This article was downloaded by: 10.3.98.104 On: 29 Sep 2021 Access details: subscription number Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: 5 Howick Place, London SW1P 1WG, UK
The Ming World
Kenneth M. Swope
How Yongle learned to stop worrying and love the gun
Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780429318719-5 Tonio Andrade Published online on: 28 Aug 2019
How to cite :- Tonio Andrade. 28 Aug 2019, How Yongle learned to stop worrying and love the gun from: The Ming World Routledge Accessed on: 29 Sep 2021 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780429318719-5
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR DOCUMENT
Full terms and conditions of use: https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/legal-notices/terms
This Document PDF may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproductions, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.
The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:23 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429318719, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429318719-5 I licose andambitioususurperYongle(r. Ming period. on. Yet there is much work yet to be done, and this is particularly true of the early niques; experimentswith broadside ships andRenaissance artillery fortresses; and so such asthevolleytechnique;advancedhybridmetallurgical cannoncastingtech Europe); theeffectiveuseofadvanced(bystandardsEurope)infantrytactics from thePortuguese,Japanese,OttomanEmpire,northern and effectiveadoptionofgunpowdertechnologyfromotherpeoples(fromVietnam, the groundworkforlong andsuccessfulMingDynasty. Chinese rivals,runtheMongolsoutofChina,andexpand China’sborders,laying gunners withinhisinfantry,whohelpedhim overcomehispowerfulHan invested heavily in firearm manufacture, working to increase the proportions of Yuanzhang. This makes sense, because, as historians have noted, Zhu Yuanzhang military historyhasfocusedonhisfather,thefounder oftheMingDynasty,Zhu units washigherthaninEuropefromthe wide anddeepuseoffirearmsinitsarmedforces(theproportionfirearm-toting sudden militarycollapseinthelate innovative reformsandadaptations,whichkeptitamajormilitarypoweruntilits that throughoutthe was seenasbackwards,conservative,andineffective,recentworkhasestablished the followingcenturies.Whereaspreviouslymid-andlate-MingDynastymilitary those ofanyotherstateintheworld. empire, possessinggun-bearinginfantrythatweremorenumerousandeffectivethan the proportionofgunners beyond thelevelsinhisfather’sarmies.Healsofocused Ming firearmsuse,theFirearms Commandery,wasestablished,andYongleincreased and expandingthem.Itwas underhisrulethatthecentraladministrativestructure of early Mingstatewas,theyhaveshown,theworld’smostpowerfulgunpowder n recentyears,scholarshavedevelopedanewappreciationforMingwarfare.The This chapterfocusesonthetwo-decadereignofthird Mingemperor,thebel Scholars have drawn attention to many different aspects of Ming military history – the the Scholars havedrawnattentiontomanydifferentaspectsofMingmilitaryhistory– Yet hissonYonglecarried forthhisfather’sfirearmsinnovations,systematizing HOW YONGLELEARNEDTOSTOP WORRYING ANDLOVETHEGUN Perspectives onearlyMingmilitaryhistory 1500 s andearly Tonio Andrade CHAPTER 3 1630 1600 1 NordidtheMingloseitsmilitarymojoover s. 71 s theMingundertookaseriesofstrikingly 2 1402 1300 – s throughthemid- 1424 ). MostworkonearlyMing 1500 s); therapid - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:23 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429318719, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429318719-5 named him the Prince of Yan and gave him a fiefdom based in the city of Beiping named himthePrinceofYanandgaveafiefdombasedincityBeiping The Yongleemperorhadgrownupinamartialworld.Attheageofnine,hisfather Ming Dynasty. institutions andpracticesthatwouldinsomecasesremainextantfortherestof opment and systematization of the Ming gunpowder empire, a coming into being of Vi he finallydefeatedhisrivalandcametothethrone.InuseofgunsagainstĐ in his use of guns occurring during the huge military expeditions he undertook after After thisepisode,herapidlyincreasedhisuseofguns,andwecanseefurtherstages cessfully againsthim,leadingtoasignificantdefeatfromwhichhebarelyescaped. he came to appreciate the gun, and he did so, it seems, because guns were used suc his warforsuccessioninmoresoutherlypartsofChina,towitthecentralplains,that mounted nomadsasenemies,ratherthaninfantryarmies.Aswe’llsee,itwasduring of whethergunsevolvedmoreslowlyinChinabecausetheChinesefacedprimarily thus shedlightonacentralproblematicofChinesemilitaryhistory:thequestion northern reachestousurperfightinginthecentralplain.Hisembraceofgunmay his attitudetowardfirearmschangedashemadeatransitionfromprinceofthe innovation, particularlytheĐ southwards againstVietnam(Đ on thedeploymentofgunsinhismassivewarsnorthwardsagainstMongolsand loyalty wouldcomeinhandy startingin the princeinheritedloyalty oftheoldgeneral’smen,bestarmyinChina.This Mongols, whichgaveahint ofhisabilitiesasafieldcommander.WhenXuDadied, expeditions, includingafamous training, fortification,and patrols. He also accompanied his mentors northward on Fu Youde,towhomtheyoungprinceservedasaide-de-camp, helpinginroutine prince learned the art of war from his father-in-law and from another top general, captured thecityofSuzhou,seatpowerfulKing ofWu,ZhangShicheng.The who hadhelpedbringhisfathervictoryonmanyoccasions, asin the ageofseventeenhemarrieddaughterChina’s topmilitaryman,XuDa, He grewintoanimpressiveman:tall,athletic,andbetter lookingthanhisfather.At rain andsnow,learningtheuseofgunpowder,firearms, andtraditionalweapons. boy enjoyedriding and practicing parading,andhe trained hard,livinginthe training, andthefutureYongle,i.e.,PrinceofYan, provedaneagerpupil.The other gunpowderweaponsweresignificantfactorsinhiseventualvictory. throughout thepreviousdecadehisfatherhadfoughtonerivalafteranother.Gunsand in mind.TheMingDynastyhadbeendeclaredjusttwoyearspreviously, warlords, and endured all kinds of hardships.” difficult andrecalledhisownrise:“Icamefromthepeasantry,battledwithsomany domain.” (current-day Beijing),admonishinghimto“diligentlydrillthetroopsanddefend passed tohisnephewrather thantohim. ệ Intriguingly, Yongledidn’tstartoutasapartisan of thegun.Sources suggest that Sitting nowuponthedragonthrone,heencouragedhis sonstoundertakemilitary t state(itselfapowerfulgunpowderempire)andtheMongols,weseedevel 3 In the golden book he was given that day, his father noted that rulership was Inthegoldenbookhewasgiventhatday,hisfathernotedrulership — Tonio Andrade— ạ i Vi ạ 1381 i Vi ệ t conflict. YONGLE ệ campaignthathisfatherlaunched againstthe t), andthosewarshelpedstimulatefirearms 72 1398 4 These battles and hardships were fresh These battles and hardships were fresh , whenhisfatherdiedand the throne 1367 , whenhe 1368 , and , and ạ - - 5 i
Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:23 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429318719, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429318719-5 on theorderof percent of infantry were already armed with firearms, which indicates that there were A GlobalHistoryto1700 conditions inMongolia.KennethChasehasargued his influentialbook, Yan haveusedfewerguns? all, weknowthatunderthePrinceofYan’sfather, HongwuEmperor,some offensively ordefensively,butneverincorefunctions. peripherally. Weseeplentyofevidencesignalguns andoccasionallygunsused back, leavingarmorandequipmentontheroad. when thedangerhadlifted,turnedbacktoward south. Manydiedontheway draw theirattention,and,indeed,theimperialsdulymarchednorthagain,andthen, weak andsickly.ThePrinceofYandecidedtokeepthemtired.Hemadeafeint and poorshoes.Whentheygaveupthesiegereturnedtosouth,were attacked Beiping but were ill-prepared for the northern winter, wearing thin clothes including morethan attack, buthehadamasterlysenseoftiming,soinsteadtookhisspoilsnorthward– weak. Hemovedagainstthem,andsoonhehadroutedthemainimperialforce. were captured. sprung. Theimperialsweretrappedonthebridgeandtwotopimperialcommanders scouts sawtheenemyapproach,theyfiredasignalcannon,atwhichambushwas soldiers inthewater under abridge and hidscouts along the roadtowatch.When garrisons andencampments,usingrusesstratagems.Ononeoccasion,hehid army wasstillformingandmightbebrokenifstruckhard.Heattackedthearmy’s and attackedfirst.Itwasaboldwager,basedonthecalculationthatimperial relying onBeiping’sstoutwalls,butinsteadtheprincemovedhisarmysouthward perhaps said tobe superior commander.Forexample,inoneofthefirstmajorepisodes,animperialarmy bered, andthenewemperorhadadvantageoflegitimacy,butprincewasa its militaryforcesandthenpreparedtoseizetheimperialthrone. killed. Theprince’ssmallforceofloyalguardsquicklytookcontrolBeipingand with arrestinghimtoenterthepalace.ThenPrinceofYanhadthemseizedand that hewouldsurrender.Hismenwaitedforthetwoimperialofficialscharged When imperialforcessurroundedhispalaceinBeiping of thethrone,butprincewasacannyleaderandknewhowtousedeception. nephew. Theyoungemperorhadmoretroops,resources,andthelegitimacy of Yan,forhispart,feltwithsomejustificationthathewasmorecapablethan his twenty-one –butheunderstoodthathisunclewasathreattoauthority.ThePrince Europe did.TheChasethesis hassomeproblemswithit–mostnotably,thefactthat mounted nomadsasenemies helpsexplainwhyitdidnot“perfect”gunswhereas ineffective onhorseback. than againststandardinfantry armies,becauseearlygunswereslowandclumsy The PrinceofYanwasusedtowarfareinnorthern China, andparticularlyto In theseearlybattlesofthewarsuccession,Prince ofYanusedgunsonly At thispointitmighthaveseemedbesttopresstheadvantageandcontinue The ensuingwarofsuccessionwashardfought.PrinceYanoutnum The newemperor,whotookthereigntitleJianwen,wasyoung–notquite — chapter 130 300 , 000 , 6 000 150 From these commanders he learned which imperial garrisonswere ). Itmighthaveseemedprudenttowaitandletthearmyattack, 3: -strong wassentagainsthim(theactualnumberswerelower– , 000 20 , 000 How Yongle learnedtostopworrying — gununitsinMinginfantryforces. 9 AccordingtoChase,thefact thatChinafacedprimarily , thatgunsarefarlessuseful againstmountednomads horses – and consolidated his control there. The imperials horses–andconsolidatedhiscontrolthere.Theimperials 73 7 Thismayseemodd.After 8 WhymightthePrinceof 1399 , hesentoutword Firearms: 10 -
Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:23 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429318719, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429318719-5 prepared carefully,feedinghistroops,readyingthewalls,inspectingandreviewing on someparticulars, in ShandongProvince(presentdayLiaochengCity). als, ageneralnamedShengYong,whohadgarrisonedhistroopsinDongchangCity, prince, feelingconfident,hadmovedagainstthecommander-in-chiefofimperi of guns.ThemostfrighteningbattlehislifeoccurredinJanuary an area suited to infantry warfare, he experienced firsthand the devastating effect more oncavalry,whoweregenerallyarmedwithtraditionalweapons. on infantry–whowere,afterall,theprimarytypesoftroopsarmedwithgunsand Mongol commanders. bend oftheYellowRiverandthenchasedthemtoUriyangqad,takingprisonertop In early “wild men”andfrontierraiders.HewasparticularlysuccessfulagainsttheMongols. up playingamajorroleinnortherndefenses,commandingvariousexpeditionsagainst Yan was thesecond-highestrankingsonbuthe also themost able, andheended ing thathisprimaryfoeswouldbemountednomads,primarilyMongols.ThePrinceof northern warfare.HisfatherhaddeliberatelysituatedhisprincedominBeiping,know used differentlyagainstmountednomads. onto something.Northernwarfarewasdifferentfromsouthernwarfare;gunswere Chinese warfare. warfare, forexample,wasquiteabitmorelikeEuropeanwarfarethannorthern it neglectsthemanyothertypesofwarfarethatoccurredinChina.SouthernChinese late theprince’stroops.” History Yong’s guns,perhapstenthousandoftheprince’stroops expired. but thetroopsheleftbehindwerelesslucky.Inmelee andunderthefireofSheng lines fromtheoutside,extractedprince,andgalloped off.Theprincesurvived, Mongols whohadjoinedtheMing.Themountedwarriors chargedtheimperials’ The princewassavedbythearrivalofsome“barbarian cavalrytroops,”mostlikely blood. Soalthoughswordsslashedclose,theenemysoldiers neverdaredtocuthim. a filialorder:noonewastoharmthePrinceofYan, who,afterall,hadimperial The enemypressedin,and“theprincewasingravedanger severaltimes.” source notes,“thePrinceofYantriedtoattackandcharge, buthecouldn’tescape.” and theprincefoundhimselfhiscavalrytroopscompletelysurrounded.Asone troops ofthePrinceYan“wereallentirelywoundedbyfirearms.” troops. ButwhenShengYong’sgunsopenedfire,theresultsweredisastrous.The having wonsomanyengagements, and theyadvancedatonceuponShengYong’s poison crossbowstoawait[thePrinceofYan].” battle formations,and,mostimportantly,“preparingandlayingoutfirearms the firearms.” Yong inthe “Yan’s troopssufferedagreat defeatfromthefirearms.” But when he foughtagainstthe forces of hisnephew in thecentralplains of China, Until thewarofsuccession,PrinceYan’sexperienceswereprimarilybasedon All accountsofthiskeydefeatfocusonthedevastating roleofguns.The Fortunately forthePrinceofYan,hisnephew,young emperor,hadissued Sheng Yong,spiritsbuoyedbythearrivalofreinforcements,pressedhisadvantage, saysthatShengYong“used firearmsandpowerfulcrossbowstoannihi 1396 Ming History , for example, he led troops to defeat a major Mongol force east of the , for example, he led troops to defeat a major Mongol force east of the 20 10 YetifChase’sconclusionsaretoosweeping,heisnonetheless 13 11 themaincontoursofbattleseemclear.ShengYonghad This type of warfare against Mongols frequently focused less ThistypeofwarfareagainstMongolsfrequentlyfocusedless 18 notesthat“multitudesof Yan troopswerewoundedby AhistorywrittenbyMing scholarTanXisinotedthat — Tonio Andrade— 74 14 Theprince’stroopswereconfident, 12 Althoughthesourcesdiffer 19 ThebiographyofSheng 15 1401 17 . The Ming 16 - - -
Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:23 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429318719, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429318719-5 trenches that theythemselves had dug. their ownside.Theyrushedoutthegateand,panickingunderfire,fellintodeep an imperialencampment,andtheimperialsmistookgunfireforsignalcannonon always glorious.Ononeoccasion,forexample,helaunchedadawngunattackon are mentionedmorefrequentlyindescriptionsofbattles.Hisgunvictoriesweren’t he begantointegrategunsmorefirmlyintohiswarcraft.AfterDongchang, only toXuandJin.Theydidn’tdareagaingoShandong.” Dongchang, butfromthatpointforward,thePrinceofYan’stroopswentsouthward revolt “theprince’stroopshadbeenvictoriousandable,therewasnothinglike diffident –lessbold,decisive.Asthe have changed.Insubsequentbattlesinthewarofsuccession,hewasmuchmore to die–isjustthesortofthingelicitsuchsymptoms. and nearcaptureiscombinedwithguiltatbeingsavedwhileleavingcomradesbehind diagnosis. Andatraumaticbattleexperiencelikethis–inwhichfear,responsibility, a chasm ofsixcenturies,buthissymptomscertainlyseemcommensurate withsucha rest. cussed, the prince became disturbed,having trouble eating and findingit impossible to Yu] isdeeplylamentable.” to haveexclaimed,“butatatimelikethisalsolostsuchteacher[asZhang ing tosavehimfromencirclement.“Victoryanddefeatarepartoflife,”heissaid by the loss of one of his top generals, his friend and mentor Zhang Yu, who died try continued inusethroughout thedynasty.Thoseprotocolsandstructuresemerged, ing firearmsproductionand training. The protocolsand structures heestablished most notablythefamous Firearms Commandery,abureautaskedwithoversee around tenthousandguns per month–wasoverseenbynewcentralizedfacilities, Hongwu throughZhengde reigns). sustained gunproductionlevelsoftheentireearlyMing period( buildup, inwhichfirearmsplayedakeyrole. ish ambitionandprofligatespending.Muchofthisspending wenttoahugemilitary “eternal happiness,”buthisreignisrememberedlessfor happinessthanforoutland through agateopenedbyconspirators. mer of including theonce-powerfuleunuchs.Whenprince enteredNanjinginthesum istration oftheyoungemperor,whosepolicieshadalienated keyblocsofpower, achieved notbyarmsbutintrigue.Theprincehadcollaborators withintheadmin He movedcloserandtoNanjing.Thefalloftheimperialcity,however,was carried toawaitingboat. Yong wassupposedlyfrozenwithfear,unabletoclimbonhishorse,andhadbe range, theyopenedfire.Theimperialsthrewdowntheirweaponsandran.Sheng small forceofgunmentocreepclosethegreatgeneral’sencampment.Oncewithin when theprince’sgunmenterrifiedShengYonghimself.Theprincehaddispatcheda There wasanevenmoreimportantchangetotheprince’swarcraftafterDongchang: What isparticularlyintriguing,however,thathismilitaryleadershipseemsto The battle seems to havetraumatized the prince. Hewas particularly preoccupied Historians have shown that the Yongle period ( The princeascendedthedragonthroneandtookashis reigntitlethetermYongle, After thegunmen’svictoryoverShengYong,prince’smomentumincreased. — 22 It is of course impossible to diagnose post-traumatic stress disorder from across It isofcourseimpossibletodiagnosepost-traumaticstressdisorder fromacross chapter 1402 , hedidsobythemosttraditionalmeansinChina’s militaryhistory: 3: How Yongle learnedtostopworrying — 25 21 ItseemsthatwhenevertheBattleofDongchangwasdis 26 Thisproduction–which sometimes reached 24 Butthere were also greatgun victories, as 75 Ming History 1402 notes,atthebeginningofhis – 1424 23 ) saw the highest 1368 – 1521 , i.e, ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:23 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429318719, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429318719-5 style gun[ collapse. Gunssavedit.Đ again inthe wars. TheChamswereledbyawarlikeking,whoinvadedĐ the Chamstate,againstwhomithadbeenfightingaseriesofincreasinglydesperate state – known as Đ case. AsSunLaichenpointsout,Vietnameseannalsmakeclearthatthe Ming invadedVietnam,theVietnamesehadnofirearms. logical superiority.WangZhaochunhaswritten,forexample,thatthefirsttime due mainlyto“MingChina’smilitarysuperiority,includingfirearms.” explored thiswarindetail,thespectacularvictoryofMinginvasionforcewas in theworld.Indeed,accordingtohistorianSunLaichen,whosewonderfulworkhas in whichbothsides–butespeciallytheMingemployedmostadvancedweapons Yongle sentmorethantwo-hundredthousandtroopstoVietnam.Itwasalsoawar contemporary Europeanconflictsnumberedinthethousandsortensofthousands, was oneofthemostimportantwarslatemedievalperiod. Although itisbarelymentionedinourhistorytextbooks,theMingVietnameseWar the Mongols. Yongle undertook,southwardagainsttheĐ however, inasomewhatadhocfashion,aspartofseriesmassiveexpeditions troops wouldbeabletoimpose hiswillonastateaspowerfulĐ what areourarmiesfor?” ambush he supposedly flew into a rage. “If we don’t destroythem,” he said, “then most oftheChinesetroopsaswellTranhimself.When Yonglelearnedaboutthe Vi state theman.Inearly with theactualoccupantsofVietnamesethrone, Yongle decidedtotryrein Tran –hadbeenusurpedbytheHoclan.Afterconsiderable diplomaticwrangling the legitimateheirtothroneofAnnam(i.e.,Đ Yongle decidetoinvade?In in hismanypublications. the role of the Ming in disseminatingthese firearms as chronicled ably by SunLaichen Southeast Asiapriortothelarge-scalearrivalofEuropeans andcompletelydiscount process. ManyWesternauthorsstillignorethewidespreadpresenceoffirearmsin Vietnamese accomplishmentandglossingoverthecrucialroleoffirearmsin historical footnote,onethatislargelyignoredintheWest,therebyobscuring had defeatedandannexeditslongtimerival,relegatingChampatothestatusofa Whitmore in the present volume. Indeed, by Vi ệ ệ To besure,thereisatendencyamongsome scholars tooverrateMingtechno Was hereallysofurious? HadhereallyexpectedthatfivethousandChinese It’s rarelyagoodideaforgreatpowertogetinvolved inVietnam,sowhatmade The VietnameseadoptionofChinese guns savedtheirstate,andafter t capital.Theexpeditionnevermadeit.Hoarmy ambushedthem,killing t began to enjoy the upper hand in its battles with Champa, as noted by John huochong 1360 s, ạ 1370 ]. i Vi 30 1406 ệ s, and t – deployed guns against its long-term enemy to the south, 31 ạ i Vi — Tonio Andrade— 1404 , hesentfivethousandsoldierstoescorthimtheĐ Yongle’s VietnameseWar ệ 1380 t forcesshotandkilledtheChamkingwithaMing- , amanappearedinYongle’scourtandsaidhewas s. By 76 1390 ạ , theĐ 1471 i Vi ạ ệ the expansive Vietnamese state i Vi t state,andnorthwardagainst ạ i Vi ệ t) andthathisfamily–the ệ 29 t statewasonthebrinkof Thiswasclearlynotthe ạ 27 i Vi Whereasarmiesin ệ t overand 28 ạ i Vi 1390 ệ t? Or Đ ạ ạ - - i i Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:23 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429318719, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429318719-5 est secrecy.Itisnotpermittedtoleak[them]foreignerssothattheycanlearnthe that areemployedandalltypesofgunpowderweapons(huoqi)bekeptinthestrict the enemy.“Itismostimportant,”hecommanded,thatmiraculousweaponguns attention totheroleofguns. ing itsresistancetoprojectilesatvariousranges. armor outofbambooandstrengthenitwithleather,clearbenchmarksfortest Following thisexhortationarestipulationsabouthowworkersshouldweavethe follow tenelementsofhisstrategicplan,andamongthemwasthefollowingpoint: the Đ put considerablecareintoit. that Yonglebeganpreparinghiscampaignimmediatelyafterthisoutburst,andhe attacked, hewouldhave a pretext for war? did he perhaps deliberately send a vulnerable force of escorts so that, onceit was silence, snuck through the darkness to the walls, placed their ladders against them, The were simplyclimbedina brilliantly conceivedanddaringlyexecutednightmove. Records the entrancetoRedRiverplain,heartofVietnam. guns againstakeypointintheĐ across theriverwithguns,butwererouted,andMing wereabletodeploytheir standard equipmentonmostMingvesselsbythispoint. ships, whichtheyarmedwithguns,quitepossiblythe bowl-mouthgunsthatwere easily defeated them and moved southward, stopping at the Red River to construct ward, Đ charge offirearms,referredtobythetitle“Miraculous WeaponGeneral.” by thefactthatamongtopofficerssentwereatleast fourgeneralsspecificallyin the orderoftwentythousandorsogunners.Theimportancegunsisalsosuggested numbered