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1952

A Study of the Expressed Opinion of the Papacy in the American Secular Press

John V. Mentag Loyola University Chicago

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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 License. Copyright © 1952 John V. Mentag A STt.lDY OF TBE EXPRESSBD OPINION OF TBB PAPACY IN THE AMERICAN SECULAR PRESS, 1824-1850

by John V. Mentag, B.J.

A The.is Submitted to the Paculty of the Graduate School ot LQ701a University in Partial Fulfillment ot the Requirements tor the Degre. ot Master ot Art.

February 1952 LIFE

John V. Mentag was born In MIchigan CIty, IndIana, November 16, 1915. He was graduated trom st. Mary's Bigh School. MichIgan City, Indiana, JUne 1933. Atter a year at Loyola UnIversity, ChIcago, he entered the Sooiety ot at Miltord, Ohl0, August 1934. He studIed PhIlosophy at west Baden College, West Baden SprIngs, IndIana, and was graduated tram Loyola UnIversIty, ChIcago, June 1940, with the degree ot Bachelor ot Arts. From 1941 to 1944 the author taught History, Civlcs, and English at st. Xavier HIgh School, , Ohl0. He returned to west Baden College, West Baden Springs, Indian~to study Theology. Be was ordained to the prIesthood on June 18, 1947. He began his graduate stUdies In the fIeld ot History at Loyola University, In the Summer Session ot 1949.

111 ...

PREFACE

The purpose of thls study ls to survey the American attitude, as expressed in the secular newspapera otthe time,

~owards the Papacy from l824-l8qO. The twenty-tive year period

~overs the relgns of Leo XII, Pius VIII, XVI, and

~he early years of Plus IX. The expressed attltude aa used here

~as to do with the several popes relative to their persons, to Itheir posltlons as Vlcars ot Chrlst, and as the pppe-Klngs ot the

~apal States. Up to the present no work has appeared treatlng the

~tter under conslderatlon in this study trom the point ot view

~ereln taken. certain phases ot Plus IX'. relgn have been

~ouched upon by Howard R. Marraro ln ~erlcan 9P in1on ~ !2!

~n1t1cat1on ~ Itall, and Slater Loretta Clare Fe1ertag,1n her

~ootoral dlssertat1on, Amerlcan Publl0 Qpln10n ~ !B! Diplomatio ~elatlons between !2! Unlted States ~ ~ Papal State8.~.~ Ray Allen Billlngton, in hls volume, -The Protestant Crusade ~800-l860,11mlted- his studl ot anti-Catho11c feellng and Amerlcan ~at1vlsm to the current Protestant rellglous press.

1v ... v The materials for the study were chiefly secular newspapers and periodicals, with the primary emphasis being upon the former. The journals that were used were those in the files of the Congressional and Newberry Libraries. For the moat part, attention was confined to the publications of the more important American cities of the time, as New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Wash1ngton, Charleston, and New Orleans. Thus, a chain of newpaper opinion was invest1gated that was indicative of the whole nat10n and 1ts attitude towards the papacy throughout a generat1on. ...

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page INTRODUCTION • • • • • • • • • • • .. • ..,1i I. LEO XII IN THE AMERICAN PRESS • • ., • • • • 1 II. PIUS VIII • • • • ...... • • • • .. 20 III. GREGORY XVI, POPE IN UNSETTLED TIDS • • • • • 30 IV. PIUS IX, THE LIBERAL POPE • • • • • • • • 50 v. FACTORS BEHIND THE EDITORS t WORDS • • • • • • 81 VI. CONCLUSION • • • • • • • • • • • • 93 iBIBLlOORAPBY • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 95 APPENDICES • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 99

vi ...

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

INTRODUCTION • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • vii I. LEO XII IN THE AMERICAN PRESS • • • • • • • • • • 1 Speculations on the Conclave--The --New8 of pope's health--'Encyclic Letter'--American vI4tor in -- relations wIth the Pope.

II. POPB PIUS VIII • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 20 Opinions of the Conclave--pope seldom in the newa--Accounts of his death--Final op1n1on. III. GREGORY XVI, POPE IN UNSETTLED TIMES • • • • • •• 30 Conclave news--Gregory's personality--Obituary accounts--The spiritual ruler--Brief on Slave Trade--po11tlcal disturbanoes In Papal Statea-­ American Consuls appotnted.

IV. PIUS IX THE LIBERAL POPE • • • • • • • • • • • • 50 The surprise election--Liberal program of Pius-­ His popularity in United Statea--SrmPathy meet­ ingl--OPinion during the revolution.

V. FACTORS BEHIND THE EDITORS' WORDS • • • • • • • • 81 ~antity of newa--Influence of new inventions-­ European sources--peraonal editorial reaction-­ Intellectual and re11gious factora--Population.

VI. CONCLUSION • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 93 BIBLIOGRAPHY • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 95 APPENDICBS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 99 ...

