ENCYCLOPEDIA of SOLID Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SOLID EARTH GEOPHYSICS

Volume Editor Harsh K. Gupta currently holds the prestigious Panikkar Professorship at the National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI), Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR), Hyderabad, India. Pursuing a luminous career in a variety of aspects of the Earth Sciences for over four decades, he is globally known for providing the first geophysical evidence of an enormously thick below the Himalaya and Tibet Plateau region, identifying the common characteristics of artificial water reservoir triggered earthquakes and discriminating them from normal earthquakes, setting up India’s first permanent station at Antarctica in a record time, and in the recent years, spearheading the designing and commissioning of the Tsunami Warning System for India, after the disastrous tsunami caused by the 26th December 2004 Sumatra earthquake. He has published over 200 papers and written 4 pioneering books, published by Elsevier.

Editorial Board Kusumita Arora Ajay Manglik National Geophysical Research Institute National Geophysical Research Institute Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Uppal Road Uppal Road Hyderabad 500 606 Hyderabad 500 606 India India Anny Cazenave Sukanta Roy Laboratoire d’Etudes en Géophysique et National Geophysical Research Institute Océanographie Spatiales (LEGOS) Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales Uppal Road 18 Avenue Edouard Belin Hyderabad 500 606 31401 Toulouse Cedex 4 India France Kalachand Sain Eric Robert Engdahl National Geophysical Research Institute Center for Imaging the Earth’s Interior Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Department of Physics Uppal Road University of Colorado at Boulder Hyderabad 500 606 Campus Box 390 UCB India Boulder, CO 80309-0390 USA Seiya Uyeda Japan Academy Rainer Kind 7-32, Ueno Park Helmholtz Centre Potsdam Taito-ku, Tokyo 110-0007 GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences Japan Section 2.4, Telegrafenberg A3 14473 Potsdam Germany

Aims of the Series The Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences. Each volume comprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrations and reference lists. These books represent one of the world’s leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and new works published so that the volumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatolo- gists, and oceanographers as well as for teachers and students. See the dustjacket of this volume for a current list of titles in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Go to http://www.springerlink.com/reference-works/ to visit the “Earth Sciences Series” online.

About the Series Editor Professor Charles W. Finkl has edited and/or contributed to more than eight volumes in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. For the past 25 years he has been the Executive Director of the Coastal Education & Research Foundation and Editor-in-Chief of the international Journal of Coastal Research. In addition to these duties, he is Research Professor at Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida, USA. He is a graduate of the University of Western Australia (Perth) and previously worked for a wholly owned Australian subsidiary of the International Nickel Company of Canada (INCO). During his career, he acquired field experience in Australia; the Caribbean; South America; SW Pacific islands; southern Africa; Western Europe; and the Pacific Northwest, Midwest, and Southeast USA.

Founding Series Editor Professor Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) has edited more than 24 Encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career he has worked as a petroleum geologist in the Middle East, been a WW II intelligence officer in the SW Pacific and led expeditions to the Sahara, Arctic Canada, Arctic Scandinavia, Brazil and New Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of at Columbia University and was affiliated with the Goddard Institute for Space Studies. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES

ENCYCLOPEDIA of SOLID EARTH GEOPHYSICS

Volume 1 edited by

HARSH K. GUPTA National Geophysical Research Institute Council of Scientific and Industrial Research Hyderabad India Library of Congress Control Number: 2011924208

ISBN: 978-90-481-8701-0 This publication is available also as: Electronic publication under ISBN 978-90-481-8702-7 and Print and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-90-481-8732-4

Published by Springer P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands

The original Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics was compiled by David E. James, and was first published in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series in 1989.

Printed on acid-free paper

Cover figure credit: Institute at Stony Brook University, illustration by Keelin Murphy

Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproduced from other sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that due acknowledgment may be made in subsequent editions.

All Rights Reserved for Contributions on Gravity, Data to Anomalies; Gravity, Global Models; Instrumentation, Electrical Resistivity; Spherical Harmonic Analysis Applied to Potential Fields © Springer Science þ Business Media B.V. 2011

No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Contents

Contributors xiii Crustal Reflectivity (Oceanic) and Magma Chamber 78 Satish C. Singh Preface xxxv Curie Temperature 89 Acknowledgments xxxvii Vincenzo Pasquale

Absolute Age Determinations: Radiometric 1 Deep Scientific Drilling 91 Richard W. Carlson Ulrich Harms and Harold J. Tobin

Archaeomagnetism 8 Deep Seismic Reflection and Refraction Profiling 103 Donald H. Tarling Kabir Roy Chowdhury ’ Archaeoseismology 11 Differential Rotation of the Earth s Inner Core 118 Klaus-Günter Hinzen Xiaodong Song

Artificial Water Reservoir Triggered Earthquakes 15 Earth Rotation 123 Harsh K. Gupta Harald Schuh and Sigrid Böhm Earth 129 Biogeophysics 25 John M. Wahr Lee Slater and Estella Atekwana Earth, Density Distribution 133 Body Waves 29 Frank D. Stacey and Paul M. Davis Mahmoud Mohamed Selim Saleh Earth’s Structure, Core 137 Characteristic Earthquakes and Seismic Gaps 37 Lianxing Wen David D. Jackson and Yan Y. Kagan Earth’s Structure, Continental Crust 138 Continental Drift 40 Rolf Meissner and Hartmut Kern Alan G. Smith Earth’s Structure, Global 144 Continental Rifts 41 Jean-Paul Montagner A. M. Celâl Şengör Earth’s Structure, Lower Mantle 154 Core Dynamo 55 Edward J. Garnero, Allen K. McNamara and Ulrich R. Christensen James A. Tyburczy

Core-Mantle Coupling 64 Earth’s Structure, Upper Mantle 159 Paul H. Roberts and Jonathan M. Aurnou Guust Nolet vi CONTENTS

Earthquake Lights 165 Earthquakes, Volcanogenic 261 John S. Derr, France St-Laurent, J. W. Neuberg Friedemann T. Freund and Robert Thériault Electrical Properties of Rocks 270 Earthquake Precursors and Prediction 168 Takashi Yoshino Seiya Uyeda, Toshiyasu Nagao and Masashi Kamogawa Electrical Resistivity Surveys and Data Interpretation 276 Earthquake Prediction, M8 Algorithm 178 Meng Heng Loke Alik Ismail-Zadeh and Vladimir Kossobokov Electronic Geophysical Year 283 William K. Peterson, Daniel N. Baker, Earthquake Rupture: 182 Shamita Das C. E. Barton, Peter Fox, M. A. Parsons and Emily A. CoBabe-Ammann Earthquake Sounds 188 Andrew J. Michael Energy Budget of the Earth 285 Jean-Claude Mareschal and Claude Jaupart

Earthquake, Aftershocks 192 Energy Partitioning of Seismic Waves 291 Mian Liu and Seth Stein Kalachand Sain

Earthquake, Focal Mechanism 194 Equatorial Electrojet 294 Emile A. Okal Archana Bhattacharyya

Earthquake, Foreshocks 199 and Chaos 297 Mian Liu Vijay P. Dimri, Ravi P. Srivastava and Nimisha Vedanti Earthquake, Location Techniques 201 Clifford H. Thurber Free Oscillations of the Earth 302 Sarva Jit Singh and Sunita Rani Earthquake, Magnitude 207 Peter Bormann , Figure of the Earth 313 Kusumita Arora Earthquakes and Crustal Deformation 218 Robert McCaffrey Geodesy, Ground Positioning and Leveling 316 Stelios P. Mertikas Earthquakes, Early and Strong Motion Warning 226 Richard M. Allen Geodesy, Networks and Reference Systems 323 Hayo Hase Earthquakes, Energy 233 Domenico Di Giacomo and Peter Bormann Geodesy, Physical 331 V. Chakravarthi Earthquakes, Intensity 237 Gottfried Grünthal Geodetic Pendulums, Horizontal Ultra Broad Band 336 Carla Braitenberg Earthquakes, PAGER 243 David J. Wald 340 Alessandro M. Forte Earthquakes, Shake Map 245 David J. Wald Geoelectromagnetism 341 Antal Ádám and László Szarka Earthquakes, Source Theory 248 Raul Madariaga Geoid 353 Paramesh Banerjee Earthquakes, Strong-Ground Motion 252 Giuliano F. Panza, Cristina La Mura, Geoid Determination, Theory and Principles 356 Fabio Romanelli and Franco Vaccari Michael G. Sideris CONTENTS vii