ten percentofMinginfantryunitsbegununits.Giventhattheinvasionforce we canmakeanestimate,basedonthefactthatadecreeofHongwustipulated them together[afterward]. techniques. Whenencounteringtheenemy,becertaintocarefullyandsecretlygather He alsotookmeasurestopreventhisadvancedgundesignsfrombeingleaked What is intriguing is that in making his preparations he recognized the fact that Do-bang wasamplyarmedwithguns,butaccording tothe Guns certainlyappearinbattleaccounts.Whenthe Ming troopsmovedsouth How manygunnersdidYonglesendtoĐ — their firearms. discuss thedevelopmentandproductionofathickerarmorinordertowithstand that there is anything to stand up against it Moreover, [I]haveheardthattheenemyhasprepareditsequipmentnotthinking and dangerous,theyshouldratheravoiditthantowasteourtroops’strength. If ourtroops,whenonthe march, shouldencounter a mountainthatis narrow [I have heard] that the enemy has prepared many firearms to resist the enemy. Veritable Records ạ i Vi chapter , theVietnamesebarelygot a chancetofirethem:Do-bang’simpressivewalls ạ i Vi ệ 215 t troopswerearmedwithpowerfulguns.Heorderedhiscommandersto ệ t troops defended the passes into Vietnam with guns. , 000 33 3: , mostofwhichwereinfantry,wecanguessthatthereon says that Ming troops, holding bits in their mouth to enforce How Yongle learnedtostopworrying — 35 ạ i Vi ệ t defense: the CityofDo-bang,which guarded 77 ạ i Vi 32 We’ll never know, but wedo know . ệ 34 . t? Therearenodetailedrecords,but . Yongle,likehisfather,paidclose [I] order thatthe Board of Works 38 TheVietnameseattacked Ming Veritable 37 Ming forces 36 - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:23 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429318719, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429318719-5 climbing andfighting;nobodydaredtostop.” the Mingsoldiers]piledupashighcitywall,but[thetroops]stillkept gest thatthe so surprisedtheydidn’tevenhavetimetoshoot. and thenclimbedbeganslashingatthedefenderswithswords.Thelatterwere powder in the Ming Military Armory Department [ of hisfamilywereimprisoned,hewasputincharge manufacturinggunsandgun had beeninchargeofmakinggunsforhisfather’sarmies. and hissons. a glimpseoftheĐ cials inattendance.Doubtlesstherewerecrowdsofonlookers aswell,eagertocatch to welcomethemhome,anditwasamajorevent,with allthecivilandmilitaryoffi victory, includingfirearmsgeneralZhangSheng. caught himinmid-June,bringingtheinvasiontoasuccessful close. firearms generalsandotherswerechasingtheHoking ofĐ many astenthousandandcapturinghundredsofwarships. sels. The Đ firearms generals,foughtagainsta eral guns”todestroymoreenemy ships. InearlyMay,Ming forces, including four thousand Đ huge Đ 21 Delta, and in these various battles of early against anenemyelephantcorpsinYunnan. time gunsevenedthebalance.Afamousbattlein Elephant troopshadlongbeenachallengetoChinesearmies,andthiswasn’tthefirst off enemysoldierswitharrows,handguns,andheavierguns( shot rocket arrows atthe elephants. the enemytroopsscatteredinpanic.” and werewoundedbythegunarrows,theyallwithdrewranaway,atwhich deployed guns( given lionmaskstoscaretheelephants.“ThefirearmsgeneralLuoWenandothers erals arrayedgunnerstothesidesofaMingcavalrycorps,whosehorseshadbeen with tusks,orcrushbeneathknees. and hurlthemintotheair,orsmashwithforehead,goregouge pling soldiersandsmashingeverythingintheirpath.Theycouldgrabenemy huge, towering over cavalry, with frightening tusks. They broke formations, tram aimed atpeople.Andelephants. Ming gunswerenotusedtobatterwallsorgatesstructuresofanykind.They late Mingscholarwrote,circa when theMingcourtheld a memorialceremonyforthe“GodofFirearms.” cracy. to bethechiefofMinistry ofWorks,onethetoppostsinChinesebureau Februarysoldierswieldingfirearms,including“bowl-mouthguns,”attackeda One sonwasHoNguyenTrung(LiCheng,inChinese), anexpertinfirearmswho In thefall,sixseniorofficersofexpeditionreturned toNanjingreportthe In anycase,withDo-bangdefeated,MingforcescouldmoveintotheRedRiver Once insidethewalls,MingfacedĐ 49 ạ Hewassoreveredforhis workthathewasevenofferedaritualsacrifice i Vi ạ ạ ệ i Vi Veritable Records i Vi t fleet,the“firearmslikeflyingstarsandlightning.” ệ 神機銃 ệ t were equipped with guns, but the Ming won decisively, killing as t troopswerekilled.On ạ i Vi ệ ) infrontattheflanks.Theelephantsalltrembledwithfear t prisonersintheircages,amongwhomweretheformer king — Tonio Andrade— maynothavebeensoveritable:“Thedeadbodies[of 1606 70 , 41 43 , Tocountertheelephants,Mingfirearmgen Mingsoldiers pursued and continued picking 000 42 OthersourcessuggestthattheMingalso 78 -strong Đ ạ 18 1407 i Vi March,Mingtroopsused“greatgen 40 ệ Bothsources,however,indicatethat 39 t’s elephanttroops.Thebeastswere 47 , firearms proved vital, as when on Vietnameserecords,however,sug Yonglehimselfwenttoacitygate 1388 bing zhang ju ạ i Vi ệ sawMinggunnerstriumph t forceandhundredsofves 48 Whereasothermembers 46 ạ i Vi Bysummertime,Ming pao ]. Eventually he rose ệ t southward.They 45 ), killingmany. Asmanyasten 50 Asa 44 ------
Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:23 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429318719, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429318719-5 force in itself,butitwasalsoresponsiblefortraining other divisionsinfirearms use. were devotedtoinfantryandcavalry.TheFirearmsCommanderywasanelitefighting central militarystructuresbasedintheMingcapital.Theothertwogreatcommanderies The FirearmsCommanderywasoneoftheThreeGreatCommanderiesMing, important militaryinstitutionsofMingChina:theFirearmsCommandery[ force createdbythegunpowderreactionwasimpartedtomissile. was placedontop.Thiscreatedacompleteocclusionofthebarrel,sothatfull was rammedintoplaceafterthepowderhadbeeninserted,whichprojectile arms technology.Perhapsthemostnotableimprovementwasawoodenchipthat techniques andmethodsintroducedbytheVietnamesehelpedtransformMingfire fire lances. some ofwhomwereartisansskilledatmakinggunpowder,guns( over thefollowingmonths,thousandsmoreprisonersarrivedinMingcapital, In onecagewasaVietnamesefirearmscommandernamedChenTangmeng, guns starting in the early Ming. were inscribedonthepowder scoopsthatseemtohavebeenstandardissuewith The powder had to beaddedinprecise amounts, and the measurements required might havetodoitwhenconfronted byVietnameseelephantsorMongolcavalry. diers todoitsmoothly,something thathadtobesecondnaturethem,becausethey simple aswemightimagineittobeandrequiredconsiderable practicetotrainsol five-thousand menunderit. technicians undertheircommand, the Bureaubrothersseemtohavehadthirtycannoneers andasmallgroupofother Ming FirearmsCommanderyexistedbeforethat,and itwasmuchlarger.Whereas appears to have been founded sometime around the year firearms wastheartillerycorpsofFrenchmenJean andGaspardBureau,which have arguedthattheworld’sfirst“full-fledged”administrative organpertainingto before anyremotelysimilarinstitutionwasestablished inEurope.Westernhistorians say thatitwasprobablyfoundedsometimearound bits ofevidencetosuggestotherdatesforthefoundingcommandery. powder weapons well before the invasion of Đ was establishedtoexpandandpracticeit.” art ofmagicallancesandgunswasobtained,aspecialFirearmsCommandery official It becameakeypartofYongle’sarmedforces,buttherearemanymysteriesaboutit. Some historians even credit the Vietnamese with the creation of one of the most Some historians even credit the Vietnamese with the creation of one of the most Nguyen Trungwasn’ttheonlyfirearmsexpertChinesebroughtfromVietnam. They practicedanddrilledcarefully.Theloading firingofagunwasnotas We don’tknow,forexample,whenpreciselyitwasfounded.Accordingtothe — and allthetechniquesweretrulygrasped. Works, [tobe]solelyinchargeofmanufacturing[Vietnamese-stylefirearms], [our dynasty]hireditsfalseGrandCouncillor arms werenotobtaineduntilEmperorWen(Yongle)pacifiedJiaozhi.Hence, ( number-one weapons from ancient times to thepresent. However, the ingenious Our dynastyemployedfirearmstocombatthenorthernbarbarians,[which]are qing miao chapter Ming History 53 Indeed,historianSunLaichenbelieves–withgoodreasonthatthe , meaningliterally“light”and“wonderful”)techniquesofthesefire 3: , “WhenChengzu[i.e.,Yongle]pacifiedVietnam[Jiaozhi],the How Yongle learnedtostopworrying — 60 61 The powder was tamped down with a tamping rod. 59 theMingFirearmsCommanderyhadatleast 79 56 Butofcourse,theMingknewgun 51 ạ i Vi . ệ 1409 . t, and there are various other . to workintheMinistryof . Thatisinanycasewell 1435 . 