Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Chios Mastic Gum (Pistacia Lentiscus Var

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Chios Mastic Gum (Pistacia Lentiscus Var Journal Pre-proof Traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Chios mastic gum (Pistacia lentiscus var. Chia, Anacardiaceae): A review Vasiliki K. Pachi, Eleni V. Mikropoulou, Petros Gkiouvetidis, Konstantinos Siafakas, Aikaterini Argyropoulou, Apostolis Angelis, Sofia Mitakou, Maria Halabalaki PII: S0378-8741(19)33117-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2019.112485 Reference: JEP 112485 To appear in: Journal of Ethnopharmacology Received Date: 4 August 2019 Revised Date: 12 November 2019 Accepted Date: 13 December 2019 Please cite this article as: Pachi, V.K., Mikropoulou, E.V., Gkiouvetidis, P., Siafakas, K., Argyropoulou, A., Angelis, A., Mitakou, S., Halabalaki, M., Traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Chios mastic gum (Pistacia lentiscus var. Chia, Anacardiaceae): A review, Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2020), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2019.112485. This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. © 2019 Published by Elsevier B.V. 1 Traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of 2 Chios mastic gum ( Pistacia lentiscus var. Chia, 3 Anacardiaceae): A review 4 5 Authors: Vasiliki K Pachi, Eleni V. Mikropoulou, Petros Gkiouvetidis, Konstantinos Siafakas, 6 Aikaterini Argyropoulou, Apostolis Angelis, Sofia Mitakou, Maria Halabalaki* 7 8 Department of Pharmacognosy and Natural Products Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, National 9 and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis Zografou 15771, Athens, Greece 10 11 Corresponding author: Maria Halabalaki, e-mail: [email protected] 12 1 13 Table of Contents 14 Abbreviations ........................................................................................................................................ 3 15 Abstract ................................................................................................................................................. 4 16 1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 6 17 2. Materials and methods ...................................................................................................................... 9 18 3. Ethnonopharmacological aspects .................................................................................................... 11 19 4. Chemical analysis of Chios Mastic Gum ......................................................................................... 16 20 4.1 Extraction, isolation and identification of CMG constituents ................................................. 16 21 4.1.1 Essential oil and volatile compounds ..................................................................................... 18 22 4.1.2 Extraction and structure elucidation of 1,4-poly-β-myrcene polymer ..................................... 19 23 4.1.3 Isolation and identification of CMG triterpenes ..................................................................... 21 24 4.1.4 Other compounds .................................................................................................................. 30 25 4.2 Analysis of CGM and quality aspects ...................................................................................... 30 26 5. Biological properties ........................................................................................................................ 33 27 5.1 Antioxidant activity .................................................................................................................. 33 28 5.2 Antimicrobial and antifungal properties ................................................................................. 36 29 5.3 Antiinflammatory activity ........................................................................................................ 40 30 5.4 Chemopreventive activity ......................................................................................................... 42 31 5.5 Cardioprotective activity .......................................................................................................... 44 32 5.6 Wound Healing ......................................................................................................................... 46 33 5.7 Other properties ....................................................................................................................... 47 34 6. Pharmacokinetics/ pharmacodynamics .......................................................................................... 49 35 7. Current uses and products .............................................................................................................. 50 36 8. Conclusions and future perspectives ............................................................................................... 56 37 Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................................. 59 38 Conflict of Interest ............................................................................................................................... 59 39 References ............................................................................................................................................ 