INTRODUCTION

The general tone or spirit of the period had an influence upon the American attitude towards the Papacy. During

the lecond quarter of the nin8t~8nth century. the United states passed through the stage of nat10nal adolesoence. Her politio •• soo1ety, and economies bore the marks of the vigor. impetuou.ity, and idealism of youth. In foreIgn atfairs, America with assured selt-reliance proclaimed before the world her devotion to and oonviction of the principle. of republIcanIsm, and lavIshed unoonsidered praise on any people seekIng political freedom. At home, her legislatora indulged in oolorful as they debated about states' rIghts and . Her presidential campaigns were oonducted with the attraotions of a side-show and mud­ slinging speeches of youthful immaturity. The nation endorsed

~tional growth by western expansion that was pursued with equal

~ggre8siveness against Indian and Mexican. All men plunged into

~he task of developing a national industry as new invention.

~urned America into a land.of optimism and opportunity. In her SOCiety based upon equality, the ambitious, bold, take-chance individual often and eaaily won sucoess. At the core of the national spirit waa the democratIc ideal. Whence came a feeling vii ,....

... viii of national pride and confidence that, at t1mes, tended to frown and look w1th disdain upon the out-moded and stodgy pattern of life in the Old World. The general tone of the Papacy, 1824-1850, wal almost the exact opposite. The Popes as. supreme sp1ritual leaders con- tended w1th oivil rulerl as they struggled to keep the and authority of Cbr1stiiillllty 1ntact. The1r temporal power in the was a faded replica ot a glorious past. Deprived ot temporal power by the , and restored by virtue ot the principle of leg1tmacy invoked at the , the Papaoy was suspicIous of the new ideas broadcast over by the Revolution. popes Leo XII and Gregory XVI acoepted and ruled aocording to the scheme of react10n that held any concession to wal polItical suicide. Consequently, those two pope.

~ave been adjudged as Intrans1gent and rocky in the1r opposit1on

~o the "modern" ideas, which included a lack of enthusiasm tor

~terial progress. The ve~y short of Plus VIII in no way

~ltered the general picture, which until 1846, was marked by pautious oonservatism ot old age. The first tell' years ot the

~eign of Pius IX, the last ot this survev, portrayed a sp1rit of routhful daring and idealistic desire to meet the new challenges. It is thi-. contrast ot national spirits that accounts

~o a degree for the expressions of ~rican opinion ot the Papacy in the present study_ ...

CHAPTER I

LEO XII IN THE AMERICAN PRESS

The attltude ot the American press towards Leo XII Dlst e determined trom the attention given to him in the columns ot he contemporary papers. It can be derived trom the treatment ot he man, ot the spiritual ruler, and of the ruler ot the Papal tates. This chapter presents such a summary of the news as tound n the secular press of the period covering the reign of Leo XII. During the second quarter of the nineteenth century, the apal spiritual otfice was still connected with considerable emporal power, Moreover, the pope was the only re.-inlng ove~eisn who was elected to his offlce, for the successor ot t. was not an hereditary ruler. This tact made every con­ lave a matter ot publio lnterest and speculatlon. In 1823, atter he death ot the much persecuted Plus VII, the American press gave ttention to the coming conclave. In the Niles Register appeared lengthy discusslon concernlng the next pope. Among the ualltlcatlons for a satistactory candidate, there was tlrst the oInt of natIonalIty_ A :Frenchman ••1 ruled out slnoe, in the the wrIter, the time ot :French intluence over the on the wane. Spaln was auttlclently occupied with 1 2 domestiO prob~eml to keep her from intrigue tor the position. "AI tor , she is more powerful than ever in ; and an attempt has been made, within a short tl.. , to bring an arohduke ~etore the public as the probable successor ot the Holy Pather.-l However, the unldentitied archduke was too young at the moment,

10 there was no possibility ot ~ Au~trian. Moreover, the cardinals were too jealous ot Roman authority to des1re any greater portion ot Austrian tntluence. Consequently, the writer believed that an Italian would receive the honor atter a briet conclave. Though the Pope's nationality might be ot minor im­ portance, this enlightened and liberal writer held that the new pontift should be ot an enlightened spirit, ot paoitio oharaoter, and a man who had learned the spirIt ot the t1mea trom the eventa ot the past thirty-six years. The tuture pontitt should be on. capable ot rising above prejudIce and one who would be betore . Such a pope would recognize the tact, that spiritualIty 1. the princIple ot , and that It i8 corrupted by be1ng rendered 5Ubject to a temporal principle, that It, the alliance ot religion and politIcs has otten procured advan­ tage. to Rome, It ~8 alwal. proved a detriment to relIgion; and that 1t i. a verl very worldly view ot the subject to consider relllion advanced by 1ncreasing the temporal power ot the pope •• Bl the time American readers had digested the above

1 Nile. Regi.ter, BaltImore, Bov.15,18Sa. 2 ...... Ibid • ·peculationl~concernlng the conclave, Oard1nal Genga had been eleoted and installed as pope Leo XII. L1ttle information wal given about the new pontiff at the time ot his election. That came later. Attention _a. loon ta.t.ned upon the poor health ot pope Leo. That corre.ponded with a remark made by the newly elected Pope to the cardinal. ot the conclave to the ettect that their wiadom in making a skeleton the pope waa to be queationed.Z An attack 1n the early months ot his reign substantiated hi' statement and was the background ot much ot the early publicity given the pope 1n the American press. , 1824, the Boston Daill Advertiser declared that "The recently Elected pope is said to be seriously indisposed."' The .ame di.patch was re­ ported in the Washington IntelligenceI' and the Niles Resister. The tormer paper reported that Lao was "seriously ill,"5 while th4 latter atated that the ·pope, but lately elected, was so ill with the dropsy, that his 11te was despalred of.·6 The Boston dally cont1nued the intereat In the pope.s state of health when on 1, 1t noted Improvement accord1ng to the papers. The return to normal health was noted March 9, when the pope after