Geoid Undulation, Interpretation 362 Gravity Field, Temporal Variations from Space Petr Vaníček Techniques 484 Anny Cazenave, G. Ramillien and Geoid, Computational Method 366 Richard Biancale Michael G. Sideris Gravity Field, Time Variations from Surface Geomagnetic Excursions 371 Measurements 489 Martha Schwartz Virendra M. Tiwari and Jacques Hinderer

Geomagnetic Field, Global Pattern 373 Gravity Measurements, Absolute 494 Susan Macmillan Mark A. Zumberge

Geomagnetic Field, IGRF 379 Gravity Method, Airborne 497 Aude Chambodut Uwe Meyer

Geomagnetic Field, Measurement Techniques 381 Gravity Method, Principles 500 Mioara Mandea and Anca Isac Hans-Jürgen Götze

Geomagnetic Field, Polarity Reversals 386 Gravity Method, Satellite 504 Carlo Laj Georges Balmino

Geomagnetic Field, Secular Variation 394 Gravity Method, Surface 513 Monika Korte Dinesh Chandra Mishra and Virendra M. Tiwari

Geomagnetic Field, Theory 394 Gravity Modeling, Theory and Computation 518 Friedrich H. Busse Jean-Pierre Barriot and Lydie Sichoix

Geophysical Well Logging 401 Gravity, Data to Anomalies 524 Miroslav Kobr Ron Hackney Geothermal Heat Pumps 411 Ladislaus Rybach Gravity, Global Models 533 Nikolaos K. Pavlis Geothermal Record of Climate Change 415 Michael G. Davis, David S. Chapman and Gravity, Gradiometry 547 Robert N. Harris Christopher Jekeli

GPS, Data Acquisition and Analysis 420 Great Earthquakes 561 Carine Bruyninx, Wim Aerts and Juliette Legrand Roger M. W. Musson

GPS, Tectonic Geodesy 431 Heat Flow Measurements, Continental 569 Jeffrey T. Freymueller John H. Sass and Graeme Beardsmore

Gravimeters 449 Heat Flow, Continental 573 Andrew Hugill Paul Morgan

Gravity Anomalies, Interpretation 456 Heat Flow, Seafloor: Methods and Observations 582 Mikhail K. Kaban Earl E. Davis and Andrew T. Fisher

Gravity Data, Advanced Processing 461 Impact Craters on Earth 593 Christopher J. Swain and Jonathan F. Kirby Richard A. F. Grieve and Gordon R. Osinski

Gravity Data, Regional – Residual Separation 466 Instrumentation, Electrical Resistivity 599 Kumarendra Mallick, Anthwar Vasanthi and Meng H. Loke, Jonathan E. Chambers and Krishna Kant Sharma Oliver Kuras

Gravity Field of the Earth 471 Instrumentation, EM 604 Christopher Jekeli Steven Constable viii CONTENTS

International Geophysical Year 608 Magnetic Data Enhancements and Depth Ralph W. Baird Estimation 736 Clive Foss International Gravity Formula 611 Hans-Jürgen Götze Magnetic Domains 746 Susan L. Halgedahl International Polar Year 2007–2008 612 David J. Carlson Magnetic Gradiometry 758 Harald von der Osten-Woldenburg International Year of Planet Earth 614 Eduardo F. J. de Mulder and Wolfgang Eder Magnetic Methods, Airborne 761 Mike Dentith Inverse Theory, Artificial Neural Networks 618 William A. Sandham and David J. Hamilton Magnetic Methods, Principles 767 Kusumita Arora Inverse Theory, Global Optimization 625 Mrinal K. Sen and Paul L. Stoffa Magnetic Methods, Satellite 771 Dhananjay Ravat Inverse Theory, Linear 632 Pravin K. Gupta Magnetic Methods, Surface 774 Nandini Nagarajan Inverse Theory, Monte Carlo Method 639 Malcolm Sambridge and Kerry Gallagher Magnetic Modeling, Theory and Computation 781 Mioara Mandea, Carmen Gaina and Vincent Lesur Inverse Theory, Singular Value Decomposition 645 Ajay Manglik Magnetic Storms and Electromagnetic Pulsations 792 Gurbax S. Lakhina and Bruce T. Tsurutani Isostasy 647 Anthony B. Watts Magnetic, Global Anomaly Map 796 Kumar Hemant Singh Isostasy, Thermal 662 David S. Chapman and Derrick Hasterok Magnetometers 810 Ivan Hrvoic Legal Continental Shelf 669 Ray Wood, Stuart A. Henrys, Vaughan Stagpoole, Magnetotelluric Data Processing 816 Bryan Davy and Ian Wright Gary Egbert

Lithosphere, Continental 675 Magnetotelluric Interpretation 822 David E. James John F. Hermance

Lithosphere, Continental: Thermal Structure 681 Magnetovariation Studies 830 Claude Jaupart and Jean-Claude Mareschal Nandini Nagarajan

Lithosphere, Mechanical Properties 693 832 Evgueni Burov David Bercovici

Lithosphere, Oceanic 701 Mantle D00 Layer 851 James McClain Thorne Lay

Lithosphere, Oceanic: Thermal Structure 709 Mantle Plumes 857 Earl E. Davis and David S. Chapman Cinzia G. Farnetani and Albrecht W. Hofmann

Magnetic Anisotropy 717 Mantle Viscosity 869 Leonardo Sagnotti W. R. Peltier

Magnetic Anomalies, Interpretation 729 Numerical Methods, Boundary Element 877 Erwan Thébault Michele Cooke CONTENTS ix

Numerical Methods, Domain Decomposition 879 Propagation of Elastic Waves: Fundamentals 1006 Alfio Quarteroni and Luca Formaggia Francisco J. Sánchez-Sesma and Ursula Iturrarán-Viveros Numerical Methods, Finite Difference 883 Johan O. A. Robertsson and Joakim O. Blanch Radioactivity in Earth’s Core 1013 V. Rama Murthy Numerical Methods, Finite Element 892 J. N. Reddy Radiogenic Heat Production of Rocks 1018 Christoph Clauser Numerical Methods, Multigrid 895 Wim A. Mulder Remanent Magnetism 1024 Laurie Brown and Suzanne McEnroe Ocean Bottom Seismics 901 Ingo A. Pecher, Jörg Bialas and Ernst R. Flueh Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques for Tectonic Studies 1030 Semere Solomon and Woldai Ghebreab Ocean, Spreading Centre 908 K. S. Krishna Remote Sensing, Applications to Geophysics 1035 Hojjatollah Ranjbar Oceanic Intraplate Deformation: The Central Indian Ocean Basin 913 D. Gopala Rao and D. A. Bhaskara Rao SAR Interferometry 1041 Masato Furuya Paleomagnetic Field Intensity 919 Andrew Biggin, Neil Suttie and John Shaw Satellite Laser Ranging 1049 David Coulot, Florent Deleflie, Pascal Bonnefond, Pierre Exertier, Olivier Laurain , Magnetostratigraphy 925 and Bertrand de Saint-Jean Donald R. Prothero Seafloor Spreading 1055 Paleomagnetism, Measurement Techniques and Richard N. Hey Instrumentation 933 Tallavajhala Radhakrishna and J. D. A. Piper Sedimentary Basins 1059 Magdalena Scheck-Wenderoth Paleomagnetism, Polar Wander 945 Jean Besse, Vincent Courtillot and Marianne Greff Seismic Anisotropy 1070 Thorsten W. Becker Paleomagnetism, Principles 955 William Lowrie Seismic Data Acquisition and Processing 1081 Kabir Roy Chowdhury Paleoseismology 964 Shinji Toda Seismic Diffraction 1097 Enru Liu Plate Driving Forces 977 Alessandro M. Forte Seismic Discontinuities in the Transition Zone 1102 Lev P. Vinnik Plate Motions in Time: Inferences on Driving and Resisting Forces 983 Seismic Hazard 1107 Giampiero Iaffaldano and Hans-Peter Bunge Andrzej Kijko

Plate Tectonics, Precambrian 991 Seismic Imaging, Overview 1121 Y. J. Bhaskar Rao and E. V. S. S. K. Babu Gerard T. Schuster

Plates and Paleoreconstructions 998 Seismic Instrumentation 1134 Alan G. Smith Duncan Carr Agnew

Poroelasticity 1003 Seismic Microzonation 1140 Ran Bachrach Fumio Yamazaki and Yoshihisa Maruyama x CONTENTS

Seismic Monitoring of Nuclear Explosions 1144 Seismic, Reflectivity Method 1269 Paul G. Richards and Wu Zhongliang Mrinal K. Sen

Seismic Noise 1157 Seismic, Viscoelastic Attenuation 1279 Dhananjay Kumar and Imtiaz Ahmed Vernon F. Cormier

