smith, '"Ersatz- Drama' and Ethnic (Self) Parody"; Conolly-Smith, "Kulturkrieg'; Conolly-Smith, "The Translated Community"; Conolly-Smith, Translating America; Haenni, The Immigrant Scene; Haenni, "'A Community of Consumers"'; Heinrici, ed., "Das deutsche Theater in Amerika"; Koegel, "Adolf Philipp and Ethnic Musical Comedy"; Koegel, "The Develop ment of the German-American Musical Theater in New York"; Leuchs, The Early German Theatre in New York, r840-I872; Winckelman, "Das deutschsprachige Theater in New York," Zeydel, "The German Theater in New York, 1878-1914." 4. This figure of about 4,000 individual works performed on German stages in New York City from i840-1940 can be compared with Richel's directory of German plays, which lists more than 4,000 plays performed in Io major German cities in the later eigh teenth and nineteenth centuries, as reported in the histories and annals of these theaters (Richel, The German Stage, vii-viii). 5. Lewis, "Performances of German Drama in Philadelphia, 1842-1898," cata- logued as a PhD dissertation in the University of Pennsylvania library catalog (Rare Book & Ms Library Manuscripts, Dewey Ms. 378.748 POP1900.2). Instead of a narrative, analytical study, this is apparently a tabulation of all the performances of German stage works in Philadelphia between i 842 and 1898, or at least those listed in the Philadelphia Demokrat. It is possible that Lewis submitted a study of the data that he collected as part of h~s dissertation, which now may be lost. Orlando Faulkland Lewis ( i 873-192 2), though an unknown figure today, had an important career that merits a brief account here. He was a graduate of Tufts College, now Tufts University (AB i895, AM i897); where he also taught German as an assistant in modern languages ( i 895-1897); he studied in Munich (1897-98) and Paris, and then received a PhD from the University of Pennsylvania in i900. From i900-1905, he was a professor of German at the University of Maine; he also orkers' Culture in the United States, I850 to I920. l translated German literature and wrote a beginning German grammar textbook. Switch pies, see the Yearbook of German-American Studies, ing to a career in social work, he moved to New York in i905, where he was late'r the Cor erican Studies. responding Secretary for the Prison Association. His most influential publication was his Conzen, Immigrant Milwaukee, I836-I860 book on prison history (Rafter, Creating Born Criminals, i 95-96). Bungert, "Demonstrating the Values of 'C 6. Susan L. Porter discovered that a company led by John Durang performed Ger- Marx, "Adolf Philipp (1864-1936)," 43,,: man plays in some communities in Pennsylvania and Maryland in the summer months Odell, ANYS, vols 4-15. between 1808 and i 816. Durang's troupe gave "plays in German, dancing, pantomimes, Sollors, "German-Language Writing in th1 feats on the rope and wire, transparencies, and mechanical exhibitions" (Porter, With an These include the following publicatio Air Debonair, I 11, i 91-9 2). While I suspect that other theatrical companies gave perfor ewer copies): Halwas, Theater-Al.manach des deu mances in German for German speakers in the United States before the 1830s, documen German Society of Pennsylvania, Horner Libn tation has not been found yet. nstein, Buhnen-Almanach des St. Louis Opern 1 7. Established by the mid-nineteenth century, New York's original Klein Deut'lch- is); Schmidt, Almanach der deutschen Buhnen land was located "east of the Bowery and north of Division Street in the tenth and seven deutschen Theaters in San Francisco (University teenth wards. It extended to within sight of the East River along Avenue D in the eleventh Davis, University of Illinois, Harvard Univen ward and