. a Chevaller Artaud de Montor, Lives and Times of the Roman Pontltf., New York, 1866, I1,726. ------4 Boston Daill Advertiser, Feb.18, 1824. 5 Waabington National Intelllsencer, Feb.18, 1824. 6 Nl1es Reg1ster, Feb. 23, 1824. - " sixty-tour day~ in bed was reported to be in a more favorable condition.7 In November, of the tollowing year, the Intelligenoer .gain reterred to the Pope'. health as it was noted that he had insisted on contlnued audlence. despite hl. 11lness.8 Durlng the remainder of Leo's reign, the American newspapers were silent oon­

~ern1ng the pope-s state ot heal~h. The newspapers of the perlod dld not make a practice ot

~.elling upon the hobbies ot important people. There was a de­

~arture from oustom as the Intelligencer noted without comment

~ the pope spend a good deal ot time .hooting qua11. 9 The death of Leo XII recelved more attent10n 1n the con­

~emporary press than his eleotion. one Saturday in April 1829, th ~6th, the ship ~ Marl !!! under the oommand of Oapta1n Clark

~rrived at Charleston, South 8arolina, with papers oontaining the !latest new. trom Europe. On the tollowlng Monday, the looal pourier announoed to lta readers as an ite. ot important torelgn

~ews, " POPB LEO XII. died at Rome on the 10th of

~bruar1." It _al leventy-two days after the event, but lt was the lateat new. ln Charleston. A long article followed the above beadllne. The data was taken from the parla .on1tenr ot Pebruary 18,1829. The restored Bourbon , which waa represented at

7 Boston Daill Advertiser, .l,9,1824. 8 Natlona~ Intelllgencer, NOV. 10, 29, 1824. 9 ~., JUly 1, 1825. ~ome by the Outstanding layman, Chateaubriand, waa on good terms with the Boly see at that time. Hence, the very tavor­ able tone ot the pope" obituary appeared In the English veraion. The Government has received the newe of the death ot hie Holinels the pope. His health had been slightly atfected tor two or three da,.., when on the 9th ot Pebruary the physicians declared that his lite wal in imminent danger. Bia Holinele expired on the 10th, at nine Otclock in the morning. . The loes of a Soverlgn Pontiff, eo enlightened, so pious, and so moderate, ie a real calamity to Ohristendom. Prance, more than any other Catholic State, has reason to deplore the premature death ot Leo the Twelfth, who bad a particu~ atfection tor it, as he had a just and entire con:t'ldence in the virtues and religion of the XingJ Ms exalted wisdom dilplayed 1n every aftair a spirit ot conciliation and peace. He appreciated times and conjunctures; he baa found means to maintain unity in the two worlda by watchIng with indefati­ gable soliCitude over the government ot the C~8h' and by providIng for ita wante with zeal and firmness. The Courier allo reported the death according to the

Italian journal, ..,...Di_a..... r..;;.l ....o ~!2!!" dated February 11.1829. It was the mOlt complete biographical sketch ot Leo XII reported by the American pres., therefore worthy ot full reproduction. DEATH OF POPE LEO XII In the even1ng ot the 5th hie Holiness commenced to Butter violent pains ot stranguary_ During the night the pb7siclana .ere called in. In Ipite of all remediel, hi. malady increased during the 6th and 7th. on the 8th be felt somewhat better, and hopes were conceived. In the evening, however, the patient gre.. wor.e, and next morning the danger beooming more Ul'gent, the Hol,. Pather himself Mmanded the Viaticwa, whloh was immediately administered to him, by Barbelanl, and 80me tiM atterwardl Monsignor Socu,

10 Charleston, S.C., Courier, April 18,1829. ...

6 the Archblahop of Ephesus, hls Hollnesa's , gave hlm the extreme Unctlon. In the meanwhIle Cardlnal Bernettl, the secretar,. ot State, communicated the melancholy tldings to Cardinal della Sommaglia, the ot the Sacred College, to Oardinal zurla, the Vicar, and to the diplomatIC corpa, when the tormer went in hls grand cOstume to the Vatican to aacer­ tain the state ot the pope personall,.. Cardinal Oastiglione, and Grand Penitentiary, visIted the Chamber of the august patlent, and the theatre was ordered to be clo.. d. !owarda the clo.e of the da7 (the 8th) the Holy , who had never lost hi. recollectlon, tell into a profound lethargy trom ..hlch he did not recover tIll at nine in the morning of the 10th, to tall into the aleep ot the just. Leo XII (Hannibal della Genga) waa born at the Oaatle ot Genga, in the terrltory ot Spoletto, on the 2nd of AUgust, 1760. He descended trom a tam11y ot great distinction. He had received the of Archbl8bop ot T7l"e tram hi. Holines. Piua VII., who, in the Conalstory at the 3rd ot March, 1816, named him Cardinal , by the title ot st. vary Frastevera. U. afterward. governed the Bplscopal at Senlgaglia, ..... Arch-PrIest ot the Ba.ilican Church at Liberlana, and Vioar-General to Pope PiUB VII. He was named his ~cc •••or, exalted september 28,1823, crowned on the 5th ot October followlq, and took pOlsesaion on the 13th of J'W:le Hi. pontificate, therefore, lasted tlve year8, tour months, and thirteen daY8. As .oon aa the senator ot Rome ..aa informed ot the pope's death by the Oordinal ~i!7 , the bell ot th. capitol, and afterward. bY order ot·the , all the bella at the churche 8 announced to the people ot Rome their los•• The same evening the Dean ot the Cardinale a,sembled the head. ot the ordera residing at Rome.... Their Eminenoe. Cardinal Feach, at the order at prie.t., Oardinal Gacia Patie ot the order ot ., aDd the Secretary at the Sacred College, proceded to the Dean ot Cardinala. Thia mornlns Peb.ll, the as.embled the militia at the capitol .a ..ell as the chieta ot the police, and ordered the colonel at that militia, to open the ne. prl.ons and thoae ot the capitol, where onlilindividuala convicted at alight ottence. were contined.