60 40 2 41 Abbreviations 42 CMG, Chios Mastic Gum; MG, Mastic Gum of unspecified origin; EMA, European Medicines 43 Agency; CMGA: Chios Mastiha Growers Association; PDO, Protected Designation of Origin; 44 TME, Total Mastic Extract; TMEWP, Total Mastic Extract Without Polymer; AMF, Acidic 45 Mastic Fraction; NMF, Neutral Mastic Fraction; TCE, Total Colophony Extract; CMW, Chios 46 Mastic Water; CMO, Chios Mastic Oil; SFE, Supercritical Fluid Extraction; SPE, Solid Phase 47 Extraction; SEC, Size Exclusion Chromatography; DCM, Dichloromethane; MeOH, Methanol; 48 EA, Ethyl Acetate; DE, Diethyl Ether; GC-MS, Gass Chromatography – Mass Spectrometry; 49 GC-FID, Gass Chromatography coupled to a Flame Ionization Detector; RP HPLC, Reverse 50 Phase High Performance Liquid Chromatography; TLC, Thin Layer Chromatography; IMNA, 51 Isomasticadienonic Acid; IMLA, Isomasticadienolic Acid; MNA, Masticadienonic Acid; OA, 52 Oleanolic Acid; MA, Moronic Acid; NMR, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance; MS, Mass 53 Spectrometry; HRMS/MS, High Resolution Tandem Mass Spectrometry; LDL, Low Density 54 Lipoproteins; AAs, Amino Acids; MBC ,Minimum Bactericidal Concentration 55 3 56 Abstract 57 Ethnopharmacological relevance: Chios mastic gum constitutes a unique Greek product, 58 produced exclusively in the southern part of the island of Chios. References about its use from 59 local populations for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders or as a cosmetic agent can even 60 be encountered in ancient texts of Galen, Theophrastus and Dioscorides. Nowadays, this 61 versatile resin has been rediscovered, not only as a traditional remedy and aromatic agent, but as 62 a potent phytotherapeutic product with various biological properties. 63 Aim of the study: The aim of this study is to quote the summation of the ethnopharmacology, 64 phytochemical profile and pharmacological properties of the resin of Pistacia lentiscus var. Chia 65 and thus provide the scientific community with a summary of the research conducted so far. 66 Furthermore, perspectives and uses are being discussed and studied so as to broaden the field of 67 its applications. 68 Materials and Methods: A comprehensive review of the literature on Pistacia lentiscus var. Chia 69 was performed using as resources scientific databases such as Scopus, Sciencedirect, Pubmed 70 and Web of science, studies and traditional books provided by the Chios Mastiha Growers 71 Association as well as PhD and Master’ s theses. 72 Results: Chios mastic gum has been used as a traditional medicine over the last 2500 years. More 73 than 120 chemical compounds have been identified in the resin and the major components are a 74 natural polymer, acidic and neutral triterpenes and volatile secondary metabolites. Several plant 75 extracts and compounds have been studied for their antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, 76 anti-ulcer, anti-diabetic, cardioprotective and anti-cancer properties in vitro and in vivo . Clinical 77 interventions and trials have also showed the therapeutic potential of Chios mastic gum. In 2015 4 78 Pistacia lentiscus L., resin (mastic) was recognized as a herbal medicinal product with traditional 79 use by the European Medicines Agency (EMA) with two therapeutic indications (mild dyspeptic 80 disorders & skin inflammation/ healing of minor wounds). Over the last years, Chios mastic gum 81 is widely involved in medicinal products, food supplements and cosmetics and has become 82 object of study, also in the field of Pharmacotechnology. 83 Conclusions: Chios mastic’s beneficial properties have been demonstrated in the treatment of 84 gastrointestinal disorders, wound healing, skin inflammations, plasma lipid and blood sugar 85 reduction and oral care. These properties are attributed to triterpenes
Recommended publications
  • CALL for INTERNS at the Chios Institute for Mediterranean Affairs
    CALL FOR INTERNS at the Chios Institute for Mediterranean Affairs The Mediterranean is a lake. It does not separate nations, it connects peoples. The Chios Institute for Mediterranean Affairs is looking for up to 10 interns starting from the summer of 2010. We therefore invite B.A. and M.A. students who are dedicated to our goals and who share our passion for the Mediterranean region to submit their application. Who are we? The Chios Institute for Mediterranean Affairs is a young and innovative non‐ governmental, not‐for‐profit organisation which works as a meeting point for civil society actors, businessmen and researchers throughout the Mediterranean. To this aim, CIMA... ¾ functions as a Euro‐Mediterranean agora, where regional issues of common interest can be debated; ¾ fosters cultural exchanges and dialogue between civil societies throughout the Mediterranean through its EuroMed Forum; ¾ spreads information about regional economic opportunities, attract investments and economic activities at the local level; ¾ promotes sustainable tourism and environmental awareness; ¾ takes part in the ongoing reflection on the Euro‐Mediterranean Partnership through a series of academic publications; ¾ organises education and training events (summer schools). Who are we looking for? We are looking for talented and committed interns from a broad variety of academic disciplines: Geography, Political Science, International Relations, Anthropology, Cultural Studies, Linguistics, Law, Development Studies, Journalism, Media and Communication, Multimedia Web Design. However, we do not select interns on the basis of the courses they attended. Your previous professional experiences, your hobbies and interests, your personal and linguistic skills, your motivation and commitment to CIMA’s goals and your willingness to be part of an international and intercultural team are what we are really looking for.
