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Impact of Past Global Warming on Biodiversity

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Impact of Past Global Warming on Biodiversity IMPACT OF PAST GLOBAL WARMING ON BIODIVERSITY Gregory J. Retallack University of Oregon I. Introduction oxygen isotopic composition Ratio of common iso- II. Proxies for the Past topes of oxygen (16Oand18O) analyzed in a mass III. Correlation between Biodiversity and Global spectrometer and reported in delta notation (d18O) Warming relative to a standard (usually Peedee Belemnite) and IV. Environmental Consequences of Past Global reported in parts per thousand (permil), used as a Warming proxy for paleotemperature and global ice volume. V. Biotic Consequences of Past Global Warming soil Bk horizon Level within a soil of carbonate VI. Conclusions (calcite or dolomite) enrichment in the form of nodules, mottles, rhizoconcretions, or filaments, used as a proxy for paleoprecipitation. soil salinization index Molar ratio of soda and pot- GLOSSARY ash over alumina, determined by whole-rock chem- ical analysis, and used as a proxy for carbon isotope composition Ratio of common iso- paleotemperature. topes of carbon (12C and 13C) analyzed in a mass stomatal index Percentage of stomatal openings com- spectrometer and reported in delta notation (d13C) pared with epidermal cells, used with fossil plant relative to a standard (usually Peedee belemnite) cuticles as a proxy for past atmospheric CO2 levels. and reported in parts per thousand (permil), used as a proxy for atmospheric methane abundance. chemical index of alteration Molar ratio of alumina over alumina plus soda, potash, lime, and magne- GLOBAL WARMING due to anthropogenic atmos- sia, determined by whole-rock chemical analysis, pheric pollution with greenhouse gases will have and used as a proxy for the residue (alumina) ver- significant biotic effects in the coming century. Pre- sus solutes (soda, potash, lime, and magnesia) of dicting those effects from among the noise of natural hydrolytic weathering, used as a proxy for paleo- geographic and temporal variation will be difficult precipitation. until the effects are too profound to be reversed. For- methane clathrate Methane (CH4) gas frozen in ice tunately, the fossil record includes numerous instances within deep submarine sedimentary pore space or of abrupt global warming coincident with spikes in permafrost. concentration of greenhouse gases, and furnishes a Encyclopedia of Biodiversity Copyright & 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. 1 2 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ IMPACT OF PAST GLOBAL WARMING ON BIODIVERSITY________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ variety of predictions of environmental and biotic CR.Paleo. Eocene Oligo. Miocene P. Q. consequences of global warming. 3 (a) Marine foraminifera carbon isotope value 2 1 C marine C 13 0 foram (‰) foram I. INTRODUCTION −1 (b) Marine foraminifera oxygen isotope value A variety of natural processes appear to have dramat- 0 ically increased atmospheric greenhouse gases in the 2 geological past: asteroid impact, flood-basalt volcanic marine O foram(‰) 18 eruption, release of submarine or permafrost methane 4 clathrates, and contact metamorphism of coal meas- e ual 20 (c) Montana paleosol Bt chemistry ures by igneous intrusions (Retallack and Krull, 2006). 15 C) ° ( 10 Abrupt transients of atmospheric CO2 in the past are temperatur 5 discernible from proxies such as the stomatal index of ann Mean fossil plants (Retallack, 2002) and carbon isotopic (d) Montana paleosol Bt chemistry 1000 composition of pedogenic carbonate (Tabor et al., ual 800 2004). Abrupt transients in atmospheric CH4 are dis- 600 (mm) 400 cernible from proxies such as carbon isotopic compo- precipitation Mean ann Mean sition of organic matter (Retallack and Krull, 2006). (e) Utah−Montana paleosol Bk depth These indications of atmospheric conditions can be 1000 matched with indications of temperature change, such ual 800 600 as the oxygen isotopic composition of marine shells (mm) 400 precipitation (Veizer et al., 2000) and desalinization of soils (Shel- ann Mean 200 don et al., 2002). Other climatic consequences of CO2- (f) Ginkgo stomatal index induced warming include changes in mean annual 6000 precipitation from depth to carbonate (Retallack, 5000 4000 retaceous 2005a) and degree of base depletion of paleosols (ppmV) 3000 2 Mid-Miocene 2000 End-Eocene (Sheldon et al., 2002). These indications of global CO End-Paleocene change can be compared with past records of life, such 1000 End-C as biodiversity (Sepkoski, 1996). Indications are al- 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 ready