11 Ibid., April 17,1828. The printer erred in the editlon as to tmryear, which waa 1829. 7

The~Courier continued to publish artIcle. on the death pt LeO XII tor several weeks. April 29, excerpts .ere gIven tram

~liah papers which varied somewhat fram the Frenoh and Italy

~especttul reporting. Rome was said to be dull since the Pope

~Ied. The librarles and llU.euma were closed and toreigners ..ere rorced to seek amusement ~t Napl~. and . The conclave was -.lready in .e.slon to elect a new pontiff. The oritical cOJ],dItlona

~emanded a pope of "trIed wisdam, integrIty, and moderation." Phe.e qualificationa .ere pos.essed·-It was thought--by oue

~ardinal Gregori, who had travelled over much of Europe and wa.

~1.t1ngul.hed by his profOtU'ld knowledge ot European policy a ••ell

~s virtue and piet". The ItOmall journals reported that the con­

:slave was begLlD with the usual pomp and no civiC dlsorder. The "Inal notice. abou.t Leo XII appeared in the latter part ot .".

,nother French account trom the OO\1rrier Pr~9ai. ot February 18. tt Pari., wa. tranalated in the columns of the Oharleston paper.12 rt added nothtng whlch the previous account. had already recorde4. The Charle.ton pre,. gave a fitting tlnale to Leo XII

,1th the account of the Solema Requiem Maas celebrated in the lo~a:

~athedral ot st. Finbar. The church was properly draped in black.

Phe sermon of dignifIed length waa preached by John ~ rho, even though he had been too ill-dlspo.ed to celebrate the

12 -Ibld.,April 29, May 22, 1829. 8 Ma'" .poke ~or one hour and flfteen mlnutea.13 That ended the serles of obltuary accounts, whlch for the most part, expressed reverential respect tor the departed Pont1tf. Bealdes the manifested ln the health and the death ot Leo XII, the Amer1can new.paper. devoted a certa1n amount of attentlon to the otfl~1al act. ot thl. Pope. Tbe.e In­ cluded h1s relations w1th other countrles, domestio affalrs in the papal state., and one of hl. •• It was the lnaugural encyclioal, ----Ubi P1'imum, )fay 5, 1824 tbat wa •••pecially noted in the .ecular pre.s. In this letter pope Leo exhorted the Biahops of the Church to be falthful to their dutie. and .ealous tor the spirltual needs of their flocks. He warned of the evil. of the period a8 liberalism pushed Into the rea~ of religion to bring forth a aplrlt of indifferentl ••, Del ••, and naturalism. Be continued 1n some .even paragraphs with the condemnation of :SocietiesJ namely, those groups who tran.lated the scripture. into the various vernaculars so that the goapel of Chriat became that ot man, 01" worse still, the of the devil. Tho.e group. had already been condemned by two brlet. of Plu. VII. Leo exhorted the to keep their flocks tree of th1e evil and ablde by the regulatlona ot the Congregation of the Inde.. Be warned that the.e tranalatlon•

• 13 -Ib1d., May 25,1829. were the souice ot , and descrled the tact that the Blble societies dlstrlbuted their translations tree ot . B1s flnal paragraph waa a plea for unity and cooperations with the Chair ot peter.14 Since the portion dealing with the condemnation ot Bible Societies was particularl;,. interesting to Americana owlng to the numerous unlta at that time, Leo'a condemnation waa repro­ duced in full translation by several editors. The excerpt trOB the pope fa "Enclyclic Letter" was printed without comment by the Boston Advertiser, the Washington tntelli6encer, and the Blles· Regiater.15 But the mere tact that the papers pr1nted it indic­ ates that the editors believed the excerpt would be ot tnterest, ,elther pro or con, to their readers. Pope Leo XII manifested great interest In the Churoh in the We. World. During his reign the reorganization and recon­ stItution ot the hierarchy of the Church In Latln America was begun, and attention waa bestowed upon the miaslonary Churoh ot the United Statea. The generoslty ot the towards