Seismic Phase Names: IASPEI Standard 1162 Seismic, Waveform Modeling and Tomography 1290 Dmitry A. Storchak, Johannes Schweitzer and Yanghua Wang Peter Bormann

Seismic Properties of Rocks 1173 Seismicity, Intraplate 1301 Nikolas I. Christensen Paul Bodin

Seismic Quiescence and Activation 1178 Seismicity, Subduction Zone 1305 Gennady Sobolev Akira Hasegawa

Seismic Seiches 1184 Seismogram Interpretation 1315 Art McGarr Ota Kulhanek and Leif Persson

Seismic Signals in Well Observations: Seismological Networks 1324 Pre, Co, Post 1185 Eric Robert Engdahl and István Bondár R. K. Chadha Seismology, Global Earthquake Model 1334 Seismic Structure at Mid-Ocean Ridges 1190 Peter Suhadolc Donald W. Forsyth Seismology, Monitoring of CTBT 1340 Seismic Tomography 1195 Wu Zhongliang and Paul G. Richards Guust Nolet

Seismic Velocity-Density Relationships 1198 Seismology, Rotational 1344 Kalachand Sain William H. K. Lee

Seismic Velocity-Temperature Relationships 1199 Shear-Wave Splitting: New Geophysics and Kalachand Sain Earthquake Stress-Forecasting 1355 Stuart Crampin Propagation in Real Media: Numerical Modeling Approaches 1200 Single and Multichannel Seismics 1366 Ursula Iturrarán-Viveros and Tamás Tóth Francisco J. Sánchez-Sesma Slow Earthquake 1374 Seismic Waves, Scattering 1210 Teruyuki Kato Ludovic Margerin Spherical Harmonic Analysis Applied to Seismic Zonation 1224 Potential Fields 1382 Yanxiang Yu, Mengtan Gao and Guangyin Xu Nikolaos K. Pavlis

Seismic, Ambient Noise Correlation 1230 Statistical Seismology 1392 Michel Campillo, Philippe Roux and David A. Rhoades Nikolai M. Shapiro

Seismic, Migration 1236 Subduction Zones 1395 Samuel H. Gray Geoffrey A. Abers

Seismic, Ray Theory 1244 Surface Waves 1406 Vlastislav Červený and Ivan Pšenčík Barbara Romanowicz

Seismic, Receiver Function Technique 1258 T Waves 1421 Rainer Kind and Xiaohui Yuan Emile A. Okal CONTENTS xi

Thermal Storage and Transport Properties of Tsunami: Bay of Bengal 1493 Rocks, I: Heat Capacity and Latent Heat 1423 Vineet Gahalaut Christoph Clauser Tsunami Watch and Warning Centers 1498 Shailesh R. Nayak and Srinivasa Kumar Tummala Thermal Storage and Transport Properties of Rocks, II: Thermal Conductivity and Diffusivity 1431 Vertical Seismic Profiling 1507 Christoph Clauser James W. Rector, III and Maria-Daphne Mangriotis Very Long Baseline Interferometry 1509 Time Reversal in Seismology 1449 Helmut Wiesemeyer and Axel Nothnagel Carène Larmat and Clarence S. Clay Wavelet Analysis 1517 Traveltime Tomography Using Controlled-Source Mikhail Kulesh Seismic Data 1453 Colin A. Zelt Author Index 1525

Tsunami 1473 Subject Index 1527 Steven N. Ward

Contributors

Geoffrey A. Abers Richard M. Allen Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia Berkeley Seismological Laboratory University Department of Earth and 61 Route 9W, P.O. Box 1000 University of California Palisades, NY 10964 307 McCone Hall USA Berkeley, CA 94720 [email protected] USA [email protected] Antal Ádám Geodetic and Geophysical Research Institute of the Kusumita Arora Hungarian Academy of Sciences National Geophysical Research Institute P.O. Box 5 Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR) 9401 Sopron Uppal Road Hungary Hyderabad 500 606 [email protected] India [email protected] Wim Aerts [email protected] Department of Reference Systems and Planetology Estella Atekwana Royal Observatory of Belgium Boone Pickens School of Geology Avenue Circulaire 3 Oklahoma State University 1180 Brussels Stillwater, OK 74078 Belgium USA [email protected] Duncan Carr Agnew Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics Jonathan M. Aurnou Scripps Institution of Department of Earth and Space Sciences University of California San Diego University of California 9500 Gilman Dr Los Angeles, CA 90095 La Jolla, CA 92093-0225 USA USA [email protected] [email protected] E. V. S. S. K. Babu Imtiaz Ahmed National Geophysical Research Institute BP Council of Scientific and Industrial Research 501 Westlake Park Blvd Uppal Road Houston, TX Hyderabad 500 007 USA India [email protected] [email protected] xiv CONTRIBUTORS

Ran Bachrach Thorsten W. Becker Geophysics and Planetary Sciences Department Department of Earth Sciences Tel Aviv University University of Southern California P.O. Box 39040 3651 Trousdale Pkwy, MC0740 Tel Aviv 69978 Los Angeles, CA 90089-0740 Israel USA [email protected] [email protected]

Ralph W. Baird Baird Petrophysical International David Bercovici Houston, TX Department of Geology & Geophysics USA Yale University [email protected] P.O. Box 208109 New Haven, CT 06520-8109 Daniel N. Baker USA Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics [email protected] University of Colorado 1234 Innovation Drive Boulder, CO 80303-7814 Jean Besse USA Laboratoire de Paléomagnétisme [email protected] Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris 4 place Jussieu Georges Balmino 75252 Paris Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales France 18, Avenue Edouard Belin Cedex 4 [email protected] 31401 Toulouse [email protected] France [email protected] Y. J. Bhaskar Rao Paramesh Banerjee National Geophysical Research Institute Earth Observatory of Singapore Council of Scientific and Industrial Research Nanyang Technological University Uppal Road 50 Nanyang Avenue Hyderabad 500 007 639798 India Singapore [email protected] [email protected]

Jean-Pierre Barriot D. A. Bhaskara Rao Observatoire Géodésique de Tahiti National Geophysical Research Institute University of French Polynesia Hyderabad 500 007 BP 6570 India 98702 Faaa-Tahiti French Polynesia [email protected] Archana Bhattacharyya Indian Institute of Geomagnetism C. E. Barton Kalamboli, New Panvel Australian National University Navi Mumbai 410218 Canberra ACT 0200 India Australia [email protected] [email protected]

Graeme Beardsmore Jörg Bialas Monash University Leibniz-Institut für Meereswissenschaften and University of Kiel Hot Dry Rocks Pty Ltd Wischhofstr. 1-3 Victoria 24148 Kiel Australia Germany [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xv

Richard Biancale Carla Braitenberg DTP, OMP Department of Geosciences 18 Avenue Edouard Belin University of Trieste 31401 Toulouse Cedex 9 Via Weiss 1 France 34100 Trieste [email protected] Italy [email protected] Andrew Biggin Geomagnetism Laboratory Laurie Brown University of Liverpool Department of Geosciences Liverpool L69 7ZE University of Massachusetts UK Amherst, MA 01003 [email protected] USA [email protected] Joakim O. Blanch BHP Billiton 1360 Post Oak Blvd. Ste 150 Carine Bruyninx Houston, TX 77056 Department of Reference Systems and Planetology USA Royal Observatory of Belgium [email protected] Avenue Circulaire 3 1180 Brussels Paul Bodin Belgium Pacific Northwest Seismic Network (PNSN) [email protected] University of Washington 146 ATG Building Hans-Peter Bunge Seattle, WA 98195-1310 Geophysics Section, Department of Earth and USA Environmental Sciences [email protected] Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich Theresienstrasse 41 Sigrid Böhm 80333 Munich Research Group Advanced Geodesy Germany Institute of Geodesy and Geophysics [email protected] Vienna University of Technology Gusshausstrasse 27–29 1040 Vienna Evgueni Burov Austria ISTEP – Institute of Earth Sciences of Paris (UMR 7193 [email protected] UPMC-CNRS) University of Pierre et Marie Curie István Bondár 75252 Paris International Seismological Centre France Pipers Lane [email protected] Thatcham, Berkshire RG19 4NS UK Friedrich H. Busse [email protected] Institute of Physics University of Bayreuth Pascal Bonnefond Building NW II Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur, Géoazur, GRGS 95440 Bayreuth Avenue Nicolas Copernic Germany 06130 Grasse [email protected] France

Peter Bormann Michel Campillo Department 2: Physics of the Earth Observatoire de Grenoble Formerly GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences Université Joseph Fourier and CNRS Telegrafenberg BP 53 14473 Potsdam 38041 Grenoble Germany France [email protected] [email protected] xvi CONTRIBUTORS