58 But of coursethe huo chong 54 shen jiying 57 Wecan 52 ), and and 55 ]. ]. - - - -
Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:23 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429318719, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429318719-5 Sheng topaycarefulattentiontrainingfirearmsunits: which Yonglehimselfpointedout.HeadmonishedhistopmilitarycommanderLiu other types of units. Drill andregimenwere vital to the success of the endeavor, a fact but gunnersalsohadtolearnworkinclosecoordinationwitheachotherand and chantstohelpthemrememberthestages. training allthemoreimportant.Sincemostsoldierswereilliterate,theresongs guns wereshort,andthepossibilitiesformisfiresbackfirelegion,making the bodyofgunthatledtopowderchamber, and thegunwouldgooff.Ming the plug.Thenyou’dholdgunout,applyfireto“fire-gate,”aboredholein didn’t fitperfectlysnuglyagainstthesideofcannon,whichiswhyyouneeded but thereisevidencetosuggestthatmanyfirelancesalsoshotarrows.Projectiles projectile itself was added. Often the projectile was a hewn stone or cast iron ball, amount ofenergyimpartedtotheprojectile.Thatwasrammeddownandthen the “woodenhorsechip” were madeofwood,whichdecomposesrapidly.Ontopthepowderwasplaced Examples oftampingrodshavebeenexcavated,althoughtheyarerare,because find aslightlymoredetailedaccountinthe “used firearms,servingastheadvancedguard,andbadly defeatedArughtai.” Mongol leaderArughtaineartheGreatKhinganMountains, GeneralLiuSheng present andplayedasignificantrole. firearms –includingKennethChase’sshortdiscussion, butit’sclearthatgunswere Beijing inthespringof them. Gunsplayedakeyrole. was determinedtotakethefightthempersonallyand ledfiveexpeditionsagainst a mortalthreat.AnewGenghisKhanmightemergeandunifytheclans.SoYongle Although hisfatherhaddriventheMongolsoutofChina,theywerestillconsidered ward againstChina’sgreatestfoes,theMongols. he admonishedtopayattentioncarefultraining,personallymarchednorth All thistrainingpaid off forYonglewhen, accompanied bytheLiu Sheng whom All ofthistrainingwasrequiredjusttolearnloadandshootthegunseffectively, Consider, forexample,thefirstcampaign,amassive expeditionthatdeparted occasion callsforit.You .mustnotbelaxinthis. carefully andbecomeproficientskilled,thenonecanusethemwhenthe fare, but in ordernot to makemistakes in using them, it is necessary to practice Magical-instrument defeated them,beheadingtheir famousgeneralsandhundredsofmen. frightened, spurred their horses and departed. Our troops advanced bravely and and [theprojectiles]alsostruck thehorses,andallimmediatelydied.Theenemy, and theirsoundthundered forth forten Sheng totakethemagical-device gunsandserveasthevanguard.Thefired The emperorchasedtheenemytoHuiqujinandordered theAnyuanMarquisLiu YONGLE MARCHESAGAINSTMONGOLS chongs 1410 62 tocontainthegunpowderexplosionandincrease — Tonio Andrade— . Westernlanguagetreatmentsofitomitmention and paos 65 When,forexample,Yongle’sforcesengaged 80 areeffectiveweaponsforattackinginwar Ming VeritableRecords li 63 , andeacharrowpenetrated twomen, 64 : 67 66 We - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:23 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429318719, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429318719-5 esteemed scholarisn’thavingagooddaytoday!” to keep it from blowing awayinthe cold wind, Yongle hadlaughed and said,“The weather. Ononeoccasion,forexample,whenJinrodewithhandonhishat, liked teasingJinandtheothercivilofficialsfromsouth,whoweren’tusedto enemy: hoofprints,horsedungalongtrails,dustswirlinginthedistance. wild horses. look forsignsofwildgame,likethepathsthroughgrassmadebyantelopesand all directions,andyou’llfeeljoyinyourbreast!” you seeeveryday.Whenyou’retired,sleepabit,andthenstanduplookoutin Yongle saidtoJin,“atthisexpanse,emptyinallfourdirections!It’snotsomething described thecoldrainandemperor’smoodastheymovednorthward.“Look,” dition, containingaroundahalfmillionmen. it haveleftevenclearerevidencefortheeffectivenessofguns.Itwasahugeexpe Four yearslater,YongleledasecondcampaignagainsttheMongols,andrecordsof Yongle’s armedforces,butitisnotsurprising. Europe asahallmarkofthe military revolution,itisintriguingtofindherein in western historianshavehailedthelateremergence ofthevolleyfiretechnique this passage–rightlyIbelieveasindicatingtheuse ofvolleyfire. Sheng’s guns“firedincontinuoussuccession.”Historians inChinahaveinterpreted ously sinceatthelatestTangDynasty,andprobably earlier. sense, becausetheChinesehadusedvolleytechnique forcrossbowscontinu that thetechniquewasusedwithfirearmsinChina as early guns tofirstpoundthoseoccupying thetwoponds,andtheseenemy,knowingthey Mongol forcestriedoccupying highlandsandsmalllakes,Mingtroops“againused the survivors.Inthesesubsequent battles, gunsweresimilarly inevidence. When were killedandseveralthousand headswerecaptured,afterwhichYonglewent Another account–inthe In anycase,Yongle’sgunners wonavictorythatday.TopMongolcommanders — this point,Yongleandhiscavalry–theeliteironhorsemencharged,driving hundred Mongolsfell,causingconfusionanddisarrayintheMongolranks.At charge atfirst.Instead,hewaitedwhileLiuSheng’sgunsopenedfire.Several by GeneralLiuSheng’sgununits.TheMongolscamedown,butYongledidn’t darkness, Yongleledavanguardofelitecavalryunitsforward,followedclosely but it was in the early evening that Yongle made his move. In the gathering his troopstoarraythemselvesonthesteppebelow.Afewskirmishesoccurred, occupied hills,eachofthemhavingthreeorfourextramounts.Yongleordered Finally Yongle’stroopsmet the enemy.Thirty thousand orsomountedMongols place wascalled‘BarbarianSlaughteringHold’. was uncountable,andtheyallscreamedoutinpainleft enemy wasbadlydefeated,andthenumberofmenhorseskilledhurt and attackedwithgreatforce,eachcouldstandagainstahundred.The guns fired in secret and the [emperor’s] crack troops then again moved forward tempting ofatargettoresisttheydidn’tevengetchancestrikebeforethe the episode,whenMongolscamedownhills,findingemperortoo the enemy back into the hills and capturing many horses. As Jin Youzi described chapter 70 Andheenjoyedinstructinghissoldiershowtosearchfortracesofthe 3: How Yongle learnedtostopworrying — Veritable Records 81 75 68 72 –addsanintriguingdetail:Liu HistoriansofChinahaveargued AcivilofficialnamedJinYouzi 69 73 Helikedteachinghimhowto . 1388 77 . . Henceforth that . 