    [Show full text]
  • Of Greece, Its Islands
    CHANDLERet al.: 255-314 - Studia dipterologica 12 (2005) Heft 2 ISSN 0945-3954 The Fungus Gnats (Diptera: Bolitophilidae, Diadocidiidae, Ditomyiidae , Keroplatidae and Mycetophilidae) of Greece, its islands and Cyprus [Die Pilzmiicken (Diptera: Bolitophilidae, Diadocidiidae, Ditomyiidae, Keroplatidae und Mycetophilidae) Griechenlands und seiner Inseln sowie Zypern4 1 by Peter J. CHANDLER, Dimitar N. BECHEV and Norbert CASPERS Mclksham (UK) Plovdiv (Bulgaria) Bechen (Gernlany) - - -. - ~ Abstract The spccics of fungu\ gnats (Bolitophilidae, Diadoc~dildae,Ditomyiidac. Keroplat~d:~eand Mycetophilidae) o~urringin Greece and Cyprus are reviewed. Altogether 201 species :Ire recorded, 189 for Greece and 69 for Cyprus. Of these 126 specie5 arc newly recorded fol. Greece and 36 arc newly recorded for Cyprus. The following new taxa arc described from Greece: Macrorrhyrtcha ibis spec. nov., M. pelargos spec. nov., M. laconica spec. nov., Macrocera critica spec. nov., Docosia cephaloniae spec. nov., D. enos spec. nov., D. pa- siphae spec. nov., Megophthalmidia illyrica spec. nov.. M. ionica spec. nov., M. pytho spec. nov., Mycomya thrakis spec. nov., Allocolocera scheria spec. nov., Sciophila pandora spec. nov., Ryrnosia labyrinthos spec. nov.; M. ill\,ric,cr is also recorded troln Croc~lia.The follow- ing ncw taa are described from Cyprus: Macrocera cypriaca spec. nov., Megophthalmidia alrzicola spec. nov., M. cedricola spec. nov. The following neu synonymies are propod: M!,c,c~r~iwrenuis I WXLKER,1856) = M. interniissa PL.ASSMA~N,l984 syn. nov., Plrror~rtr~1.illi.s- torri DLIFI>ZICKI,1889 = P rnciscr CASFERS,1991 syn. nov. A key is provided for thc western Palaearctic specie5 of M(ic-i.orrh~~~ic-IrciWI~~ERTZ.