14 Bullaril Romani!, Rome, 1854, XVI,45-49. A campar­ ilon of the original tatfri text and the tranalation used by the American prea. abowed conclusively that the Engliah veralon was substantially accurate and correct. 15 Boaton Da1l1 Advertiser, Aug.13,l824, Wash1ngton National Intelllgenoer, lug.IO, 182', ~ilea ReSister, Sept.4,1824. 10 American Oatholics made the news 1n 1824 tn the ahort article. The pope has made an additional grant ot 24,000 dollars annually to the Oongregation de Propaganda Flde tor the speclal purpose ot encouraging the progress otlthe Oath­ olic rellglon 1n the United States ot America. 6 Again, the edItors wIthheld comment, and readera--then and now-­ were tree to interpret the item as a means to warn American ot the advance ot , within our country, or as objective reportlng ot Pope Leo's solicltude tor American Catholic •• Ne.s ot ecclesiastical negotiations with the new of America and the Holy See was in accord with the rather universal American w,rmpathy towards the lister . Accounts which noted the arrivals and departures ot Latin Americax agents at Rome, and attempted neutral mediation were printed trom time to time. The New york National Advocate gave the typical press treatment of those attaira. A letter ot the 12th inst. from Rome announces the arrival of .exican Plenipotentiaries in that city. where they met with a most grat1fying reception. The object ot their mission is the establiahment ot a at Mexico, the nomination of an Apoat6l1cal Vicar, and the definitive organisatIon of the Bishoprlca.l7 In 1827, it was reported that the Oolombian agent would soon

16 Washington National Dntellisencer, JUne 7,1824, Niles Register, JUne 12, 1924_ 17 Ne. york National Advocate, Mar.24,1826, National !ntelllsencer, Apr.14, !)ic.B, 1825, Mar.2S, 1826. 11 .ail for Rome. and before long the whole list of American envoy. would be appearing in the Eternal City. The move for concordata brought forth mention of the tact that the Holy See bad conoluded agreements with the .etherlands tor the Belgians. The determin­ ation of the Holy rather to support establis~nt of Blshoprlos in Latln Amerloa regardless of Spanlsh. opposltlon was recounted}8 Mention of Leo XII otten appeared in the miscellany columna. For example, the Pope made the ne.. s when he purchased the llbrary of the Marquis of Clcognara tor the Vatican. The colleotlon fl11ed seven oa.... The purohase prlce waa giv.n at two hundred thouaand tranc •• 19 Material progress in Rome was indicat.d when the Papal government repalred the water S1ste. ot Rome. The project tnclud.d the renovatlon at the pre.ent canals, and the uncover1ng at acme long out at us., ana tbought to have been tram the tl.. at Agrlppa. The est1mated coat waa put at torty thouaand . 20 JUdgment on the fell1nlne fashions ot the day stood out in a letter tram Rame. The writer, an unsympathet10 traveler, tn

18 Balt1mor. Patriot & Mercantlle Advett1s.r, Aug.21, Oct.1S, Bov.29, 1827. Not •• It may Se added that the .ouroe., 1n great part, were the A!S.burl Gas.tt. and Galganl t • Paris •••••nger. 19 Salem Gas.tt., 50v.26, 1824. 20 Bo.ton DailZ Adverti.er, Friday, Aug.13,1824. Italy, tound~that "the molt ~!portant attair that haa lately happened at Rome" was the "pope ts tulminating" about the dresa ot women. 21 May 3.1825, the "ash1ngton National IntelligenceI', 1n quoting the news trom the New York papers, reported the popela refusal to the king ot .22 Later the same year Leo made the columns ot the Washington. daily wben he donated the ot st. Nemesaus (4.350) to a Geneva church honoring the . Atter some hesitation Leo XII proclaimed the jubilee year ot 1825. This traditionally great religious event waS littl noticed in the American secular press. There were only two re­ ference. to 1t. The N11e. Resiater pr1nted the tact interwoven in an account ot papal-Spanish relations~4 When the Holy Year had got under way, Mr. Nl1es told his readers that the number ot pilgrims attracted to Rame by the jubilee was excessively small in comparison with past records, Be ottered a. explanation the

"severity exercised by the police ot each state in the .xaminati~~ ot" pa.sports ot the persons going to Rome. 15

21 Nile. Resister, JUne 4, 1825. 22 Waahington National Intelligencer, May 3, 1825. The unidentified king .a.~!.8 I, liat or tEe Bourbon royalty- 23 Ibid., Oct.l, 1825. 24 -Nile. Register, Aug.28, 1824. 25 -!bid., Mar. 26, 1825. 13

In~1825, the editor ot an New Orleans paper reprinted an English account on Roman events. It related that Pope Leo XII had instituted an aaylum tor assaains in Oatia and three other unhealthy cities. Thus the Pope hoped to re-populate thoae regions which were about ten leagues from "the spot where the greatest number of travellers a~e murdered." Flight to one at the sanctuaries would tree a criminal trom further pursuit. The article lett the impression that the penal code at the Papal states was moat lax. Apparently, the English writer and hia American oopy editor did not understand the uae ot the asylum.2S The implled laxlty ot the above item was not shared by the National Intelllsencer when lt printed an article dealing with the arrest at persons carrt1ng weapona by the papal polioe. Approbation was given in the tollowing oomment.

