ENCYCLOPEDIA of SOLID EARTH GEOPHYSICS Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SOLID EARTH GEOPHYSICS Volume Editor Harsh K. Gupta currently holds the prestigious Panikkar Professorship at the National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI), Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR), Hyderabad, India. Pursuing a luminous career in a variety of aspects of the Earth Sciences for over four decades, he is globally known for providing the first geophysical evidence of an enormously thick crust below the Himalaya and Tibet Plateau region, identifying the common characteristics of artificial water reservoir triggered earthquakes and discriminating them from normal earthquakes, setting up India’s first permanent station at Antarctica in a record time, and in the recent years, spearheading the designing and commissioning of the Tsunami Warning System for India, after the disastrous tsunami caused by the 26th December 2004 Sumatra earthquake. He has published over 200 papers and written 4 pioneering books, published by Elsevier. Editorial Board Kusumita Arora Ajay Manglik National Geophysical Research Institute National Geophysical Research Institute Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Uppal Road Uppal Road Hyderabad 500 606 Hyderabad 500 606 India India Anny Cazenave Sukanta Roy Laboratoire d’Etudes en Géophysique et National Geophysical Research Institute Océanographie Spatiales (LEGOS) Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales Uppal Road 18 Avenue Edouard Belin Hyderabad 500 606 31401 Toulouse Cedex 4 India France Kalachand Sain Eric Robert Engdahl National Geophysical Research Institute Center for Imaging the Earth’s Interior Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Department of Physics Uppal Road University of Colorado at Boulder Hyderabad 500 606 Campus Box 390 UCB India Boulder, CO 80309-0390 USA Seiya Uyeda Japan Academy Rainer Kind 7-32, Ueno Park Helmholtz Centre Potsdam Taito-ku, Tokyo 110-0007 GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences Japan Section 2.4, Seismology Telegrafenberg A3 14473 Potsdam Germany Aims of the Series The Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences. Each volume comprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrations and reference lists. These books represent one of the world’s leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and new works published so that the volumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatolo- gists, and oceanographers as well as for teachers and students. See the dustjacket of this volume for a current list of titles in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Go to http://www.springerlink.com/reference-works/ to visit the “Earth Sciences Series” online. About the Series Editor Professor Charles W. Finkl has edited and/or contributed to more than eight volumes in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. For the past 25 years he has been the Executive Director of the Coastal Education & Research Foundation and Editor-in-Chief of the international Journal of Coastal Research. In addition to these duties, he is Research Professor at Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida, USA. He is a graduate of the University of Western Australia (Perth) and previously worked for a wholly owned Australian subsidiary of the International Nickel Company of Canada (INCO). During his career, he acquired field experience in Australia; the Caribbean; South America; SW Pacific islands; southern Africa; Western Europe; and the Pacific Northwest, Midwest, and Southeast USA. Founding Series Editor Professor Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) has edited more than 24 Encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career he has worked as a petroleum geologist in the Middle East, been a WW II intelligence officer in the SW Pacific and led expeditions to the Sahara, Arctic Canada, Arctic Scandinavia, Brazil and New Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and was affiliated with the Goddard Institute for Space Studies. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES ENCYCLOPEDIA of SOLID EARTH GEOPHYSICS Volume 1 edited by HARSH K. GUPTA National Geophysical Research Institute Council of Scientific and Industrial Research Hyderabad India Library of Congress Control Number: 2011924208 ISBN: 978-90-481-8701-0 This publication is available also as: Electronic publication under ISBN 978-90-481-8702-7 and Print and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-90-481-8732-4 Published by Springer P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands The original Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics was compiled by David E. James, and was first published in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series in 1989. Printed on acid-free paper Cover figure credit: Mineral Physics Institute at Stony Brook University, illustration by Keelin Murphy Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproduced from other sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that due acknowledgment may be made in subsequent editions. All Rights Reserved for Contributions on Gravity, Data to Anomalies; Gravity, Global Models; Instrumentation, Electrical Resistivity; Spherical Harmonic Analysis Applied to Potential Fields © Springer Science þ Business Media B.V. 2011 No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Contents Contributors xiii Crustal Reflectivity (Oceanic) and Magma Chamber 78 Satish C. Singh Preface xxxv Curie Temperature 89 Acknowledgments xxxvii Vincenzo Pasquale Absolute Age Determinations: Radiometric 1 Deep Scientific Drilling 91 Richard W. Carlson Ulrich Harms and Harold J. Tobin Archaeomagnetism 8 Deep Seismic Reflection and Refraction Profiling 103 Donald H. Tarling Kabir Roy Chowdhury ’ Archaeoseismology 11 Differential Rotation of the Earth s Inner Core 118 Klaus-Günter Hinzen Xiaodong Song Artificial Water Reservoir Triggered Earthquakes 15 Earth Rotation 123 Harsh K. Gupta Harald Schuh and Sigrid Böhm Earth Tides 129 Biogeophysics 25 John M. Wahr Lee Slater and Estella Atekwana Earth, Density Distribution 133 Body Waves 29 Frank D. Stacey and Paul M. Davis Mahmoud Mohamed Selim Saleh Earth’s Structure, Core 137 Characteristic Earthquakes and Seismic Gaps 37 Lianxing Wen David D. Jackson and Yan Y. Kagan Earth’s Structure, Continental Crust 138 Continental Drift 40 Rolf Meissner and Hartmut Kern Alan G. Smith Earth’s Structure, Global 144 Continental Rifts 41 Jean-Paul Montagner A. M. Celâl Şengör Earth’s Structure, Lower Mantle 154 Core Dynamo 55 Edward J. Garnero, Allen K. McNamara and Ulrich R. Christensen James A. Tyburczy Core-Mantle Coupling 64 Earth’s Structure, Upper Mantle 159 Paul H. Roberts and Jonathan M. Aurnou Guust Nolet vi CONTENTS Earthquake Lights 165 Earthquakes, Volcanogenic 261 John S. Derr, France St-Laurent, J. W. Neuberg Friedemann T. Freund and Robert Thériault Electrical Properties of Rocks 270 Earthquake Precursors and Prediction 168 Takashi Yoshino Seiya Uyeda, Toshiyasu Nagao and Masashi Kamogawa Electrical Resistivity Surveys and Data Interpretation 276 Earthquake Prediction, M8 Algorithm 178 Meng Heng Loke Alik Ismail-Zadeh and Vladimir Kossobokov Electronic Geophysical Year 283 William K. Peterson, Daniel N. Baker, Earthquake Rupture: Inverse Problem 182 Shamita Das C. E. Barton, Peter Fox, M. A. Parsons and Emily A. CoBabe-Ammann Earthquake Sounds 188 Andrew J. Michael Energy Budget of the Earth 285 Jean-Claude Mareschal and Claude Jaupart Earthquake, Aftershocks 192 Energy Partitioning of Seismic Waves 291 Mian Liu and Seth Stein Kalachand Sain Earthquake, Focal Mechanism 194 Equatorial Electrojet 294 Emile A. Okal Archana Bhattacharyya Earthquake, Foreshocks 199 Fractals and Chaos 297 Mian Liu Vijay P. Dimri, Ravi P. Srivastava and Nimisha Vedanti Earthquake, Location Techniques 201 Clifford H. Thurber Free Oscillations of the Earth 302 Sarva Jit Singh and Sunita Rani Earthquake, Magnitude 207 Peter Bormann Geodesy, Figure of the Earth 313 Kusumita Arora Earthquakes and Crustal Deformation 218 Robert McCaffrey Geodesy, Ground Positioning and Leveling 316 Stelios P. Mertikas Earthquakes, Early and Strong Motion Warning 226 Richard M. Allen Geodesy, Networks and Reference Systems 323 Hayo Hase Earthquakes, Energy 233 Domenico Di Giacomo and Peter Bormann Geodesy, Physical 331 V. Chakravarthi Earthquakes, Intensity 237 Gottfried Grünthal Geodetic Pendulums, Horizontal Ultra Broad Band 336 Carla Braitenberg Earthquakes, PAGER 243 David J. Wald Geodynamics 340 Alessandro M. Forte Earthquakes, Shake Map 245 David J. Wald Geoelectromagnetism 341 Antal Ádám and László Szarka Earthquakes, Source Theory 248 Raul Madariaga Geoid 353 Paramesh Banerjee Earthquakes, Strong-Ground Motion 252 Giuliano F. Panza, Cristina La Mura, Geoid Determination, Theory and Principles 356 Fabio Romanelli and Franco Vaccari