76 74 Thismakes Giventhat 71 Healso - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:23 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429318719, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429318719-5 Wang ZhaochunbelievesthatYonglewasherediscussingvolleyfire: with cavalry: detailed instructionsaboutdrillinggunnerssothattheycouldcoordinateeffectively training. Inthecampaignof too, hepaidcloseattentiontohisgununits,focusinginparticularontheirdrilland cant casualties. the otherhand,believe–asIdothatgunsplayedadramaticrole,causingsignifi tance, sayingmerelythatgunsfrightenedtheMongols. Chase doesnotethepresenceofgunsonthisexpeditionbutdownplaystheirimpor the gorge,fearedgunswouldcomeagain,andalsowithdrewleft.” could notresist,withdrew.Theremainingbandits,thosewhowereonthepeaksof great maritimevoyagesYongle hadundertaken.Asthe adopted Mingweaponsand endedupdefeatingMingarmiesbadly.Theyhalted the stopped makingincursions intoMongoliaandpulledoutofVietnam,whichhad thirty palacewomancommitted suicidetoaccompanyhimindeath. in a sealed tin coffin. His funeral was as ambitious as his military exploits, and illness inChahar,Mongolia.Theexpeditionreturned toBeijing,bringinghisbody of theirchoosing. guns andinsteadsimplyslipintothesteppes,toreemerge lateratatimeandplace 1423 the enemy. opportunity totestitagainsttheenemy,becausethiscampaign didn’tmanagetofind itself makeaclearcaseforit. at bay,whichsuggestsvolleyfire,butthepassagein alry showsthathebelievedthosegunnerswouldofferenough firetokeepthecavalry to placethinrowsofgunneryunitsinthefrontlinesabattleagainstMongolcav It’s impossible to know for sure, but it wouldn’t be surprising. Yongle’s willingness During the On thelastMongoliancampaign,in Whatever the drilling regime the troops practiced, they didn’t get much of an front oftheentireformation,andbetweenthemtheremustbeacertainamount The meaning of this [passage] is that when fighting, the gun troops line up in solidity. Inthiswaythereisnothingtofear.” use thegunstodestroytheiradvanceguardandthencavalryrush is sparse,andwhentheyarriveatthegatesofwarit’stimetofight,thenfirst ished themasfollows:“Aformationthatisdensesolid,whileanadvanceforce the back, ordering the officers to practice and train in the free time. He admon ment byarrayingthegunneryunits[shenjichong]infrontandcavalry The emperor orderedthat all thegenerals train their troops outsideeach encamp in greatvigor,strikingforthwithirresistibleforce. thrown into chaos, the rear densely arrayed cavalry troops together come forth and inconcert to destroytheenemy advance guard.Once the enemy has been of space,sothattheycanloadbulletsandpowderemployshootingbyturns and 1424 83 Yongleledsubsequentexpeditionsnorthwardagainst theMongols,in 1420 80 , but those, too, were futile. The Mongols had learned to avoid Ming s, YongleledotherexpeditionsagainsttheMongols,andthen, — Tonio Andrade— 1422 , forexample,hegavehisgeneralspreciseand 1424 82 , Yonglebecame depressed anddied of 81 82 Ming History Veritable Records 79 Sinophonehistorians,on 84 noted,“During Hissuccessors 78 doesn’tin Kenneth - - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:23 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429318719, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429318719-5 of rapidgundevelopment,andwhenintheearly In themid- taken tomarktheendofChina’speriodasgloballeaderfirearmstechnology. there isnotallowedanykindofprivatemanufacture.” kept forexercise or indeployment must be placed inthe [central] armories new regulationaccordingtowhich“allmilitaryweapons,asidefromthosethatare the MingMilitaryproductionmethodforguns.” the basicblueprintforMingfirearmsproductionnextcentury,“becoming firearm productionanddesignthatYongle’sadministrationissuedin indigenous guntechnologyreacheditsapogeeunderYongle.Asetofregulationsfor with gunsandtheiradministration.Indeed,SinophonehistoriansarguethatChina’s in ful empire,unparalleledinmilitarypower,butitseemsthatthedeathofYongle receded again,nottoreappearinaseriouswayforanothercentury. weapons killedtenthousandMongols. were drivenoff,withheavycasualties;sourcessuggestthatthegunsandotherMing then marchedonBeijing. the practiceofgrandMongolianexpeditionsbutwascapturedbyMongols,who when Yongle’sgreatgrandson,ZhuQizhen,theZhengtongEmperor,triedreviving accustomed toaroutineandpeacefullife.” the Hong[xi](
played animportantroleintherapidadoptionofEuropeangunsduring the structuresthatYonglehadsetup–particularlyFirearmsCommandery them rapidly,effectively,andcreatively.AsKennethSwopeothershaveargued, Chinese coast,Mingofficialswerefascinatedbytheirgunsandbeganadopting 1 2
China’s powerfulgunshadhelpedtheMingtocreateworld’smostpower — 1424 The mostsignificantworksinEnglishincludeKennethSwope, “Crouching Tigers, Secret See, forexample, LiHuguang, Qing dutefuhejinshupaode xingshuai,”, Zhaochun, Zhongguo kexue jishushi:junshijuan Zhaochun Ven, ed., Firearms: A GlobalHistory and SocietyinEarly ModernChina, Dynasty, University ofOklahomaPress a Serpent’s Tail: MingChinaand the First GreatEast Asian War, The Journal ofMilitaryHistory Weapons: Military Technology Employed duringtheSino-Japanese-Korean War, Thesis, (Dongbeishifandaxue, shi huoqi zhanzheng Early ModernEurasia,” University Press, The Asian MilitaryRevolution: FromGunpowdertotheBomb Historical Time Firearms andtheQingFormation,” inLynn Struve, ed., (Beijing:Junshikexuechubanshe, chapter also corresponded with the end of the period of rapid experimentation 1400 Warfare inChineseHistory 1618 Zhongguo huoqishi Shijie huoqishi 1425 s, justasMinginnovationwasslowing,Europeansenteredaperiod – (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1644 2008 (Nanjing:Fenghuangchubanshe, 3: ) andXuan[de]( (London: Routledge, ); PeterLorge, “Development andSpreadofFirearmsinMedieval and How Yongle learnedtostopworrying — 86 History Compass Thankstomanygunsandgoodleadership,theMongols (Beijing:Junshikexuechubanshe (Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press, 2009
(Beijing:Junshikexuechubanshe 2012 69 Da Mingdiguozhanzhengshi:dalongquanxiade . ); KennethSwope, 1 900 ( ) (Leiden:Brill, 2005 2007 NOTES 5 1426 ff and – 87 1795
83 Bythemid 9 ), ), ), ), Qinghua xuebao 2014 (Beijing:Junshikexuechubanshe . – 10 11 103 1435 92 (London:Routledge, 85 ( – Thepeacewasinterruptedin 41 ); Nicola Di Cosmo, “Did Guns Matter? 2011 . ff; Li Yue, “Ming daihuoqidepuxi,” MA ; KennethSwope, ) reigns,[theMingcourt]became 89 2000 2010 The MilitaryCollapseofChina’s Ming In 1500 ), ), 818 1450 1419 ). InChineseseeespecially Wang ); WangZhaochun The QingFormationin World- 90 s Portuguesearrivedonthe – 2007 , Thesetwodecreescanbe 26 41 2004 s, theMongolthreathad , Yongle’scourtissueda ; PeterLorge, 1592 . 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge (Cambridge:Cambridge ); Huang Yi-Long,Huang “Ming ); 1991 ( ), ), 2011 2005 A Dragon’s Headand – 121 1598 2003 ); WangZhaochun, 88 ), ), ); KennethChase, – 66 73 (Norman, OK: ); Hans van de ); Hansvande 1414 ; Peter Lorge, – 1592 War, Politics, 1998 Shijie huoqi 136 formed . ; Huang ; Huang – ); Wang 1500 . 1598 1449 . and s. ,” ,” - ,
Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:23 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429318719, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429318719-5 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 26 25 24 23 9 8 6 5 4 3 7 Chase, Tsai, The Tsai,