clear that some past global warmings due to in- Age (Ma) creases in greenhouse gases were hardships for life and FIGURE 1 Cenozoic global change indicators: (a) carbon isotopic detrimental to biodiversity. composition of benthic foraminifera (Zachos et al.,2001), (b) oxygen isotopic composition of benthic foraminifera (Zachos et al.,2001), (c) mean annual temperature of paleosols in Montana inferred from paleosol salinization index (Sheldon et al., 2002), (d) mean annual II. PROXIES FOR THE PAST precipitation of paleosols in Montana inferred from paleosol chemical index of alteration (Sheldon et al., 2002), (e) mean annual precip- A critical difference between evidence from the fossil itation of paleosols in Utah and Montana inferred from depth to Bk horizon in paleosols (Retallack, 2005b), (f ) CO2 concentration in the record and studies of the modern environment is the atmosphere estimated from the stomatal index of fossil Ginkgo leaves limitation of preservation. Measurements such as air (Retallack, 2002). Times of high CO2 are generally warm and wet. temperature measured directly today must be inferred for the geological past from proxy measurements, which are preserved features of rocks or fossils known to vary with temperature. Such proxy measurements depend A. Paleotemperature for their accuracy on the degree to which they are known to covary with temperature today,and the degree A popular proxy for global marine paleotemperature is to which they have resisted alteration during burial. the inverse relationship between temperature and 18 There are more such proxies than can be adequately oxygen isotopic value (d O) of carbonate in shells discussed in this short account, which is limited to of marine foraminifera (Zachos et al., 2001), mollusks explaining proxies applied to two time series of global and brachiopods (Veizer et al., 2000). Water vapor 16 warmings in the Cenozoic (Fig. 1) and Permian (Fig. 2). with the light isotope ( O) evaporates from a cold _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ IMPACT OF PAST GLOBAL WARMING ON BIODIVERSITY__________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3 CAPermian TRI. proxy for oceanic paleotemperature is compromised Guada- Lop- Cisuralian lupian ingian by global ice volumes, which are a separate reservoir dominated by the light isotope (16O). As either a ng. an global ice volume or local temperature signal, marine gurian haipi Wordian Roadian biogenic carbonate oxygen isotopic composition is an uc Asselian Gzhelian Artinskian Kun Capitani Sakmarian Greisbach. W Changhsing. important global change indicator (Fig. 1b). Dis- (a) Peltasperm stomatal index 14,000 entangling the different signals of ice volume and and paleosol carbonate 12,000 (ppm) temperature from oxygen isotope values requires in- 2 10,000 8000 dependent proxies for ice volume or temperature, 6000 which have their own problems. Another problem is Paleosol 4000 burial recrystallization of fossils, especially small, po- 2000 13 rous fossils such as foraminifera. Observations of clam Atmospheric CO Peltasperm C m or brachiopod shells in petrographic thin sections or (b) Carbon isotopes 4 arine car the scanning electron microscope for original biogenic Sovetashan 2 ‰) marine carbonate 0 microstructure are sufficient to rule out burial alter- bonate ( arine −20 ation (Veizer et al., 2000). atter ( atter −25 A proxy for paleotemperature on land is based on nonm Talcher nonmarine C ‰) observations that warmer climates have greater evapo- − organic matter 13 30 transpiration than colder climates, and thus leach organic m organic (c) Sydney basin paleosols more alkali cations from soils. The soil salinization and glendonites 15 - index, or molar ratio of potash plus soda to alumina in C) ° the clay-enriched subsurface (Bw or Bt) horizons of ual e ( 10 - soils, shows a clear inverse relationship with mean 5 - annual temperature in North American soils (Sheldon 0 et al., 2002). Such estimates of paleotemperature from Mean ann temperatur - paleosols show trends broadly comparable with ma- ) 1200 (d) Texas−Oklahoma paleosols rine isotopic records (Fig. 1c). This paleosol proxy for n (mm 1000 paleotemperature can be compromised by burial al- mian 800 teration of soil clay mineral composition, particularly End- Cisuralian End-Per illitization, which can be assessed by X-ray dif- Guadalupian End- recipitatio 600 fractograms of clay (Retallack, 2001). ual p 400 n Other indications of paleotemperature on land are d- erous an 200 nif not so fully quantified, but nevertheless locally useful En arbo C (Fig. 2c). Deeply weathered kaolinitic soils (Ultisols) Mean 0 305 295 285 275 265 255 245 are not found
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