26 New Orleans Mercantile ~ill Advertlser, Sept.l7, 1825. Note, The term "asylum- Is aer ve from an application ot the principle ot eccl.aiastical immunity. It was a place or refuge tor a man under the ban at the law, be he guilty or innocent. The cuatam was in use among the ancient Hebrews,Romana, and Christ1ana. The Church continued to promote the practice aa a aateguard againat aavage revenge until judicial decision wa. duly rendered. Certain heinous crimes were not covered by the priv11ege or aaylum. The rise at modern criminal codea has daDe away with the custom. There is 10 ita place proteot1ve custody and the right at trial 6~ven to all accused ot er1me. Par turthex information on this point, one may conter the article by John Baptist Sagmuller in the Catholic En~elO~.dia, XII, 440. Consequently, it seems lari to say t~t ! • newspaper editora ot the above ea.e comple~J Ddt-understood the meaning ot the term. 14

We have ~o tondnesa, it ia known, tor the combination ot sp1r1tual and temporal authority in any Government, whether ot one, or of many heade. We cannot help w18hing, however, that there were &Dy authority that had the power a ••ell al7 the will to tollow the example ot the Papal Gov.rnment ••••

In line with the strict d1scipline at ~h. above, the edItor 1n New Orleans pub11shed a simIlar artIcle taken trom the Paris Etoile ot , 1825. a. added the comment "samewhat - . myaterious" becau •• he ta11ed to reali •• that the pre •• or France atter the or the Bourbon. was naturally and vIe.ed all lIberalistic actIvItIes .a movement. bent upon the destruction ot EUropean peace. AmerIcana, of course, did not accept the prIncIple. of Mltternlch'e Concert at EUrope. Bence the op1nions expre.sed by the French Journal in the tollow1ng c1tation .ere most mysteriOUS to the Southern editor. The prellmlnarr examination. of the per.on. arrested at Rome ••• are to commence on the 17th. Let us hope that they .ill throw some light upon the horrible scheme. ot tho.e secret societie., which, in the midst of the peace we .ere enjoy1ng, discover, by blows of the dagger, their teartul existence, and the wounds which thirty years ot revolution have in­ flicted upon Europe. .sauredly, there does not exist a mIld­ er gov.rnment than that ot the pontltf, and yet th.re are madmen .ho dream, in the mIdst ot the tranquility and liberty ot Rome, ot a better .yste. and soclal ord.r, and it ls by meana ot crime that they would establIsh It.... A great number ot persons bave been arr.st.d In Rome on susplclon ot b.lng engaged In secret .0cl.&S...... Arrests have alao taken place in the province ••

27 Waahlngton National Intellisencer, May 1, 1826. 28 New Orlean. MercantIle Daill AdvertIser, Sept.l?, ~825. 15

Th~e wal, on the other hand, the patent adver •• criticism o.t the civil government of Leo XII b,. an American traveler, Mr. Carter. He judged that papal otticlal. were tar trom zealous in the pertormance of their dutie.. He wrote, ·We bave now entered the dOminlon. ot'the pope, and our trunka were consigned to the hand. ot a hOst, at hungr,. custom-otficers who throng the Dogana ot hls Hollne •••••LPU!I a moderatete. blinded the vigl 1ance ot these papa1 arguae. • • •• .29 Vr. Carter a 1 so com- plained at the coachmen, who In hi. opinion, tried tbeir beat to overcharge travelera by requiring more horses than were neeea.ary to pull the ooach. However, not muoh attention should have been accorded Mr. Carter, tor the travelera ot an,. age in an,. oountry could relate aimilar enoountera with cuatom agent. and cabmen. Papal government wal given another blaok mark in the Intelllsencer column "ITnS PROM ENGLISH PAPBRS." According to "Prlvate correspondence" trom Rome on Dice.ber loth, .... Leo XII was going to r .... establi.h the teudal system. !be attair ••• wl11 speedl1y produce the moat dia.steraua result.. Hi. infallibillty bas ju.t reconstItuted, aa a perpetual tiet, the vaat estate ot Conoa in tavor ot the Moat Holy CongregatlOD of the . A tew daya afterwardG the same prerogative. were granted to the famoue chapter of St. peter, in Vaticano, by conterrtng on it the equally great estate known bI the name ot Oampo Marto, with the entire criminal and clvi . The.e two e.tate. are in Romansa. The jur~adictlon which i8 granted

29 Baltimore Patrlot and Mel'cant.l1. Advertiser, March 19, 1827, - 16

to them~carries w1th 1t the right ot immunity or asylum, and the criminals who take refuge in those places are sat. against the demands of justice. The contents of this Bull, as well as those of all ., were known .ome weeks before it was publish.d, and it has already produced its fruit. The populace of Rome were no .ooner acqua1nted with this .overeign order, than the,. manir•• ted the most lively joy. They may indulge with impunity in all kinds of exc •••• Accord1ngly ever .tRee the beginning of December, we hear in the .treet. the cry 01' "A.ylum! Asylum! 'hi. Holineas has re­ e.tabli.hed the Asylum.'· It 1s but One s~8P between the desire and nece.sity 01' prof1ting by the•• The writer 01' this letter protessed liberal views, but the author of the next item was not only liberal but al.o anti-clerical. Wh1le treating 01' political conditlon. of France in ].3£5, he launched into a diatribe on the Jesults. Be asserted that the Jesults were seeklng to control the country, and, the v.de Villele, though be hat •• the Society, is unable to take &n1 actioa. He ext.nded hi. ap1tetul cr.it1oism to the pope. 31