Many passagesinthesourcesnotehisuseofgunsassignaldevices, andononeoccasionhe The HongwuEmperor, “Treasure ofthePrince Yan,” from The HongwuEmperor, “Treasure ofthePrince Yan,” from shi yanjiu “Fagong kao: longquan xiadehuoqizhanzheng (Zhengzhou: Daxian chubanshe, huayan yanjiusuo jikan “Ouzhou chenchuanyuMingmochuanhuadexiyangdapao,” Zhongyang yanjiuyuan jilishiyuyan yanjiusuo jikan Yi-Long, “Ming Qingzhijihongyidapaozaidongnanyanhaideliubujiqiyingxiang,” Mingshi Record/ Mingshi onebook.php?novelid his armandgallopingtofreedom. as wellcreditinghimwithsavingasoldierwho’dlosthishorse, sweepingthemanunder ment, ratherthancreditingthe “barbarian cavalry” who, itseemed, reallydidsavehisskin, careful instructions, anditalsoemphasizeshisownroleinsavinghimselffromencircle his defeatasamistakecausedbythedisobedienceofsoldiers, whodidn’t listentohis Battle Orient “Review of Kenneth Chase, War, Commerce, and Cultural Exchange Chase Model,” inKennethM. Swopeand Tonio Andrade, eds., shi Ming VeritableRecords reconsidered. Sogunsappearnottohavebeenacorearmusedinhisearlycampaigns. Once thereisevidencethatheconsideredfiringgunsatarecalcitrantcity, butheevidently had orderedacavalryforcetofirehundredguns, butthiswasascaretacticanddiversion. 1398 Ming shilu, Taizong shilu Press, Tsai, de tuhua,” xingshuai,” puxi,”, MA Thesis, Dongbeishifandaxue, de niaochongyuRiben,” dapao deshiyong,” Mingshi Gu Yingtai,juan Gu Yingtai,juan Tan Xisi, Gu Yingtai,juan Gu Yingtai,juan Gu Yingtai,juan Gu Yingtai, “Yan wangqibing.” My interpretationofthisbattlediffersabitfromthatDavidB. Chan, See Tonio Andrade, “Maritime ChinainGlobalMilitaryHistory:SomeReflectionsonthe Wang Zhaochun, David B. Chan, David B. Chan, , 103 Ming shilu – 28 Eternal Perpetual Happiness: The MingEmperor Yongle ,” 2001 1402 , Firearms 009448303 . . 47 , juan , juan , juan Journal of World History
Ming dazhengzuanyao 32 . Ziran bianzhengfa tongxun 2 ), ), Manxue yanjiu (SanFrancisco:ChineseMaterialsCenter, Inc., ( , . 26 4 55 2004 16 142 144 5 ( , forexample, whichwasapprovedbythe Yongle Emperorhimself, treats (benjisection, Chengzu 81 80 . . 2013 . shijichuanHuadeOushiqianzhuanghuopaojiqiyanbian,” 16 16 16 16 16 101 , liezhuan , liezhuan . . ), ), Qing shiyanjiu , retrieved . . . . . 284 ), ), = – 3 377293
504 juan 75 . – , juan Shixue jikan , 6 . 3 1994 – ; andStephenMorillo, “Review ofChase, — Tonio Andrade— ( 22 Firearms 30 32 129 2004 2012 &chapterid ; ShiKang(KennethSwope), “Ming-Qing zhanzhengzhong , Biographyof Tie Xuan. , Sheng Yong, Ping’an, etc.” 2004 . 3 2 Mingshi jishibenmo , Hongwu
; DavidB. Chan, 15 (
Ming shilu, Taizong Shilu, , juan (Nanjing:Fenghuangchubanshe, ). ). 2011 - 1994 11 ( 573 ); Li Huguang, ,”
2004 , 34 - 27 Journal of the Economic and Social History of the 1994 . 1 ), ), 3 11 – . ). 3 84 634 , ( , (London: Routledge, 102 = 2012 ( ), ), , 10 2011 13 2012 28 . 525 2 ; LiuXu, – retrieved ( , citedin Wang Zhaochun a, availableathttp://catalog.hathitrust.org/ 18 ; XieLihong, “Hongyi dapaoyuManzhou 1994 ), ), – ), ), ; Feng Zhenyu, “Lun Folangji zai Mingdai 30 143
57 81 Da Ming diguo zhanzheng shi: da Ming Da Ming diguo zhanzheng shi: da Ming The UsurpationofthePrince Yen, . ), ), , juan – . – (Seattle:Universityof Washington 4 62 60 Zhongguo gudaihuoyao huoqishi 9 ( 2012 ; NanBingwen, “Zhongguo gudai 2010 . – 66 1976 16 1370 juan ; Li Yue, “Ming daihuoqide - 1370 11 . ), ), Zhongyang yanjiuyuan lishi 769 ), ), - , citedinShih-shanHenry Early ModernEast Asia: 26 2018 6 53 , citedin Tsai, . http://www.jjwxc.net/ – . 2010 . 832 Firearms ); Kenneth Swope, 72 ; Huang Yi-Long,; Zhongguo huoqi ); ZhengCheng, ff. Ziran kexue , andLynn, 26 . -
Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:23 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429318719, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429318719-5 30 29 28 27 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 43 42 41 40
— (Taibei: GuoliZhongyang Tushuguan, Kenkyujo, the informationfrom Institute Working PaperSeriesNo. (Santa Barbara, USA: ABC-CLIO, Chinese historytextbooks, oreveninXiaobingLi, ed., World Historyof Warfare 2001 Ming shilu, Taizong shilu “Chinese Military Technology andDai Viet: c. Wade, translator. http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/ Ming shilu, Taizong shilu 1390 generals ontheexpedition. SunLaichen, “Chinese Military Technology andDai Viet: c. juan documents abouttheinvasion. See Wang Zhaochun, October National UniversityofSingapore, http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/ open access resource,” Singapore: Asia Research Institute and the Singapore E-Press, Taizong shilu otherwise excellenttranslationofthispassageleavesoutan “and others.” See Ming shilu, Yongle shilu had toseeitformyself. 10 Trust DigitalLibrary, http://hdl.handle.net/ fo. Courts andContacts, Century,” inCraigClunas, JessicaHarrison-Hall, andLuk Yu-ping, eds., “Causes and Consequences of the Ming Intervention in Vietnam in the Early Fifteenth Early MingGovernment,” says, wasanineteenth-centuryalteration]. retrieved October 12 different fromGeoff Wade’s. See Ming shilu, Taizong shilu Tactics Techniques ofthe Ancient World ( Press,of Wisconsin Tran and Anthony Reid, eds., Laichen, “Chinese Gunpowder Technology and Dai Viet, ca Dai Viet suky toanthu October 11 ferent fromGeoff Wade’s. See Sun Laichen, “Chinese Military Technology andDai Viet: c. Wang Zhaochun, Sun Laichen, “Chinese Military Technology andDai Viet: c. It isn’t mentionedinMichaelS. Neiberg, This isfromLi, Li Wenfeng,fo. Li Wenfengjuan Li Wenfeng, This istheconclusionofJung-PangLo. Cited inJung-PangLo, “Intervention in Vietnam: A CaseStudyoftheForeignPolicy Sun Laichen, “Chinese Gunpowder Technology andDai Viet, ca Rob S. Rice, Simon Anglim, Phyllis Jestice, ScottRusch, andJohnSerrati, - , Day ( 22 17 chapter 19 22 ); orinChriston Archer, JohnR. Ferris, HolgerH. Herwig, and Timothy H.E. Travers, – . IlearnedaboutthissourcethroughtheworkofSunLaichenbutwassointrigued v. CopyheldinUniversityofMichiganLibraries, availableonlinethroughHathi 1497 Jan (New York: Macmillan, ; and, ofcourse, SunLaichen, whosuggeststhattherewereatleastfourfirearms 11 17 17 1407 1984 ( , ,” , Yue qiaoshu 2012 19 2012 , juan 6 . Jan 18 ), Geoff Wade, translator, http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/ – 2 3: Yue qiaoshu 86 . Cf Wang Zhaochun Zhongguo huoqishi 17 , “Shu zhaozhichi,” fo. v. . Butthenamesofotherfirearmsgeneralsappearelsewherein 2006 ), vol 1407 56 , 1400 2012 How Yongle learnedtostopworrying — [CompleteBookoftheHistoricalRecordDai Viet], citedinSun . Geoff Wade, translator, “Southeast Asia intheMingShi-lu:an , juan , juan ), ), , unpublishedmanuscript, circa ), Geoff Wade, translator, http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/ , juan , juan (Lincoln, USA: UniversityofNebraskaPress, Qinghua xuebao Dai Viet suky toanthu 1 72 – . Cf. Wang Zhaochun , 1450 – 464 Ming shilu, Taizong shilu Viet Nam:BorderlessHistories 120 56 62 , juan 2003 62 60 , Yongle (London: The BritishMuseum, .the Also , Yongle 3000 Ming shilu, Taizong shilu 2012 , , Yongle , Yongle 11 79 ), ), , September 6 , . 126 B.C. to , fol ). 110 106 1969 85 4 Warfare in World History 4 17 . , . , Month . , Month 4 2027 8 4 6 ), vol Kham dinh Viet suthonggiamcuongmuc , Month v. [ , Month b andvol 1970 1390 500 /mdp. 110 2003 11 860 A.D.): Equipment, CombatSkills, and (Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku Toyo Bunka ], ], 12 – 7 . 1497 154 , , Day 110 12 , Day 39015082430755 12 10 , juan , retrievedOctober , 10 , Day 10 1540 – China at War:EncyclopediaChina An a [thissays , Day , citingthe 85 ,” . , fo 4 11 1390 7 . Also seeKennethM. Swope, 62 ( , juan 1390 . (Madison, USA: University , juan 18 1390 . Mytranslationisabitdif 11 , Yongle 10 6 1390 Jul b, citedinSunLaichen, – 2016 . Mytranslationisabit ( 1497 – – 20 1497 (London:Routledge, 2 62 Mingshi jishibenmo, 1497 1406 – huopao , “Shu zhaozhichi,” Nov 1497 ), ), , Yongle ,” InNhung Tuyet 4 2002 37 , retrieved ,”Research Asia , Month ,” ). Geoff Wade’s). 17 902 – ,” 928 4 45 1406 Ming China: , , which, Sun ); orinmost . Sundraws 79 2012 , accessed Ming shilu . , retrieved 4 . , Month Fighting ), Geoff 12 . 2012 , Day 928 - - ,
Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:23 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429318719, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429318719-5 48 47 46 45 44 75 74 73 72 71 70 69 68 67 66 65 64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 Chase,
Tsai, Tsai, Kelly, Jack translator. http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/ shilu, TaizongMing translator. http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/ Ming shilu, Taizong shilu Technology andDai Viet, ca from Li, Revolution: Military Intervention and the Rise of the West 2012 retrieved Ming shilu, Taizong shilu Ming shi Also seeHenrySerruys, “The Mongolsin China,” W. Franke, “Yonglo’s Mongolei-Feldzüge,” writing thatinit Yongle “made useofprototypecannonsandalsoblunderbusses” ( Ming shilu, Taizong shilu Military History Technique inChina, c. period, fromamilitarymanualcitedabove. See Tonio Andrade, “The Arquebus Volley but wecanseewhatonemighthavebeenlikebylookingatasongfromthemid-Ming end. To myknowledgethere’s noexampleofagun-loadingsongfromthe Yongle period, Zhongguo huoqishi on productionquotadata, thattheywereusedintheearlyMingaswell. Wang Zhaochun, xin shu:shisijuanben manual ofall, QiJiguang’s mid-sixteenthcentury the WorldChanged Explosive That Mingshi Natur- und Völkerkunde ostasiense. V., Affairs oftheMingDynasticHistory( translator. http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/ Ming shilu, Taizong Sun Laichen, “Chinese Military Technology andDai Viet: c. On volley fire and the European military revolution, see Geoffrey Parker, Wang Zhaochun, Sun Laichen, “Chinese Gunpowder Technology andDai Viet,” Li Wenfeng, Sun Laichen, “Chinese Military Technology andDai Viet: c. Jin Youzi, “Bei zhenglu.” http://www.guoxue Jin Youzi, “Bei zhenglu,” onejuan. http://www.guoxue W. Franke, Cited in W. Franke, There wereevensongsforthemakingofgunpowder, inthe These chipsarediscussedinvariousmilitarymanuals, suchasthemostfamousMing See WangZhaochun Liew FoonMing, Jack Kelly, See WangZhaochun, Wang Zhaochun Sun Laichen, “Chinese Military Technology andDai Viet: c. Sun Laichen, “Chinese Military Technology andDai Viet: c. Shen Defu, Sun Laichen, “Chinese Gunpowder Technology andDai Viet, ca. Sun Laichen, “Chinese Military Technology andDai Viet: c. - 171 170 10 44 , “Bing - , juan Yue qiaoshu . . 29 2012 . Tsai, 48 375 Wanli yehuo bian . Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, andPyrotechnics: The Historyofthe Yue qiaoshu . - 154 – 11 4 168
428 ,” citedin Wang Zhaochun, 4 Zhongguo huoqishi Zhoungguo huoqishi - 349 . 30 , liezhuan 2 – 375 ( ,
, 170
Zhongguo huoqishi . shilu 392 101 2015 Zhongguo huoqishi , juan . shilu 1560 (Beijing:Zhonghuashuju, – (Tsai suggests that guns were not used until the second expedition, 428 , juan , Yongle . . , juan , juan , juan , juan ), ), — Tonio Andrade— : Evidencefromthe Writings ofQiJiguang,” 6 115 1390 ,
42 , p. , p. 3 389 vols. (Beijing:ZhonghuaShuju, 144 . – 71 71 7 10 71 41 8 . – a, juan 1497 , Month (New York: BasicBooks, , citedin Wang Zhaochun, , Yongle , Yongle , fo. , fo. , Yongle . , , 106 1998 ,” 110 17 1368 , 10 86 Sinologische Arbeiten , 80 100 104 r, citedinSunLaichen, “Chinese Gunpowder ; LiewFoonMing, 6 , 1057 1057 1057 . 5 5 Zhongguo huoqishi . 5 , dingweiday( ), ), 7 123 , Month , Month – , Month – b– – 1644 349 101 105 8 Monumenta Serica .com/other/gcdg/gcdg/ , accessedNovember , accessedNovember , accessedNovember a; 2001 . Jixiao xinshu. . . ), Part I Ming shilu. 123 9 9 9 ). Wang Zhaochunbelieves, based ( ( ( .
2 5 5 5 .com/other/gcdg/gcdg/ nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge October October huo longjing 1390 October 13 1390 1390 1390 1390 (Hamburg:Gesellschaftfür 2004 Zhongguo huoqishi July
80 3 1997 The Treatises onMilitary [ – 1390 1945 . , – – – – SeeQiJiguang, 1497 1497 1497 1497 1497 104 ), ),
1410 27 48 ), vol. 1407 1407 1407 – ]: . ( 29 29 29 . ,”, ,”, 1497 021 Journal ofChinese ,” ,” .” ,” 375 1968 , towardthevery ), juan 14 , , , 14 14 7 2012 2012 2012 ). Geoff Wade,). ). Geoff Wade,). 2 ). Geoff Wade,). .htm, retrieved – – . , ,” – – 8 The Military 428 ), ), 433 15 15 . Sourcingis 92 233 105 . . . . . , 020 . , citedin 379 , – Ji xiao 104 . 305 171 .htm, – 81 . . ); ); .
Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:23 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780429318719, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429318719-5 90 89 88 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 80 79 78 77 76
See Tsai, Tsai, Chase, Wang Zhaochun Wang — Ming shilu Incident of Wang Zhaochun forth ingreatvigor, strikingforthwithenergytotopplemountainsandturnoveroceans.” enemy hasbeenthrownintochaos, thereardenselyarrayedcavalrytroopstogethercome employ shootingbyturnsandinconcert, todestroytheenemyadvanceguard. Oncethe there mustbeacertainamountofspace, sothattheycanloadbulletsandpowder, and shen jiqiangsandpaotroopslineupinfrontoftheentireformation, andbetweenthem fire. Wang Zhaochun, forexample, writes, “The meaningofthisisthatwhenfighting, the 1423 Ming shilu, Taizong shilu 2012 West in World History (c. Transfers fromMingChinaandthe Emergence ofNorthernMainlandSoutheast Asia York: Barnes&Noble, Roberts, citedinDavidEltis, the WestThe Triumphof University Press, in Warfare Wang Zhaochun, Frederick W.Mote, Wang Zhaochun The bestEnglish-languageaccountofthisepisodeisstillFrederick W. Mote, “The T’u-Mu Wang Zhaochun Wang Zhaochun Jin Youzi “Bei zhenglu.” http://www.guoxue See Tonio Andrade, 1390 chapter Ming shi ). Sinophonehistorianshaveinterpretedthispassageasindicatingtheuseofvolley - 176 173 10 Firearms – - – . 29 1527 7 (Cambridge, MA:HarvardUniversityPress, , citedin Wang Zhaochun, 1449 . . , “Military Treatise I,” translatedbyLiew, FoonMing. ),” ),” , .” InFrank Algerton KiermanandJohnKingFairbank, eds., 2008 44 Zhongguo huoqishi Zhongguo huoqishi Zhongguo huoqishi Zhongguo huoqishi 3: Zhongguo huoqishi Journal ofSoutheast Asian Studies Zhongguo huoqishi – 268 The Gunpowder Age: China, MilitaryInnovation, and The Riseofthe 5 ), ), . (Princeton, NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress, How Yongle learnedtostopworrying — . 20 1998 (Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress, ; GeoffreyParker, , juan ), ), The MilitaryRevolution inSixteenth-CenturyEurope 8 . 262 , Yongle Zhongguo huoqishi , , , , , 111 110 110 110 89 , 87 . 109 . . . . The CambridgeIllustrated Historyof Warfare: 123 – 21 10 .com/other/gcdg/gcdg/ , Month ; SunLaichen, “Military Technology
34 1974 . 3 , ( 8 88 , bingyinday( 2003 ), ), . 243 ), ), 2015 – 495 72 2008 . 021 ), chapter – 517 ), ), .htm, retrieved 22 Chinese Ways 391 , 500 September ; Michael 11 . (New .