David J. Carlson Aude Chambodut British Antarctic Survey Laboratoire de Géodynamique Globale: Champs de IPY International Programme Office Potentiels et Déformations Actives (CNRS UMR 7516) High Cross, Madingley Road Ecole et Observatoire des Sciences de la Terre (UDS) Cambridge CB3 0ET 5 rue René Descartes UK 67084 Strasbourg Cédex [email protected] France [email protected] Richard W. Carlson Department of Terrestrial Magnetism David S. Chapman Carnegie Institution of Washington Department of Geology and Geophysics 5241 Broad Branch Road, NW The University of Utah Washington, DC 20015 382 Frederick A Sutton Building, 115 South 1460 East USA Salt Lake City, UT 84112-0102 [email protected] USA [email protected] Anny Cazenave Laboratoire d'Etudes en Géophysique et Océanographie Nikolas I. Christensen Spatiales (LEGOS) Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales University of British Columbia 18 Avenue Edouard Belin Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4 31401 Toulouse Cedex 4 Canada France [email protected] [email protected] Ulrich R. Christensen Vlastislav Červený Max-Planck Institut für Sonnensystemforschung Department of Geophysics, Mathematics and Physics Max-Planck Str. 2 Charles University 37191 Katlenburg-Lindau Ke Karlovu 3 121 16 Germany Praha [email protected] Czech Republic [email protected] Christoph Clauser Institute for Applied Geophysics and Geothermal Energy R. K. Chadha E.ON Energy Research Center National Geophysical Research Institute RWTH Aachen University Uppal Road Mathieustr. 6 Hyderabad 500007, Andhra Pradesh 52074 Aachen India Germany [email protected] [email protected]

V. Chakravarthi Clarence S. Clay National Geophysical Research Institute Marine Geophysics and Wave Propagation Uppal Road Department of Geoscience Hyderabad 500 007, Andra Pradesh University of Wisconsin-Madison India 1215 W. Dayton St. [email protected] Madison, WI 53706 [email protected] USA [email protected] Jonathan E. Chambers Geophysical Tomography Team Emily A. CoBabe-Ammann British Geological Survey, Keyworth Emily A. CoBabe and Associates Nottingham NG12 5GG Boulder, CO UK USA [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xvii

Steven Constable Michael G. Davis Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics Department of Geology and Geophysics Scripps Institution of Oceanography University of Utah La Jolla, CA 92093-0225 115 South 1460 East USA Salt Lake City, UT 84112-0111 [email protected] USA [email protected]

Michele Cooke Earl E. Davis Geosciences Department – Pacific Geoscience Centre UMass Amherst Geological Survey of Canada 611 North Pleasant St 9860 W. Saanich Rd, P.O. Box 6000 Amherst, MA 01003-9297 Sidney, BC V8L 4B2 USA Canada [email protected] [email protected]

Vernon F. Cormier Paul M. Davis Physics Department Earth and Space Sciences University of Connecticut UCLA 2152 Hillside Road U-3046 405 Hilgard Ave Storrs, CT 06269-3046 Los Angeles, CA 90095 USA USA [email protected] [email protected]

Bryan Davy David Coulot GNS Science Laboratoire de Recherche en Géodésie 1 Fairway Drive Avalon, P.O. Box 30-368 Institut Géographique National, GRGS 5010 Lower Hutt Ecole Nationale des Sciences Géographiques New Zealand 6 et 8 Avenue Blaise Pascal Cité Descartes – Champs-sur-Marne 77455 Marne la Vallée Cedex 2 Eduardo F. J. de Mulder France NGU, Geological Survey of Norway [email protected] 7491 Trondheim Norway [email protected] Vincent Courtillot Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris Florent Deleflie 1 Place Jussieu Institut de Mécanique Céleste et de Calcul des 75005 Paris Ephémérides, GRGS France 77 Avenue Denfert Rochereau 75014 Paris France Stuart Crampin [email protected] British Geological Survey Murchison House West Mains Road Mike Dentith Edinburgh EH9 3LA School of Earth and Environment (M004) Scotland, UK The University of Western Australia [email protected] 35 Stirling Highway Crawley, WA 6009 Australia Shamita Das [email protected] Department of Earth Sciences University of Oxford John S. Derr South Parks Road 19 Escena Dr Oxford OX1 3AN Tijeras, NM 87059 UK USA [email protected] [email protected] xviii CONTRIBUTORS

Domenico Di Giacomo Andrew T. Fisher Department 2: Physics of the Earth Earth and Planetary Sciences Department GFZ German Research Center for Geosciences University of California at Santa Cruz Telegrafenberg Santa Cruz, CA 95064 14473 Potsdam USA Germany [email protected] [email protected] Ernst R. Flueh Leibniz-Institut für Meereswissenschaften Vijay P. Dimri University of Kiel Research, Innovation & Incubation Center Wischhofstr. 1-3 Gujarat Energy Research and Management Institute 24148 Kiel IT Tower-1, Infocity Germany Gandhinagar, Gujarat [email protected] India [email protected] Luca Formaggia [email protected] MOX, Department of Mathematics Politecnico di Milano Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32 Wolfgang Eder 20133 Milano Department of Earth Sciences Italy University of Munich [email protected] Luisenstrasse 37 80333 Munich Donald W. Forsyth Germany Department of Geological Sciences [email protected] Brown University Providence, RI 02912 USA Gary Egbert [email protected] College of Oceanic and Atmospheric Sciences Oregon State University Alessandro M. Forte 104 COAS Administration Building GEOTOP Département des Sciences de la Terre Corvallis, OR 97331-5503 et de l’Atmosphère USA Université du Québec à Montréal [email protected] CP 8888, succursale Centre-Ville Montréal, QC H3C 3P8 Eric Robert Engdahl Canada Center for Imaging the Earth's Interior [email protected] Department of Physics University of Colorado at Boulder Clive Foss Campus Box 390 UCB CSIRO Boulder, CO 80309-0390 Locked Bag 10 USA Clayton, South VIC 3169 [email protected] Australia [email protected]

Pierre Exertier Peter Fox Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur, Géoazur, GRGS Rensslear Polytechnic Institute Avenue Nicolas Copernic Troy, NY 06130 Grasse USA France [email protected] Friedemann T. Freund Cinzia G. Farnetani NASA Ames Research Center/San Jose State University Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris MS 242-4 75238 Paris Moffett Field, CA 94035-1000 France USA [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xix

Jeffrey T. Freymueller Hans-Jürgen Götze Geophysical Institute Abteilung Geophysik University of Alaska Fairbanks Institut für Geowissenschaften 903 Koyukuk Drive Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel Fairbanks, AK 99775 Otto-Hahn-Platz 1 USA 24118 Kiel [email protected] Germany [email protected] Masato Furuya Department of Natural History Sciences D. Gopala Rao Hokkaido University Geology Department N10 W8, Kita-ku Osmania University Sapporo 060-0810 Hyderabad 500 007 Japan India [email protected] [email protected]

Vineet Gahalaut Samuel H. Gray National Geophysical Research Institute (CSIR) CGGVeritas Uppal Road 715 5th Avenue SW Hyderabad 500 007 Calgary, AB T2P 5A2 India Canada [email protected] [email protected]

Carmen Gaina Marianne Greff Geodynamics Group Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris Geological Survey of Norway 1 Place Jussieu Trondheim 75005 Paris Norway France Richard A. F. Grieve Kerry Gallagher Earth Sciences Sector UMR 6118- Géosciences Rennes Natural Resources Canada Gêosciences, Université de Rennes 1 Ottawa, ON K1A 0E8 Campus de Beaulieu Canada 35042 Rennes Cedex [email protected] France [email protected] Gottfried Grünthal Helmholtz Centre Potsdam Mengtan Gao German Research Centre for Geosciences GFZ Institute of Geophysics Telegrafenberg China Earthquake Administration 14473 Potsdam No. 5 Minzudaxue Nanlu Germany Haidian District, Beijing 100081 [email protected] China [email protected] Harsh K. Gupta National Geophysical Research Institute Edward J. Garnero Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR) School of Earth and Space Exploration Uppal Road Arizona State University Hyderabad 500 606, Andhra Pradesh Tempe, AZ 85287-1404 India USA [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Woldai Ghebreab Pravin K. Gupta Department of Geology and Environmental Science Department of Earth Sciences University of Akron Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Akron, OH 44325-4101 Roorkee, Uttarakhand 247 667 USA India [email protected] [email protected] xx CONTRIBUTORS

Ron Hackney Derrick Hasterok Petroleum and Marine Division Department of Geology and Geophysics Geoscience Australia The University of Utah GPO Box 378 382 Frederick A Sutton Building, 115 South 1460 East Canberra, ACT 2601 Salt Lake City, UT 84112-0102 Australia USA [email protected] [email protected]