    [Show full text]
  • Investment Profile of the Chios Island
    Island of Chios - Investment Profile September 2016 Contents 1. Profile of the island 2. Island of Chios - Competitive Advantages 3. Investment Opportunities in the island 4. Investment Incentives 1. Profile of the island 2. Island of Chios - Competitive Advantages 3. Investment Opportunities in the island 4. Investment Incentives The island of Chios: Οverview Chios is one of the largest islands of the North East Aegean and the fifth largest in Greece, with a coastline of 213 km. It is very close to Asia Minor and lies opposite the Erythraia peninsula. It is known as one of the most likely birthplaces of the ancient mathematicians Hippocrates and Enopides. Chios is notable for its exports of mastic and its nickname is ”The mastic island”. The Regional Unit of Chios includes the islands of Chios, Psara, Antipsara and Oinousses and is divided into three municipalities: Chios, Psara and Oinouses. ➢ Area of 842.5 km² ➢ 5th largest of the Greek islands ➢Permanent population: ➢52.574 inhabitants (census 2011) including Oinousses and Psara ➢51.390 inhabitants (only Chios) Quick facts The island of Chios is a unique destination with: Cultural and natural sites • Important cultural heritage and several historical monuments • Rich natural environment of a unique diversity Archaeological sites: 5 • Rich agricultural land and production expertise in agriculture and Museums: 9 livestock production (mastic, olives, citrus fruits etc) Natura 2000 regions: 2 • RES capacity (solar, wind, hydro) Beaches: 45 • Great concentration in fisheries and aquaculture Source: http://www.chios.gr • Satisfactory infrastructure of transport networks (1 airport, 2 ports and road network) • Great history, culture and tradition in mercantile maritime, with hundreds of seafarers and ship owners Transport infrastructure Chios is served by one airport and two ports (Chios-central port and Mesta-port) and a satisfactory public road network.
    [Show full text]
  • The Turkish Bath in the Castle of Chios
    The bath is located at the confliction HELLENIC MINISTRY OF CULTURE ΑΝD SPORTS of the sea walls of the Castle EPHORATE OF ANTIQUITIES OF CHIOS with the land walls... The Third Community Support Framework (2000-2006) sup- ported initiatives and inter- ventions aiming at improving the quality of life through the enhancement of the cultural environment. Among other ac- tivities, it supported cultural ac- tions that strengthened down- graded large urban regions, in order to improve them. Actions of this kind were funded by the Program for Integrated Urban Development Interventions in Local Zones of Small Scale and within the scope of this program the settlement of the Castle of Chios, which displays many negative features, was selected. The –then responsi- The Turkish Bath ble– 3rd Ephorate of Byzantine HELLENIC MINISTRY Antiquities, promoted the res- OF CULTURE AND SPORTS in the Castle of Chios toration and reuse of the large EPHORATE OF ANTIQUITIES Turkish bath in the Castle, a OF CHIOS major landmark and point of reference in the settlement, 1 Navarchou Nikodimou str, located in one of the most so- Chios 821 31, Greece cially and culturally diverse tel: +30 22710 44238 neighborhoods of the conglom- e-mail: [email protected] eration. www.culture.gr QCOLD ROOM QWARM ROOM QHOT ROOMS QCAULDRON ROOM QWATER TANKS QTOILETS QBATHKEEPER’S ROOM The bath is located at the confliction of the sea walls of the the large hot area, under the imposing dome, 7.90 m / 25.92 everyday practices, which differ from those of today, give us an Castle with the land walls.