reached the river in the thirteenth." In the later nineteenth century, the Ger dt and Winckler, Milwaukee Theater-Kalender ( man American community moved uptown, to Yorkville, and was centered around Third tern, Harvard University); Richter, Das deutsche Avenue and East g5th Street (Nadel, "Germans"). Nadel's Little Germany is an essential 'brary, New York Public Library, Iowa State His to study, and includes excellent maps of Klein Deutschland. For images of nineteenth-cen heater in St. Paul." tury New York, see Deak, Picturing New York. 19. Friedrich Adolph Herman Leuchs, knm 8. St. Louis's German stage endured until at least 1930 (Deutsches Theater Pro- pril i3, 1888 to Johann Qohn) Leuchs and A grams, i900-1918, 1920-1930; St. Louis Public Library, closed stacks, call number: 792 ated from Bischofsheim, Bavaria in i 880. He Deutsches Theater). ools in the Bronx, and graduated AB from 9. Merrill, German-American Urban Culture, 99. ned the MA (1908) and PhD (1928) at Colt
IO. These patterns are explored in Hofmann, Aufstieg und Niedergang des deutschen e Early German Theatre in New York, I840-I872 1 Turnens in den USA; Conzen, Immigrant Milwaukee, I8J6-I86o; Conzen, "Ethnicity as Fes ~g28), still a standard resource, originated in hi tive Culture"; Daniels, Coming to America. Pathways to Americanization are explored from 958, he had an extensive teaching and admin varying perspectives in many studies of music and ethnicity. For example, Pena, in The ublic schools, teaching German and other subj Mexican-American Orquesta, positions musical repertories and their impact on Mexican rincipal, and taught German courses at Brookly American society in the context of a hierarchy of repeating social processes: immigration, ateur pianist and had a great love of literatm acculturation and assimilation, ethnic self-identification and empowerment, economic th Schneider Leuchs retired to Monterey, Mas advancement, and increased political influence. Sturman, in Zarzuela, shows how January 3, i969 in Massachusetts. His son :E ish and Cuban zarzuela in the United States can promote ethnic solidarity and tinguished stained-glass artist (http:/ /wwww.fr awareness, in addition to providing entertainment. These same processes can be seen in very grateful to Marie Bidwell Leuchs, Frederi the history of Klein Deutschland's musical stages. chs Bohrman, for details about the Leuchs fa1 l I. The Constitution und Nebengesetze des deutschen dramatischen Vereins 20. In his book German-American Urban Culturi and Bylaws of the German Dramatic Society) of Olneyville, Rhode Island (now ter C. Merrill outlines the history of German th Providence) is an example of these kinds of formal statutes, which regulated all d also studies German American literature. the organization's activities (copy in the Wisconsin Historical Society). 21. The following sources, identified in the 12. For general, bibliographical, literary, and musical studies of German American stage: Baltimore, Zucker ( l see Bohlman and Holzapfel, Land without Nightingales; Cronau, (1933), Heiss (1984, 1988); Cincinnati, Lebens in A merika; Faust, The German Element in the United States; Hawgood, The eveland, Kremling (1976, 1980); Columbus, German-America; Pochmann, German Culture in America; Pochmann and Schultz, 906), Schick (1939); Detroit, Kistler (1963 phy of German Culture in America to I940; Schultz, German-American Relations Waukee, Gugler ( 1907), Andressohn (I 912 Culture in America; Spengler, Das deutsche Element der Stadt New York; Tolzmann, licher ( i 943), Herbatschek ( i 94 7), Kaiser 1 7 Americana; Wittke, The German-Language Press in America; Adams, The -:.Prma:n-1'l.11Zl!f'1Ao°' '"' <}'\;.,; berry (1986, i987, 2000), Grange (2000) Adam