Stuart A. Henrys Susan L. Halgedahl GNS Science Department of Geology and Geophysics 1 Fairway Drive Avalon, P.O. Box 30-368 University of Utah 5010 Lower Hutt 115 South 1460 East, Rm. 383 New Zealand Salt Lake City, UT 84112-0111 USA John F. Hermance [email protected] Department of Geological Sciences Brown University P.O. Box 1846 David J. Hamilton Providence, RI 02912-1846 Ateeda Limited USA 24 Canning Street [email protected] Edinburgh EH3 8EG UK Richard N. Hey Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and Planetology School of Ocean and and Technology Ulrich Harms University of Hawaii Scientific Drilling 2525 Correa Road GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences Honolulu, HI 96822 Telegrafenberg USA 14473 Potsdam [email protected] Germany [email protected] Jacques Hinderer Institut de Physique du Globe de Strasbourg, CNRS Université de Strasbourg Robert N. Harris 5 rue René Descartes College of Oceanic and Atmospheric Sciences 67084 Strasbourg Oregon State University France 104 COAS Admin Bldg [email protected] Corvallis, OR 97331-5503 USA Klaus-Günter Hinzen [email protected] Earthquake Geology Group, Institute of Geology and Mineralogy Cologne University Hayo Hase Vinzenz-Pallotti-Str. 26 Geodätisches Observatorium Wettzell 51429 Bergisch Gladbach Bundesamt für Kartographie und Geodäsie Germany Sackenrieder Str. 25 hinzen@uni-koelnde 93444 Bad Kötzting Germany Albrecht W. Hofmann [email protected] Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory Columbia University Palisades, NY 10964 Akira Hasegawa USA RCPEV, Graduate School of Science and Tohoku University Max-Planck-Institut für Chemie Sendai, Miyagi 980-8578 55020 Mainz Japan Germany [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xxi

Ivan Hrvoic David D. Jackson GEM Systems, Inc Department of Earth and Space Sciences 135 Spy Court University of California Los Angeles Markham, ON L3R 5H6 595 Charles E. Young Blvd Canada Los Angeles, CA 90095 [email protected] USA [email protected]

Andrew Hugill David E. James 2 Regal Rd Apt 709 Department of Terrestrial Magnetism Toronto, ON M6H 2J4 Carnegie Institution of Washington Canada 5241 Broad Branch Rd. N.W. [email protected] Washington, DC 20015 USA [email protected] Giampiero Iaffaldano Research School of Earth Sciences The Australian National University Claude Jaupart Bldg 61 Mills Road Institut de Physique du Globe Acton, ACT 2601 4 Pl Jussieu Australia 75252 Paris [email protected] France [email protected]

Anca Isac Christopher Jekeli Geological Institute of Romania Division of Geodetic Science 1 Caransebes Str., Sector 1 School of Earth Sciences 12271 Bucharest Ohio State University Romania 125 South Oval Mall Columbus, OH 43210-1398 USA Alik Ismail-Zadeh [email protected] Geophysical Institute Karlsruhe Institute of Technology Hertzstr. 16 Mikhail K. Kaban 76187 Karlsruhe Department 1: Geodesy and Remote Sensing Germany Sektion 1.3: Earth-System Modelling and Deutsches GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam - GFZ International Institute of Earthquake Prediction Theory Telegrafenberg A 17 and Mathematical Geophysics 14473 Potsdam Russian Academy of Sciences Germany Profsoyuznaya 84/32 [email protected] Moscow 117997 Russia Yan Y. Kagan and Department of Earth and Space Sciences Institut de Physique du Globe University of California Los Angeles Paris 595 Charles E. Young Blvd France Los Angeles, CA 90095 [email protected] USA

Ursula Iturrarán-Viveros Masashi Kamogawa Departamento de Matemáticas, Facultad de Ciencias Department of Physics Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Tokyo Gakugei University Ciudad Universitaria, Circuito Escolar s/n 4-1-1, Nukuikitamachi Coyoacán 04510, México DF Koganei-shi, Tokyo 184-8501 Mexico Japan [email protected] [email protected] xxii CONTRIBUTORS

Teruyuki Kato Vladimir Kossobokov Earthquake Research Institute International Institute of Earthquake Prediction Theory The University of Tokyo and Mathematical Geophysics 1-1, Yayoi 1 Russian Academy of Sciences Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0032 Profsoyuznaya 84/32 Japan Moscow 117997 [email protected] Russia and Hartmut Kern Institut de Physique du Globe Institut für Geowissenschaften Paris Universität Kiel France 24098 Kiel [email protected] Germany [email protected] K. S. Krishna Geological Oceanography Andrzej Kijko National Institute of Oceanography (Council of Scientific Aon-Benfield Natural Hazard Centre and Industrial Research) University of Pretoria Dona Paula, Goa 403004 Room 4-30, Mineral Sciences Building India 0002 Pretoria [email protected] Republic of South Africa [email protected] Mikhail Kulesh Information Technology DIS AG Rainer Kind Rathenaustrasse 29A Helmholtz Centre Potsdam 15831 Mahlow GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences Germany Section 2.4, Seismology [email protected] Telegrafenberg A3 14473 Potsdam Ota Kulhanek Germany Department of Earth Sciences, Section of Seismology [email protected] Uppsala University Villavägen 16 Jonathan F. Kirby 752-36 Uppsala Department of Spatial Sciences Sweden Curtin University of Technology [email protected] GPO Box U1987 Perth, WA 6845 Dhananjay Kumar Australia Chevron [email protected] 1400 Smith, Room 42007 Houston, TX Miroslav Kobr USA Institute of Hydrogeology [email protected] Engineering Geology and Applied Geophysics Charles University in Prague Oliver Kuras Albertov 6 Geophysical Tomography Team 128 43 Prague 2 British Geological Survey, Keyworth Czech Republic Nottingham NG12 5GG [email protected] UK [email protected] Monika Korte Sektion 2.3, Erdmagnetfeld Cristina La Mura Helmholtz-Zentrum Potsdam Department of Geosciences Deutsches GeoForschungsZentrum – GFZ University of Trieste Telegrafenberg Via E. Weiss, 4 Pal. P 14473 Potsdam 34127 Trieste Germany Italy [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xxiii

Carlo Laj Enru Liu Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat China University of Mining and Technology Unité mixte CEA-CNRS-UVSQ Xuzhou Avenue de la Terrasse China 91190 Gif-sur-Yvette [email protected] France [email protected] Mian Liu Department of Geological Sciences Gurbax S. Lakhina University of Missouri Indian Institute of Geomagnetism Columbia, MO 65211 Kalamboli Highway USA New Panvel (W), Navi Mumbai [email protected] India [email protected] Meng Heng Loke Geotomo Software Sdn. Bhd. Carène Larmat 115, Cangkat Minden Jalan 5, Minden Heights Geophysics Group, EES-17, MS D443 11700 Gelugor, Penang Los Alamos National Laboratory Malaysia Los Alamos, NM 87545 [email protected] USA [email protected] William Lowrie Emeritus Professor of Geophysics, Institute of Geophysics Olivier Laurain Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur, Géoazur, GRGS 8092 Zürich Avenue Nicolas Copernic Switzerland 06130 Grasse [email protected] France Susan Macmillan British Geological Survey Murchison House Thorne Lay West Mains Road Earth and Planetary Sciences Department Edinburgh EH9 3LA University of California Scotland, UK Earth and Marine Sciences Building [email protected] Santa Cruz, CA 95064 USA [email protected] Raul Madariaga Laboratoire de Géologie Ecole Normale Supérieure William H. K. Lee 24 rue Lhomond U.S. Geological Survey 75231 Paris MS 977, 345 Middlefield Road France Menlo Park, CA 94025 [email protected] USA [email protected] Kumarendra Mallick National Geophysical Research Institute Juliette Legrand Uppal Road Department of Reference Systems and Planetology Hyderabad 500 606, Andhra Pradesh Royal Observatory of Belgium India Avenue Circulaire 3 [email protected] 1180 Brussels Belgium Mioara Mandea Université Paris Diderot – Institut de Physique du Globe Vincent Lesur de Paris, Géophysique spatiale et planétaire Helmholtz-Zentrum Potsdam Bâtiment Lamarck Case 7,011, 5 rue Thomas Mann Deutsches GeoForschungsZentrum 75205 Paris Cedex 13 14473 Potsdam France Germany [email protected] xxiv CONTRIBUTORS