    [Show full text]
  • The Chios, Greece Earthquake of 23 July 1949: Seismological Reassessment and Tsunami Investigations
    Pure Appl. Geophys. 177 (2020), 1295–1313 Ó 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-019-02410-1 Pure and Applied Geophysics The Chios, Greece Earthquake of 23 July 1949: Seismological Reassessment and Tsunami Investigations 1 2 3,4 1 5 NIKOLAOS S. MELIS, EMILE A. OKAL, COSTAS E. SYNOLAKIS, IOANNIS S. KALOGERAS, and UTKU KAˆ NOG˘ LU Abstract—We present a modern seismological reassessment of reported by various agencies, but not included in the Chios earthquake of 23 July 1949, one of the largest in the Gutenberg and Richter’s (1954) generally authorita- Central Aegean Sea. We relocate the event to the basin separating Chios and Lesvos, and confirm a normal faulting mechanism tive catalog. This magnitude makes it the second generally comparable to that of the recent Lesvos earthquake largest instrumentally recorded historical earthquake located at the Northern end of that basin. The seismic moment 26 in the Central Aegean Sea after the 1956 Amorgos obtained from mantle surface waves, M0 ¼ 7 Â 10 dyn cm, makes it second only to the 1956 Amorgos earthquake. We compile event (Okal et al. 2009), a region broadly defined as all available macroseismic data, and infer a preference for a rupture limited to the South by the Cretan–Rhodos subduc- along the NNW-dipping plane. A field survey carried out in 2015 tion arc and to the north by the western extension of collected memories of the 1949 earthquake and of its small tsunami from surviving witnesses, both on Chios Island and nearby the Northern Anatolian Fault system.
    [Show full text]
  • Code of Conduct
    CODE OF CONDUCT Chios Eastern Shore Response Team (Offene Arme e.V.) GENERAL INFORMATION Since the formation of the very first team, hundreds of volunteers have contributed their time, energy and resourcefulness to provide direct humanitarian aid that meets immediate needs for refugees and asylum seekers arriving after long journeys from war-torn countries or countries where oppression has been untenable and equally life threatening. Refugees arrive in the European Union on the Chios’ Eastern Shore or at Chios Port after a short but no less fear-filled, life threatening crossing of the Aegean Sea from Turkey. On arrival, they are met by a warm CESRT welcome, albeit in very challenging conditions: our team provides water, food, immediate basic care, warm blankets and clothes with warm smiles engaging in friendly exchanges discretely listening to and with an observant eye to identify the most vulnerable individuals for the immediate first care by accompanying doctors, one of our own and others from Salvemento Maritimo Humanitario (SMH). It is the warmth of welcome and the direct and immediate aid that is the very foundation of CESRT’s work. Over time CESRT work has evolved and diversified to include various post-arrival social and support services responding to needs created by the extended ‘detention’ of refugees pending the resolution of their applications – The Warehouse continues to be central to the preparation and provision of food, water, clothes, hygiene and other essentials to new arrivals and on an on-going basis to all refugees detained on Chios through regular distributions to those accommodated in apartments and directly to Vial Camp.
    [Show full text]
  • Updated 25 July 2019 Like Most Greek Islands, Chios Really Comes
    Chios Photo: Nejdet Duzen/Shutterstock.com Like most Greek islands, Chios really comes to life in summer – but unlike many of its neighbours, most of its summer visitors are Greeks from Athens and the mainland. This gives the island an authentically Greek flavour and ensures an animated nightlife and some excellent Greek cooking. There’s plenty of sightseeing to be done, and enough active pursuits to keep any visitor happy for a full fortnight. Nejdet Duzen/Shutterstock.com Top 5 Chios Cooking Lessons An enjoyable activity to be done with a group of friends, the cooking lesson... Yacht Tours A number of companies offer all-day yacht tours around Chios and to neighbor... Citrus Estate picturepartners/Shutterstock.com Citrus reigns king here in the heart of Kambos, a picturesque area south of ... Byzantine Museum The most interesting aspect of this museum is the building itself - a mosque... Nea Moni "New Monastery" is a misnomer – this imposing religious institution was foun... Nejdet Duzen/Shutterstock.com Updated 25 July 2019 Destination: Chios Publishing date: 2019-07-25 THE ISLAND DO & SEE photographer_metinn/Shutterstock.com Dimitrios/Shutterstock.com Lying within sight of the Turkish mainland, Chios Chios Town (also referred to as ‘Chora') is a is (by Aegean standards) a big and prosperous surprisingly modern city. With a crescent island. Its rolling hillsides are covered with olive harbour overlooked by oice blocks, warehouses groves, vineyards and mastic plantations which and workshops; it is dominated by the forbidding made the