30 Washlngton ~at10D&1 ~ntelligencer, Apr.1S, 1827. 31 PortfoliO, Philadelphia, JUne 1825, 451,455. The article was a reprInt trom an un1dent1fied magasine. The edltor of the Portfolio entltled it -.en, •• aaure., and Manner. m France. ft 'ta• ..a. One of the fn not1ces concerning Leo XII 1n the several conttJDporary p.riod1cals studied. The r.mark about -lib.rt1nismD may have been an allus10n to the sappoaed blot on the r.putation of Leo XII. Wh1l. Nunol0 in Vienna he was 8ald to have been a talented man but lack.d strict morale. RA. nunoio in German,. and France, Della Gftnsa was r.puted the fa.ther of a numb.r ot il1eg1tlmatG children." (Ct. Wlppo14, II.75, Nielaen, II, 5) The charge of these non-Catho11c author., was not mentioned much les. refut.d in the work. of Wiseman, Artaud, Leflon, or oth.r acoounts ot the 11f. of Leo XII. Since prOOf i. lacking, judgment mast be withheld. However, the charg. nev.r app.ared in any of thtJ ;>ublicatione of the American pres. studied tor this th•• i •• -- 1'1 "Thls pope (LeO XII) now an ultra and a fanatic, was in hl. youth a man of intellect and pleasure, nay, 01' libertinism." Again, the writer referred to him as a "narrow minded and impudent fanatic.­ Since the author did not give any $astiticatioD tor tach abusive labels, we do not know how to evaluate his mind. .. * While formal diplomatic relat10ns were not entered 1nto by the Holy See and the UnltedStat~8 until the reign 01' Pius IX, , there were acta 01' an otficial nature between the two gove~nt. during the pontiticate of Leo XII. Several notices 01' these affairs appeared in the pages of the Bational Intelligencer, the source 01' m08t government new. until the orlgin of the COngresslonal Globe ln 1830. There were the offlcial proclam­ ations of President John ~iney Adams announclng the appointments 01' Wright as tbe authorlsed Vice-conSQl 01' His Holinesa Leo XII at the port of Savannah, Georgia; of Charles Le Oarron to Charleston .. South Oarolina; Willlam D'Azet Senae to the port ot Norfolk, Virginia; and Mariano Cubi y Soler to the port of Baltimore, Maryland. In 1827, President Adams declared that the pope had removed all discr1minating duties on American veasela; theretore .. the United Stat•• would grant the same tavors to vessel. 01' Papal aubJeeta.32

32 Waahington National Intell!8encer, June 11, 1827. 18 Beatdes the newspaper accounts, the ordinary American oould torm opinion ot Leo XII trom the tactual biograph7 in the pennJ[ Clclopedia. The account related that Annibale della Genga -wa. born ot a noble ROJII&gna tamily in 1760. He served as the 01' Pius VII in Germany and Pranoe. Created a Cardinal in

1816, he was elected Pope in 182~. ue was well aoquainted with diplomaoy and foreign politica, and in the exercia. 01' hia authority and in asaerting the claims 01' hi. aee, hfJ assumed a more imperiOUS tone than hi. meek and benevolent predece.sor. Be reestabliahed the right 01' asylum tor oriminals 1n the ghurohea, and enforoed the atrict observanoe at meagre days. 3 Moreover, he waa the declared enemJ ot the and aeoret

33 Penny Qz01oeed1a,London, 1839, XIII,428.

Note I When the National Intellltenoer publiahed( Jan. 27 J and JUne 18,1827) oftioial proclamations, t ueed the torm:

JOHN QUIJct ADAMS PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERIOA

To all whom 1t mal ooncern t Satisfactory evidence having been exhibited to me that Samuel wriiht i. appointed Vioe-Consul 01' H1s Holiness Pope Leo Eh. !ie ttb tor the Port ot Savannah, in the State ot Georgia, I do hereby reoognize him as suoh, end deolare him tree to exer0188 and enjoy INoh functions, powers, and privileges, as are allowed to the Vioe Consuls ot the moat tavored nations in the United Statea. In testimony whereot, I have oau.ed. the (Seal) letters to be made patent; and the 8eal ot the United State. to be hereunto atfued. (Date) 19 societies. He proclaimed the jubilee year in 1825. Leo XII violently attacked Bible Societiel aa being contrary to the counoil of Trent. Ue negotiated with the new republioa of South America to fill vacant aees. He corrected abuse. and strove to maintain order and a good police sy.tem within the Papal States. CHAPTER II

POPE PIUS VIII

On March 51, 1829, Cardinal Albani appeared on a

ot th~ Quirnal to inform the waiting rain-soaked Romans and all nations of a great event in the election of another Pope. AnnUntio vobis gaud1um magnum, babemus Papam eminenti.aium ac reverendi ••1mam dominum Francilc~Xaverium, Bpiscopum Tusculanum S.R.E. Cardinale. Castiglioni qui 8ibi nomen imp08uit Piul VIII.~

That ~tin ••ntence bad long diffused into the ether before readers ot the American pre.s weI'. aware that a new Pope reigned at Rome. During the months of April and Ma7, the editor of the Charleston Courier wal retailing n••• of tbe conclave and usual speculations about the n.... pope. on April 22, h. published an excerpt trom the French Journal ~ nebate ot Pebruar,. 21, giving Information on likel,. candidates tor the papacy. They .ere the aged Cardinal Sommaglia, the confirmed favorite ot Austria, the youthtul Cardinal Zurla, the former and of pleb1an origin} and the princely acions, Cardinals and Barberini. The last pOlle.sed poor qualIfications since the formal' wal blind While the

1 Charleston, South Carolina, Cour1er, May 21, 1829. 20 21 latter was .'ak in both mind and body.2 A week later the aame edItor copIed from the London

Time a, whIch had In turn quoted the Gazette ~ France, an ite. -on Roman civIl condltiona durIng the conclave. The artIcle was permeated wIth the spirit of Italian liberalIsm and .