Ajay Manglik Suzanne McEnroe National Geophysical Research Institute Norwegian Geological Survey Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) 7491 Trondheim Uppal Road Norway Hyderabad 500 606 [email protected] India [email protected] Art McGarr U.S. Geological Survey Maria-Daphne Mangriotis 345 Middlefield Road MS 977 Applied Geophysics Menlo Park, CA 94025-3591 Institute of Engineering Seismology and Earthquake USA Engineering (ITSAK) [email protected] 46 G. Scholis 5355102 Thessaloniki Greece Allen K. McNamara [email protected] School of Earth and Space Exploration Arizona State University Jean-Claude Mareschal Tempe, AZ 85287-1404 Centre GEOTOP-UQAM USA University of Québec at Montréal [email protected] P.O. Box 8888 Montréal, QC H3C 3P8 Canada Rolf Meissner [email protected] Institut für Geowissenschaften Universität Kiel 24098 Kiel Ludovic Margerin Germany Institut de Recherche en Astrophysique et Planétologie [email protected] Observatoire Midi-Pyrénées/C.N.R.S. 14, Avenue Edouard Belin 31400 Toulouse Stelios P. Mertikas France Laboratory of Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering [email protected] Exploration and Positioning Division Department of Mineral Resources Engineering Yoshihisa Maruyama Technical University of Crete Graduate School of Engineering 73100 Chania Crete Chiba University Greece 1-33 Yayoi-cho [email protected] Inage-ku, Chiba 263-8522 [email protected] Japan [email protected] Uwe Meyer Sub-Department Geophysical Reconnaissance – Robert McCaffrey Resources and Near Surface Processes Department of Geology Federal Agency for Geosciences and Mineral Resources Portland State University Stilleweg 2 Portland, OR 97207 30655 Hannover USA Germany [email protected] [email protected]

James McClain Department of Geology Andrew J. Michael University of California U.S. Geological Survey One Shields Avenue 345 Middlefield Road, MS 977 Davis, CA 95616-8605 Menlo Park, CA 94025 USA USA [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xxv

Dinesh Chandra Mishra Shailesh R. Nayak National Geophysical Research Institute Ministry of Earth Sciences Uppal Road Government of India Hyderabad (CSIR) 500 606 New Delhi 110003 India India [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Jean-Paul Montagner Seismological Laboratory, Institut de Physique du Globe J. W. Neuberg University Paris-Diderot, UMR CNRS/7154 Institute of Geophysics and Tectonics 1 rue Jussieu School of Earth and Environment 75238 Paris University of Leeds France Leeds LS2 9JT [email protected] UK [email protected] Paul Morgan Colorado Geological Survey Guust Nolet 1313 Sherman Street, Rm 715 Geosciences Azur Denver, CO 80203 250, Rue Albert Einstein USA 6560 Sophia Antipolis [email protected] France [email protected] Wim A. Mulder Department of Geotechnology Axel Nothnagel Delft University of Technology VLBI Research Group P.O. Box 5048 Institute of Geodesy and Geoinformation 2600 GA Delft University of Bonn The Netherlands Nussallee 17 [email protected] 53115 Bonn Germany [email protected] Roger M. W. Musson Earthquake Seismology British Geological Survey Emile A. Okal West Mains Road Department of Earth & Planetary Sciences Edinburgh EH9 3LA Northwestern University Scotland, UK Evanston, IL 60208 [email protected] USA [email protected] Toshiyasu Nagao Earthquake Prediction Research Center Gordon R. Osinski Institute of Oceanic Research and Development Department of Earth Sciences/Physics and Astronomy Tokai University University of Western Ontario 3-20-1 Orido London, ON N6A 5B7 Shimizu-ku, Shizuoka-shi, Shizuoka 424-8610 Canada Japan [email protected] [email protected] Harald von der Osten-Woldenburg Nandini Nagarajan National Heritage Department National Geophysical Research Institute Regional Government of Baden-Wuerttemberg Uppal Road Berliner Strasse 12 Hyderabad 500007 73728 Esslingen am Neckar India Germany [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] xxvi CONTRIBUTORS

Giuliano F. Panza Leif Persson Department of Geosciences Department of Underwater Research University of Trieste FOI Via E. Weiss, 4 Pal. P Gullfossgatan 6 34127 Trieste 164 90 Stockholm Italy Sweden and [email protected] Earth System Physics Section/Sand Group The Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics William K. Peterson Trieste Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics Italy University of Colorado [email protected] 1234 Innovation Drive Boulder, CO 80303-7814 M. Parsons USA National Snow and Ice Data Center [email protected] University of Colorado [email protected] Boulder, CO USA [email protected] J. D. A. Piper Geomagnetism Laboratory Vincenzo Pasquale University of Liverpool Dipartimento per lo Studio del Territorio e delle sue Liverpool L69 3BX Risorse, Settore di Geofisica UK Università degli Studi di Genova [email protected] Viale Benedetto XV 5 16132 Genova Italy Donald R. Prothero [email protected] Department of Geology Occidental College Nikolaos K. Pavlis 1600 Campus Rd Geodesy and Geophysics Basic and Applied Research Los Angeles, CA 90041-4858 National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) USA 12310 Sunrise Valley Drive, Mail Stop P-126 [email protected] Reston, VA 20191-3449 USA [email protected] Ivan Pšenčík Institute of Geophysics Ingo A. Pecher Academy of Sciences of Czech Republic GNS Science Boční II 141 31 1 Fairway Drive, P.O. Box 30368 Praha 5040 Lower Hutt Czech Republic New Zealand [email protected] and Institute of Petroleum Engineering Heriot-Watt University Alfio Quarteroni Edinburgh EH14 4AS MOX, Department of Mathematics UK Politecnico di Milano [email protected] Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32 20133 Milano W. R. Peltier Italy Department of Physics and University of Toronto CMCS–MATHICSE 60 St. George Street EPFL Toronto, ON M5S 1A7 1015 Lausanne Canada Switzerland [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xxvii

Tallavajhala Radhakrishna J. N. Reddy Geoscience Division Department of Mechanical Engineering Centre for Earth Science Studies Texas A&M University P.O. no. 7250, Akkulam, Thuruvikkal 3123 TAMU Trivandrum 695031 College Station, TX 77843-3123 India USA [email protected] jnreddytamu.edu [email protected] V. Rama Murthy Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences David A. Rhoades Institute of Meteoritics, University of New Mexico GNS Science 313 A Northrop Hall 1 1 Fairway Drive, Avalon Albuquerque, NM 87131-1126 P.O. Box 30-368 USA 5010 Lower Hutt [email protected] New Zealand [email protected] G. Ramillien DTP, OMP Paul G. Richards 18 Avenue Edouard Belin Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory 31401 Toulouse Cedex 9 Columbia University France 61 Route 9W, P.O. Box 1000 [email protected] Palisades, NY 10964 USA [email protected] Sunita Rani Department of Mathematics Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology Paul H. Roberts Hisar 125001 Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics India University of California [email protected] Los Angeles, CA 90095-1567 USA [email protected] Hojjatollah Ranjbar Department of Mining Engineering Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman Johan O. A. Robertsson Jomhouri Eslami Blvd. Schlumberger Cambridge Research 76135-133 Kerman High Cross, Madingley Road Iran Cambridge CB3 0EL [email protected] UK [email protected] Dhananjay Ravat Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences Fabio Romanelli University of Kentucky Department of Geosciences 101 Slone Building University of Trieste Lexington, KY 40506-0053 Via E. Weiss, 4 Pal. P USA 34127 Trieste [email protected] Italy [email protected] James W. Rector, III Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Barbara Romanowicz University of California at Berkeley Berkeley Seismological Laboratory 412 Davis Hall 215 McCone Hall Berkeley, CA 94709 Berkeley, CA 94720 USA USA [email protected] [email protected] xxviii CONTRIBUTORS

Philippe Roux Malcolm Sambridge Observatoire de Grenoble Seismology and Mathematical Geophysics Université Joseph Fourier and CNRS Research School of Earth Sciences BP 53 The Australian National University 38041 Grenoble Canberra, ACT 0200 France Australia [email protected]

Kabir Roy Chowdhury Francisco J. Sánchez-Sesma Department of Earth Sciences Instituto de Ingeniería Utrecht University Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Budapestlaan 4 Ciudad Universitaria, Circuito Escolar s/n 3584 Utrecht Coyoacán 04510, México DF The Netherlands Mexico [email protected] [email protected]

Ladislaus Rybach William A. Sandham Geowatt AG Zurich Scotsig Dohlenweg 28 40 Westbourne Gardens 8050 Zurich Glasgow G12 9PF Switzerland UK [email protected] [email protected]

John H. Sass Leonardo Sagnotti Great Lakes Geothermal Services Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia P.O. Box 610208 Via di Vigna Murata 605 Port Huron, MI 48061 00143 Rome USA Italy [email protected] [email protected]