    [Show full text]
  • Response to the Wildfires Affecting the Island of Chios, Greece, in 2012
    International Forest Fire News (IFFN) No. 42 (January–December 2012), p. 94–106 ISSN 1029-0864 (web) Response to the Wildfires affecting the Island of Chios, Greece, in 2012 Between 18 and 22 August 2012 the Greek island Chios was affected by a severe wildfire. More than 12,700 hectares of forests, pastures and other vegetation types were burned. While fires are not an unusual phenomenon on Chios (Fig. 1) the wildfire of 2012 was very severe with regards to the ecological and socio-economic consequences. The fires were burning at extremely dry and windy conditions and were difficult to control (Fig. 2 and 3) and sent a smoke plume across, the Aegean Sea towards Crete Island, which was visible from space (Fig. 4). Figure 1. Reconstruction of wildfire occurrence on Chios Island between 1984 and 2009. Source: Ioannis Mitsopoulos, Global Fire Monitoring Center (GFMC) Figures 2 and 3. The fast spread and the large size of the wildfires on Chios exceeded the capacities of local fire service to bring the fires swiftly under control. Source: Municipality of Chios. Source: Local media. Figure 4. On 18 August 2012 the MODIS sensor on NASA’s satellite Aqua the smoke plume stretching from Chios Island to the Southwest and reaching Crete Island. Source: NASA. Most importantly, however, were the devastating impacts of the wildfire on the island's trademark mastic gum industry, which is based on the world's only mastic tree plantations. About a quarter of the island's mastic groves have been wiped out. In cash terms, producers were facing losing up to three million Euros a year, because after replanting, it takes up to a decade before producers can start tapping the trees for their aromatic gum.
    [Show full text]
  • Greek Experience with Water Management Under Water Scarcity, with Emphasis on Islands
    Greek experience with water management under water scarcity, with emphasis on islands Nicholas Petroulias, Chairman of Hellenic Water Associaon Greece 14 Dec, 2016 Contents Α • Hellenic Water Associa0on (HWA) Β • Greek Regulatory Framework/Ins0tu0ons and their roles C • Desalinaon and Water Treatment in Greece D • Non Revenue Water in Greece E • PPP and Performance Based Contracts F • Cooperaon Opportunies Hellenic Water Associaon Who we are Hellenic Water Associa0on (HWA) is a non-profit associa0on. The Greek Governing . Founded in , non governmental, non-profit and voluntary organizaon. A , support top-class research, provide high-quality service to society. The main purpose of HWA is to play a primary role in water and wastewater management. The idealisc core is the applicaon of the The ul8mate goal of the HWA is to assist in best available prac8ces and contemporary the environmental awareness of the society methods for water and wastewater and contribute to its sustainable growth management Αn interdisciplinary associaon that primarily aims to.. Provide scienfic and professional support to water operators Help develop and implement policies concerning Water and Wastewater Management Develop educaonal programs and projects water and wastewater management policies Be recognized at a naonal level as the most specialized body of experts on water and wastewater management technical issues Consult the Greek Government on environmental legislave aspects and policies the Hellenic Water Associaon has set very high in its agenda.. On the one
    [Show full text]
  • Entopia Project Objectives