and Gross, Traveling between Worlds; Arndt and Olson, The 52, 1955); Missouri, Bowen (1950, 1952, i95~ of the Americas; Fluck and Sollors, German? American? Literature?; Froschle,, 43), Dacus (1999); New York, Marquardt (1~ Germanica; Getz, The German-American Press; Johnson, Culture at Twilight; Keil, Dermott (1965), Miller (1973), Marx (1977) NOTES TO PP. or of German at the University h Culture in the United States, r850 to I920. For individual studies on ""'..,"'-r"' 1"rr1 nrr topics, see the Yearbook of German-American Studies, published by the for German- L beginning German grammar textbook. ~Weltch~/ ;:c o New York in 1905, where he was later Arnerican Studies. ciation. His most influential publication 1 3. Conzen, Immigrant Milwaukee, I836-I860, 3. orn Criminals, 195-96). 14. Bungert, "Demonstrating the Values of 'Gemuthlichkeit' and 'Cultur,"' i 75. a company led by John Durang perfonned C 15. Marx, "Adolf Philipp (1864-1936)," 43, 47. isylvania and Maryland in the summer mo ehr~ 16. Odell, ANYS, vols 4-15. " l . G nt s e gave p ays m erman, dancing, paintc•mjlmf•c11 17. Sollors, "German-Language Writing in the United States," 102. ~s, and mechanical exhibitions" 18. These include the following publications (with library holdings for five or ~ct that other theatrical companies gave fewer copies): Halwas, Theater-Almanach des deutschen National-Theaters in Philadelphia n the United States before the (German Society of Pennsylvania, Horner Library, pamphlet AG ; Kreuter and Bornstein, Buhnen-Almanach des St. Louis Opern Hauses (Missouri Historical Society, St.
...,.._ll Louis); Schmidt, Almanach der deutschen Buhnen in Amerika; Kadelburg, Funfzehn jahre tth century, New York's original Klein 1,.,.n_ north of Division Street in the tenth and seven des deutschen Theaters in San Francisco (University of Pennsylvania, University of Califor )f the East River along Avenue D in the eleventh nia, Davis, University of Illinois, Harvard University, German Society of Pennsylvania); ~nth." In the later nineteenth century, the Ger Zundt and Winckler, Milwaukee Theater-Kalender (Milwaukee County Federated Library n, to Yorkville, and was centered around System, Harvard University); Richter, Das deutsche Theater in Davenport (Davenport Public Ermans"). Nadel's Little Germany is an Library, New York Public Library, Iowa State Historical Society); Rudnick, "Das deutsche ~in Deutschland. For images of nineteenth-cen Theater in St. Paul." ·k. 19· Friedrich Adolph Herman Leuchs, known as Fritz, was born in the Bronx on Ed until at least i 930 (Deutsches Theater April i3, i888 to Johann (John) Leuchs and Antonia Leuchs (nee Reitz), who emi grated from Bischofsheim, Bavaria in i 880. He attended elementary and secondary Public Library, closed stacks, call number: 792 schools in the Bronx, and graduated AB from Columbia College in i 907; he later :ulture, 99. earned the MA (1908) and PhD (1928) at Columbia University. His important study Hofmann, Aufstieg und Niedergang des The Early German Theatre in New York, I840-I872 (New York: Columbia University Press, ilwaukee, I836-I860; Conzen, "Ethnicity as Fes i928), still a standard resource, originated in his doctoral dissertation. From 1907 to Pathways to Americanization are explored from i958, he had an extensive teaching and administrative career in the New York City nusic and ethnicity. For example, Peria, in public schools, teaching German and other subjects. He also served as a high school ical repertories and their impact on Mexican principal, and taught German courses at Brooklyn and Hunter Colleges. He was a fine rchy of repeating social processes: immigration, amateur pianist and had a great love of literature. He and his wife Anne Marie Eliza ·If-identification and empowerment, economic beth Schneider Leuchs retired to Monterey, Massachusetts in i958. Fritz Leuchs died luence. Sturman, in Zarzuela, shows how on January 3, i969 in Massachusetts. His son Frederick L. Leuchs (1926-99) was a ltes can promote ethnic solidarity and cultural distinguished stained-glass artist (http:/ /wwww.fredleuchs.com/pages/l/index.htm). I tainment. These same processes can be seen in am very gi;ateful to Marie Bidwell Leuchs, Frederick's wife, and her daughter Catherine l stages. Leuchs Bohrman, for details about the Leuchs family. des deutschen dramatischen Vereins (Constitution 20. In his book German-American Urban Culture: Writers and Theaters in Early Milwaukee, iety) of Olneyville, Rhode Island (now part of Peter C. Merrill outlines the history of German theater in Milwaukee in several chapters, )f formal statutes, which regulated all aspects of and also studies German American literature. Tisconsin Historical Society). 21. The following sources, identified in the bibliography, chart the history of the ~rary, and musical studies of German America, German American stage: Baltimore, Zucker (1943); Chicago, Olsen (1932, 1937), Nightingales; Cronau, Drei jahrhunderte deutschen Seitz (1933), Heiss (1984, 1988); Cincinnati, Wood (1930, i932), Hueck (1958); ent in the United States; Hawgood, The Tragedy of Cleveland, Kremling (1976, 1980); Columbus, Rippley (1970); Davenport, Richter we in America; Pochmann and Schultz, Bibliogra: (1906), Schick (1939); Detroit, Kistler (1963); Louisville, Weisert (1952, 1958); Schultz, German-American Relations and German Milwaukee, Gugler (1907), Andressohn (1912), Magyar (1930), Bredlow (1936), Element der Stadt New York; Tolzmann, German Schlicher (1943), Herbatschek (1947), Kaiser (1954), Merrill (1982, 1986, 2000), Press in America; Adams, The German-Americans; Gadberry (1986, 1987, 2000), Grange (2000); Minnesota, Rothfuss (1949, 1951, :; Arndt and Olson, The German-Language Press 1952, 1955); Missouri, Bowen ( i950, 1952, 1959); New Orleans, Moehlenbock ( i941, zn? American? Literature?; Froschle, Americana 1943), Dacus (1999); New York, Marquardt (1915), Zeydel (1915), Leuchs (1928), l!ss; Johnson, Culture at Twilight; Keil, German McDermott (1965), Miller (1973), Marx (1977), Winckelman (1981), Koegel (1986, 486 -fl:I NOTES TO PP. 9-2 l N
2006), Engle ( i 986), Wiedeman-Citera ( i 994), Conolly-Smith ( 1996, 1998, 2001 Loewenberg, Annals of Opera, r597-I940, 2004), Haenni (1998, 2002, 2003, 2008), Grange (2001); Pennsylvania, Springe; g. Totals for performances of Der Freischutz ~ ( 1944), Buffington ( i 962); Philadelphia, Lewis ( 1900), Fieldler ( i 987); Rochester not available, but it is known that it was offerec King (1941); Pittsburgh, Kugemann (2007, 2008); Salt Lake City, Morrill (1958); st'. Iy i 8 50s, every season from i 8 54 to the early 1 Paul, Rudnick (1924); Texas, Carvajal (1977, i982); other themes, Schlossrnacher r, it gradually fell out of favor and was only pe (1938), Frenz (1942), Zucker (1943), Rothfuss (1951, 1952), Blankenagel (19 ), 53 between i884 and 1972. Another measun Schreiber (1953), Meersman (1966), Richardson (1974, 1990), Carvajal (198 ), 4 United States is the 52 performances in Phil Poore (1985), Heiss (1986), Schlunk (1990), Grange (2005) Wachsman (2006). 