Magdalena Scheck-Wenderoth Kalachand Sain Sect. 4.4: Basin Analysis National Geophysical Research Institute Helmholtz Centre Potsdam Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR) GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences Uppal Road Telegrafenberg C4 Hyderabad 500 606 14473 Potsdam India Germany [email protected] [email protected]

Harald Schuh Bertrand de Saint-Jean Research Group Advanced Geodesy Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur, Géoazur, GRGS Institute of Geodesy and Geophysics Avenue Nicolas Copernic Vienna University of Technology 06130 Grasse Gusshausstrasse 27–29 France 1040 Vienna Austria [email protected] Mahmoud Mohamed Selim Saleh Department of Nature and Applied Sciences Al-Aflaj Community College Gerard T. Schuster AL-Kharj University Division of Environmental and Earth Sciences 710-11912 Al-Aflaj, Riyadh King Abdullah University of Science and Technology Saudi Arabia Thule [email protected] Saudi Arabia [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xxix

Martha Schwartz Lydie Sichoix Department of Earth Sciences Observatoire Géodésique de Tahiti University of Southern California University of French Polynesia 3651 Trousdale Parkway ZHS 117 BP 6570 Los Angeles, CA 90089 98702 Faaa-Tahiti USA French Polynesia [email protected] [email protected]

Johannes Schweitzer Michael G. Sideris NORSAR Department of Geomatics Engineering P.O. Box 53 University of Calgary 2027 Kjeller 2500 University Drive NW Norway Calgary, AB T2N 1N4 [email protected] Canada [email protected] Mrinal K. Sen Department of Geological Sciences UT Institute for Geophysics, Jackson School of Kumar Hemant Singh Geosciences NASA Goddard Space Flight Center The University of Texas at Austin Planetary Geodynamics Laboratory Pickle Research Campus, 10100 Burnet Road, Bldg 196 Greenbelt, MD 20771 Austin, TX 78758 USA USA and [email protected] Goddard Earth Sciences and Technology Center University of Maryland Baltimore County 5523 Research Park Drive, Suite 320 A. M. Celâl Şengör Baltimore, MD 21228 Eurasia Earth Science Institute USA Istanbul Technical University [email protected] 34469 Istanbul Turkey [email protected] Sarva Jit Singh Indian National Science Academy New Delhi 110002 Nikolai M. Shapiro India Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris [email protected] 4 place Jussieu 75252 Paris France Satish C. Singh Laboratoire de Géoscience Marines Krishna Kant Sharma Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris Department of Applied Geology 1 rue Jussieu, Case 89 University of Madras 75238 Paris Chennai 600 025, Tamilnadu France India [email protected] [email protected]

Lee Slater John Shaw Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences Geomagnetism Laboratory Rutgers University University of Liverpool 101 Warren St., Smith 136 Liverpool L69 7ZE Newark, NJ 07102 UK USA [email protected] [email protected] xxx CONTRIBUTORS

Alan G. Smith Seth Stein Department of Earth Sciences Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences University of Cambridge Northwestern University Sedgwick Museum, Downing Street Evanston, IL 60208 Cambridge CB2 3EQ, CB1 2AX USA UK [email protected] [email protected] France St-Laurent 125, 68e Avenue Gennady Sobolev LaSalle, QC H8P 3H1 Institute of Physics of the Earth Canada Russian Academy of Sciences [email protected] B. Gruzinskaya ul., 10 Moscow 123810 Paul L. Stoffa Russia Department of Geological Sciences, UT Institute for [email protected] Geophysics, Jackson School of Geosciences The University of Texas at Austin Pickle Research Campus, 10100 Burnet Road, Bldg 196 Semere Solomon Austin, TX 78758 Det Norske Veritas USA DNV Research and Innovation 1322 Høvik Dmitry A. Storchak Norway International Seismological Centre (ISC) [email protected] Pipers Lane Thatcham, Berkshire RG19 4NS UK Xiaodong Song [email protected] Department of Geology University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Peter Suhadolc 1301 W. Green St. Department of Geosciences Urbana, IL 61801 University of Trieste USA Via Weiss, 2 [email protected] Trieste Italy Ravi P. Srivastava [email protected] Fractals in Geophysics National Geophysical Research Institute Neil Suttie Uppal Road Geomagnetism Laboratory Hyderabad 500 007 University of Liverpool India Liverpool L69 7ZE [email protected] UK [email protected]

Frank D. Stacey Christopher J. Swain Division of Exploration and Mining Department of Spatial Sciences CSIRO Curtin University of Technology P.O. Box 883 GPO Box U1987 Kenmore 4069 Perth, WA 6845 Australia Australia [email protected] [email protected] László Szarka Vaughan Stagpoole Geodetic and Geophysical Research GNS Science Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences 1 Fairway Drive Avalon, P.O. Box 30-368 P.O. Box 5 5010 Lower Hutt 9401 Sopron New Zealand Hungary CONTRIBUTORS xxxi

Donald H. Tarling Tamás Tóth School of Earth, Ocean and Environmental Sciences Geomega Limited University of Plymouth Mester u. 4 Drake Circus 1095 Budapest Plymouth PL4 8AA Hungary UK [email protected] [email protected] Bruce T. Tsurutani Erwan Thébault Jet Propulsion Laboratory Équipe de Géomagnétisme California Institute of Technology Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris Pasadena, CA 1 rue Jussieu USA 75005 Paris Cedex [email protected] France [email protected] Srinivasa Kumar Tummala Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services Robert Thériault Hyderabad 500055 Quebec Ministry of Natural Resources and Wildlife India 5700, 4ème Avenue Ouest, Bureau A-401 [email protected] Québec, QC G1H 6R1 Canada James A. Tyburczy [email protected] School of Earth and Space Exploration Arizona State University Tempe, AZ 85287-1404 Clifford H. Thurber USA Department of Geoscience [email protected] University of Wisconsin-Madison 1215 W. Dayton St. Madison, WI 53706-1672 Seiya Uyeda USA Japan Academy [email protected] 7-32, Ueno Park Taito-ku, Tokyo 110-0007 Japan Virendra M. Tiwari [email protected] Gravity and Magnetic Studies Group National Geophysical Research Institute (CSIR) Franco Vaccari Uppal Road Department of Geosciences Hyderabad 500 606, Andhra Pradesh University of Trieste India Via E. Weiss, 4 Pal. P [email protected] 34127 Trieste [email protected] Italy [email protected] Harold J. Tobin Department of Geoscience Petr Vaníček University of Wisconsin-Madison Department of Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering 1215 W. Dayton St. University of New Brunswick Madison, WI 53706 P.O. Box 4400 USA Fredericton E3B 5A3 [email protected] Canada [email protected] Shinji Toda Disaster Prevention Research Institute Anthwar Vasanthi Kyoto University National Geophysical Research Institute Gokasho Uppal Road Uji, Kyoto 611-0011 Hyderabad 500 606, Andhra Pradesh Japan India [email protected] [email protected] xxxii CONTRIBUTORS

Nimisha Vedanti Lianxing Wen Fractals in Geophysics Department of Geosciences National Geophysical Research Institute State University of New York, at Stony Brook Uppal Road Stony Brook, NY 11794 Hyderabad 500 007 USA India [email protected] [email protected] Helmut Wiesemeyer Lev P. Vinnik Millimeter and Submillimeter Astronomy Institute of Physics of the Earth Max-Planck-Institute for Radio Astronomy Bol. Gruzinskaya str., 10 Auf dem Hügel 61 GSP Moscow 123995 53121 Bonn Russia Germany [email protected] [email protected] Ray Wood John M. Wahr GNS Science Department of Physics and Cooperative Institute for 1 Fairway Drive Avalon, P.O. Box 30-368 Research in Environmental Sciences 5010 Lower Hutt University of Colorado New Zealand Campus Box 390 [email protected] Boulder, CO 80309-0390 USA Ian Wright [email protected] National Oceanography Centre European Way David J. Wald Southampton SO14 3ZH U.S. Geological Survey UK Denver Federal Center P.O. Box 25046 Guangyin Xu MS966 Lakewood, CO 80225 Institute of Geophysics, China Earthquake Administration USA No. 5 Minzudaxue Nanlu [email protected] Haidian District, Beijing 100081 China Yanghua Wang [email protected] Department of Earth Science and Engineering Centre for Reservoir Geophysics Fumio Yamazaki Imperial College London Graduate School of Engineering London SW7 2BP Chiba University UK 1-33 Yayoi-cho [email protected] Inage-ku, Chiba 263-8522 Japan [email protected] Steven N. Ward Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics Takashi Yoshino University of California at Santa Cruz Institute for Study of the Earth’s Interior Santa Cruz, CA 95064 Okayama University USA 827 Yamada [email protected] Misasa, Tottori 682-0193 [email protected] Japan [email protected] Anthony B. Watts Department of Earth Sciences Yanxiang Yu University of Oxford Institute of Geophysics, China Earthquake Administration Parks Road No. 5 Minzudaxue Nanlu Oxford OX1 3PR Haidian District, Beijing 100081 UK China [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xxxiii