    E topia Project Ν Costa Carras Europa Nostra Vice President Athens, 2014 European Union Prize for Cultural Heritage-Europa Nostra Awards Categories: CONSERVATION Outstanding achievements in the conservation, enhancement and adaptation to new uses of cultural heritage. RESEARCH and DIGITIZATION Outstanding research and digitization projects which lead to tangible effects in the conservation and enhancement of cultural heritage in Europe. DEDICATED SERVICE by INDIVIDUALS or ORGANISATIONS Open to individuals or organisations whose contributions over a long period of time demonstrate excellence in the protection, conservation and enhancement of cultural heritage in Europe and far exceeding normal expectations in the given context. EDUCATION, TRAINING and AWARENESS -RAISING Outstanding initiatives related to education, training and awareness-raising in the field of tangible and/or intangible cultural heritage, to promote and/or to contribute to the sustainable development of the environment. Dennis de Kergorlay Sneska Quaedvlieg- Mihailovic Franciacorta, Italy Restoration of Hackfall Woodland Garden (UK) Grand Prix Winner – 2011 Landscape restoration project of the Forest of Saint Francis – Assisi (ITALY) Award Winner – 2013 The Historical Landscape of El Sénia’s Ancient Olive Trees (SPAIN) Award Winner – 2014 Tatoi Was launched in January 2012 by Europa Nostra European Investment Bank Institute (founding partner) and the Council of Europe Development Bank (associated partner) The 7 Most Endangered programme identifies endangered monuments
    [Show full text]
  • The Genoese in Chios, I346-1566
    418 July Downloaded from The Genoese in Chios, i346-1566 F the Latin states which existed in Greek lands between the Latin conquest of Constantinople in 1204 and the fall of O http://ehr.oxfordjournals.org/ the Venetian republic in 1797, there were four principal forms. Those states were either independent kingdoms, such as Cyprus ; feudal principalities, of which that of Achaia is the best example ; military outposts, like Rhodes ; or colonies directly governed by the mother-country, of which Crete was the most conspicuous. But the Genoese administration of Chios differed from all the other Latin creations in the Levant. It was what we should call in modern parlance a Chartered Company, which on a smaller at Memorial University of Newfoundland on April 4, 2015 scale anticipated the career of the East India and the British South Africa Companies in our own history. The origins of the Latin colonization of Greece are usually to be found in places and circumstances where we should least expect to find them. The incident which led to this Genoese occupation of the most fertile island of the Aegean is to be sought in the history of the smallest of European principalities—that of Monaco, which in the first half of the fourteenth century already belonged to the noble Genoese family of Grimaldi, which still reigns over it. At that time the rock of Monaco and the picturesque village of Roquebrune (between Monte Carlo and Mentone) sheltered a number of Genoese nobles, fugitives from their native city, where one of those revolutions common in the medieval republics of Italy had placed the popular party in power.
    [Show full text]
  • Minimizing the Environmental Impact of Sea Brine Disposal by Coupling Desalination Plants with Solar Saltworks: a Case Study for Greece
    Water 2010, 2, 75-84; doi:10.3390/w2010075 OPEN ACCESS water ISSN 2073-4441 www.mdpi.com/journal/water Article Minimizing the Environmental Impact of Sea Brine Disposal by Coupling Desalination Plants with Solar Saltworks: A Case Study for Greece Chrysi Laspidou 1,2,*, Kimon Hadjibiros 2 and Stylianos Gialis 1 1 Department of Civil Engineering, University of Thessaly, Pedion Areos, 38334 Volos, Greece; E-Mail: [email protected] (S.G.) 2 School of Civil Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Iroon Polytechneiou 9, 15780 Athens, Greece; E-Mail: [email protected] (K.H.) * Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: [email protected]; Tel.: +30-24210-74147; Fax: +30-24210-74169. Received: 9 December 2009; in revised form: 4 February 2010 / Accepted: 16 February 2010 / Published: 17 February 2010 Abstract: The explosive increase in world population, along with the fast socio-economic development, have led to an increased water demand, making water shortage one of the greatest problems of modern society. Countries such as Greece, Saudi Arabia and Tunisia face serious water shortage issues and have resorted to solutions such as transporting water by ships from the mainland to islands, a practice that is expensive, energy-intensive and unsustainable. Desalination of sea-water is suitable for supplying arid regions with potable water, but extensive brine discharge may affect marine biota. To avoid this impact, we explore the option of directing the desalination effluent to a solar saltworks for brine concentration and salt production, in order to achieve a zero discharge desalination plant. In this context, we conducted a survey in order to evaluate the potential of transferring desalination brine to solar saltworks, so that its disposal to the sea is avoided.
    [Show full text]