'ven there between i 8 56 and 188 5 (Lewis, "Perf 22. Ganzl, The Encyclopedia of the Musical Theater; Traubner, Operetta: Lamb, I50 Years lphia, 1842-1898"). of Popular Musical Theatre. io. For example, Lumpacivagbundus was perf1 23. Everett, Sigmund Romberg. the second half of the nineteenth century, fa 24. Graziano, ed., European Music and Musicians in New York City, I840-I900. "Performances of German Drama in Philad 25. See Milken Archive of American Jewish Music; http:/ /www.milkenarchive.org/ International Nestroy Society website: httf index.taf. Among other studies of the Yiddish theater, see Lifson, The Yiddish Theatre in 12. Einen jux will er sich machen is Nestroy's bes1 America; Sandrow, Vagabond Stars; Sandrow, God, Man, and Devil; Warnke, "Immigrant Pop 'es because of its adaptation as Thornton Wilder'i ular Culture as Contested Sphere." atchmaker) and Tom Stoppard's On the Razzle. Wi 26. Sturman, Zarzuela; Kanellos, A History of Hispanic Theatre in the United States. r the famous stage and film musical Hello, Dolly. 27. For a study of assimilation patterns, see Olson, St. Louis Germans, I850-I920. 13. Branscombe, "Nestroy and Opera," 14. 28. Kluge, Other Witnesses, xi. Kluge's population statistic is taken from Table 50, 14. Yates,'JohannNepomukNestroy(1801-62),' "Population by Selected Ancestry Group and Region: 2004," http:/ /www.census.gov/ 'ngr_english.html; Yates, Nestroy and the Critics; Yat1 prod/ 2006pubs/ 07statab/pop. pdf · and Raimund and Johann Nestroy; Nestroy, Thre 29. H. L. Mencken, quoted in Willi Paul Adams, chapter i 1, "Integration: The Ideals i5. Branscombe, "Muller, Adolf," Grove Musi1 of Cultural Pluralism," in Rippley and Reichmann, The German-Americans, also available at usic in the Viennese Popular Theatre of the Eigl http:/ /www.ulib.iupui.edu/KADE/ adams/ cover.html. i 6. Garland and Garland, The Oxford Compani1 30. Yox, "The Fate of Love," 124. 17. Branscombe, "Nestroy and Opera,'' I I. 31. "Germans Don't Want German: Why They Prefer to Listen to English on 18. Ibid, i o. Stage," BE, May 28, 1893, 6. ig. This list of the numbers composed by Ado] 32. Many of New York's German theaters and performance spaces later became Yid· is taken from the Nestroy edition (Spohr, Lump dish stages, including the second Stadttheater, Thalia, Neuendorff's second Germania, 20. B. Westermann and Ernst Steiger were t Philipp's Germania, Irving Place, and Atlantic Garden. okseller-publishers. Westermann was in business nt bankrupt in 1942. Steiger worked for Westen e i85os, before he began publishing books unde Chapter g the Civil War. The Steiger firm continued in o o publishers issued numerous catalogs of Germa EjJigraph One. NYSZ,January I, i840, cited in Odell, ANYS, 4:393. tes, and at least three have survived: Steiger, Epigraph Two. "Green Room Intelligence,'' ST, io, no. 2 (March i4, i840): 24. niversity of Texas at Austin); Steiger, A Catalogue Epigraph Three. "The New York Stadt Theatre,'' NYT, December 3, i858, I. arvard University, Indiana University); Westerma l. Leuchs, The Early German Theatre, i 7. · testen deutschen Theaterstucke (German Society 1 2. Odell, ANYS, 4: Marquardt, "The German Drama on the New York bilee of B. Westermann & Co.-Lemcke & Buec 3. Leuchs, The Early German Theatre, 21; Odell, ANYS, 4:393. 21. "German Puppetry in America,'' in McPl 4. In his Annals of the New York Stage, Odell chronicles the performance also 128, 223-28, 457-59. the eighteenth century to 1894 of German drama in German and in English .22. Because Benedix's play Eigensinn was suita and adaptation. Peter Bauland studied German drama in English translation in formers, it was frequently presented in the lat' between i 894 and i 965 (Bauland, The Hooded Eagle). college German dramatic clubs. 5· McConachie, "American Theatre in Context, from the Beginnings to 23. Foster, New York by Gas-Light and Other Urbu 1 39· famous actors Charlotte Cushmann ( i 816-76) 6. Lawrence, Strong on Music, i: i 65-66; Marquardt, "The German Drama 4. Ibid, i 58. New York " 7; Odell, ANYS, 25. Johnson, "That Guilty Third Tier." 7. Odell, ANYS, 3: 583. 26. Leuchs, The Early German Theatre in New Yo