Xiaohui Yuan Wu Zhongliang Section Seismology Institute of Geophysics GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences China Earthquake Administration Telegrafenberg No. 5, Minzudaxuenanlu 14473 Potsdam Beijing 100081 Germany China [email protected] [email protected]

Colin A. Zelt Mark A. Zumberge Department of Earth Science Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics Rice University Scripps Institution of Oceanography MS-126, P.O. Box 1892 University of California Houston, TX 77251-1892 La Jolla, San Diego, CA 92093-0225 USA USA [email protected] [email protected]

Preface

All information about the Earth’s interior comes from field This is realized by identifying the necessary topics and observations and measurements made within the top few bringing together over 200 articles covering established kilometers of the surface, from laboratory experiments and new concepts of Geophysics across the sub-disciplines and from the powers of human deduction, relying on com- such as Gravity, Geodesy, Geoelectricity, Geomagnetism, plex numerical modeling. Solid Earth Geophysics encom- Seismology, Seismics, Deep Earth Interior and Processes, passes all these endeavors and aspires to define and Plate Tectonics, Geothermics, Computational Methods, quantify the internal structure and processes of the Earth etc. in a consistent format. Exceptional Exploration in terms of the principles of physics, corresponding mathe- Geophysics and Geotechnical Engineering topics are matical formulations and computational procedures. The included for the sake of completeness. Topics pertaining role of Solid Earth Geophysics has gained prominence with to near Earth environs, other than the classical ‘Solid increasing recognition of the fact that knowledge and Earth’, are not within the scope of this volume as it is felt understanding of Earth processes are central to the contin- that the growth of knowledge in these fields justify ued well being of the global community. Apart from persis- a dedicated volume to cover them. tent search for natural resources, this research line is linked Articles written by leading experts intend to provide to basic investigations regarding the mutual relationships a holistic treatment of Solid Earth Geophysics and guide between climate and tectonics and on the effects of global researchers to more detailed sources of knowledge should change in terms of a wide spectrum of natural hazards. they require them. As basic understanding and application Consequently, the pursuit of this science has seen spectacu- of Solid Earth Geophysics is essential for professionals lar progress all over the world in recent decades, both in of many allied disciplines such as Civil Engineering; fundamental and applied aspects, necessarily aided by Environmental Sciences; Mining, Exploration and software advancements in allied fields of science and technology. industries; NGOs working on large scale social agenda; The Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics, aims to etc., it would be useful to them to have access to a ready serve as a comprehensive compendium of information and up-to-date source of knowledge on key topics of Solid on important topics of Solid Earth Geophysics and pro- Earth Geophysics. Hopefully, this Encyclopedia would vide a systematic and up-to-date coverage of its important prove to be an authoritative and current reference source aspects including primary concepts as well as key topics with extraordinary width of scope, drawing its unique of interest. It, however, does not claim to chronicle each strength from the expert contributions of editors and and every niche area that in reality is a part of this multi- authors across the globe. disciplinary and multi-faceted science. Neither does it I am grateful to Anny Cazenave, Kusumita Arora, attempt to describe the basic physics of matter and energy Bob Engdahl, Seiya Uyeda, Rainer Kind, Ajay Manglik, systems, which comprise the underlying tenets of geo- Kalachand Sain and Sukanta Roy, members of the physical research. The first edition of this Encyclopedia, Editorial Board for their constant advice and guidance in edited by Prof. David James, was published in 1989 by developing the framework of this Encyclopedia and help the Van Nostrand Reinhold publishing company. The with the editorial work. I am equally grateful to all the extraordinary growth and diversification of this science authors who readily agreed to contribute and honoured over the last twenty years called for a complete revision. the guidelines and time schedule. xxxvi PREFACE

Petra van Steenbergen, Sylvia Blago, Simone Giesler daughters Nidhi & Benu supported me through the entire and D. Nishantini from Springer were very co-operative. project. It has been a pleasure working with Springer. Ms M. Uma Anuradha provided extraordinary assistance Harsh K. Gupta in the preparation of this volume. My wife Manju and (Editor-in-Chief) Acknowledgments

The manuscripts went through several iterations during Germany; Andrew Jackson, Switzerland; Sridevi Jade, their development and at each stage the manuscripts were India; Thomas Jahr, Germany; Masashi Kamogawa, carefully reviewed by well known experts in their respec- Japan; Brian Kennett, Australia; Rainer Kind, Germany; tive fields. The following have graciously spent their valu- Shuichi Kodaira, Japan; Naoji Koizumi, Japan; Monika able time in reviewing one or more articles: Korte, Germany; Ivan Koulakov, Russia; H. Kumagai, Japan; Prakash Kumar, India; Kanani Lee, USA; Joachim Rachel Abercrombie, USA; Nick Ambraseys, UK; John Linthe, Germany; William Lowrie, Switzerland; Anderson, USA; Kusumita Arora, India; Vladislav M. Venkateshwarlu, India; M. Ravi Kumar, India; Babuska, Czech Republic; Georges Balmino, France; Kumarendra Mallick, India; Subhashish Mallick, USA; Paramesh Banerjee, Singapore; Francois Barlier, France; Mioara Mandea, France; Ajay Manglik, India; Jean- Jean-Pierre Barriot, France; David Bercovici, USA; Eric Claude Mareschal, France; Didier Massonet, France; T. Bergman, USA; Richard Biancale, France; Francesca Mtsuzawa, Japan; Walter D. Mooney, USA; Daniel Moos, Bianco, Italy; Sue Bilek, USA; Thomas Bleier, USA; USA; Roger Musson, UK; Steve Myers, USA; Chaiwoot Boonyasiriwat, USA; Michael Bostock, N. Purnachandra Rao, India; Toshi Nagao, Japan; Nandini Canada; C. Boucher, France; Michel Bouchon, France; Nagarajan, India; S.W.A. Naqvi, India; Guust Nolet, Carla Braitenberg, Italy; Kevin Burke, USA; Rhett Butler, France; Maheswar Ojha, India; Bob Pawlowski, USA; USA; Anny Cazenave, France; David S. Chapman, USA; Mita Rajaram, India; Gilles Ramstein, France; M.V.M.S. George Choy, USA; Christoph Clauser, Germany; Steve Rao, India; V. Vijaya Rao, India; Paul G. Richards, Constable, USA; Chris Cramer, USA; Shamita Das, USA; Paul Roberts, USA; Barbara Romanowicz, USA; USA; James Dewey, USA; Michel Diament, France; Sukanta Roy, India; Kalachand Sain, India; Martha Mathieu Dumberry, USA; Utpal Dutta, USA; Eric Robert Savage, New Zealand; M. M. Selim, Egypt; Peter Shearer, Engdahl, USA; Cinzia G. Farnetani, France; Donald W. USA; Anne Sheehan, USA; Satish C. Singh, France; Forsyth, USA; Alessandro Forte, Canada; C. Mary R. Vipin K. Srivastava, India; Peter Suhadolc, Italy; Kiyoshi Fowler, UK; Olivier Francis, Luxembourg; Bernhard Suyehiro, Japan; Matthieu Sylvander, France; Pradeep Friedrich, Germany; Yoshio Fukao, Japan; Vineet Talwani, USA; John Tarduno, USA; Virendra M. Tiwari, Gahalaut, India; Fuchun Gao, USA; Wolfram Geissler, India; R.K. Tiwari, India; C.C. Tscherning, Denmark; Germany; Louis Geli, France; Harsh K.Gupta, India; Shin’ya Tsukada, Japan; Seiya Uyeda, Japan; Pravin K. Gupta, India; Winfried Hanka, Germany; Chakravarthi V.C., India; David Wald, USA; John T. Yasushi Harada, Japan; Bob Hardage, USA; Robert N. Weaver, USA; Maximilian Werner, Switzerland; Rudolf Harris, USA; Derrick Hasterok, USA; Stuart Henrys, Widmer-Schnidrig, Germany; Max Wyss, USA; Robert S. New Zealand; I.V. Radhakrishnamurthy, India; Heiner Yeats, USA; Yongxian Zhang, China. Igel, Germany; Kojiro Irikura, Japan; Alik Ismail-Zadeh,