The French edItor bad reported ~hat insurrectiona of the Roman Carbonari were "tryIng to Influence the election of the new pope." In a somewhat cynioal vein the 'imea1 editor commented. This we think extremely improbable. Of what use has been the papal and AustrIan police, it a s~le member ot a Carbonari club now ex.ists' Se aide s this celebrated asaociation • • • so tar trom wisbing to I~luence the election ot a pope, waa tbe inveterate enemJ ot all Popea, all Kings, and all Imperore. The conolave, or aacred college in its vocabulary, would be called a den ot thIeves, and the prInce. of the Churoh conspIrators againat the rIghts of people. It there bas been any insurrectIon at Rome, an Austrian intrIgue 1s more 1lkel., to be at the bottom or it than a lodge ot Carbonarl.S Vore new. appeared about the conclave when the Cour1er publiahed a lengthy letter that was dated from Rome on March 12. The writer atatea that ten day. had passed sInce the conclave had convened, but "nothing that la entItled to reliance baa emerged." He described the atrict enclosure ot the meetIng and the method ot bringing tood to the cardInals, and other nece.aarr dealinga with the outalde world. The wicketa are • • • narrowl., watched by , and other dignitarIea, WIthIn, who acrutinize moat minutely everythIng that Is

2 Charle.ton Courier, Apr. 22, 1829. 3 -IbId., Apr.29, 1829. 22 brought --(articles of food inclusive) tor their eminences, in order to obviate the introduction ot notes, or any clandestine correspondence, that might be supposed to have a tendency to influence the election. It would be aomewhat amusing to see a Bishop sounding a , or a Prothonotary Apostolic dragging a cottee pot, in quest of a contraband billet. The conveyance ot thoae Cardinalitian provision. to the scenes of discussion may be reckoned among the sight. of the day- Hia eminencets repast prepared in his , is packed in an appropriate apparatus, and placed in his own carriage, in which, moreover, one ot his gentlemen takes hia aeat. The vehicle 1s then drawn very alowly to the Quirnal Palace. His maitre dthotel, clad in a black silk mantle, walke at one aide ot the coach, which is pre. ceded by two tootmen bearing staves covered with cloth ot the colour of '. livery_ In aome instancea I have aeen two additional servants, bearing between them a covered box; whence I concluded that all the Cardinal'. meals had not tound room in the coach itself" He describes the conclave chamber as the "glOOMY preoinct" where the cardinale, atter they have invoked the guidance of the Holy , vote and drop their ballots into a challce. When the vote has been counted, the ballots are burned so that the smoking from the chimney signals the election of a new pope. At the time ot his writing, the author notes that no smoke had come forth "telegraphing" an electIon, and he tears that soot -'1 have accumulated in the tunnel ot the Quirnal. According to his observation, every Pope aince Adrian VI (d.1523) had been an Italian. Therefore, in hl. Judgment, the new pontitt would be tram the Papal States, and the narrowed tield of candidatea would find the ultramontane oardinals hard pressed to decide upon the eligibillty ot those tor whom they must ~Ot6 aln opposition to their own wtabes and (they may think) their right.,," Theae and other considerations must operate in such a scene ot deliberation, where so many must be reconCiled, and so many opponent. be concillated. Se.lde. this, in the actual stat. ot men and prospect., the Jesuits must come in tor a share ot calculatlon. The Cardinals belonging to other rellg1ou. orders cannot be auppo.ed to contemplate thil body, 80 much caresled and endowed as it latterly haa been, with any exces. ot predilectlon; and several others are sald to be not favorably disposed towarda the renewed generations of the eons ot Loyola. Hence may arl88 a clash- 1ng bet.een their part1zans. and opponents • Moreover, the oorrespondent polnts out that the election could be tmpeded by either the Emperor ot Austria, or the Kings of Franoe and Spaln, who ~ght make a regular el.ctlon "subject to arbitrary inhlbitions ot tore1gn and distant authorlti••• • The concludtng paragraph noted that the Frenoh and Austrian Ambas.a­ dol's had gone in state to the Quirnal in order to present their credent1al. to the Cardinals ot the conolave.' Speculation concerning the new Pope came to an end when the packet ship Canada arrived at New York, flay 12, trOJll Liverpool bringing London papers up to April 15, and tho.e ot Liverpool up to Aprl1 17. N1ne day. later the people ot Charle.ton read, "The Cardinal Castiglionl was elected Pope, at Rome, on the 31at March."5 Francl. Xavier C.stiglionl was born November 20, 1761, of a noble family in the town of Cingo11. At the age ot thlrty-

4 Charleston Cour1er, Vay 16, 1829. 5 -Ib1d., K.y 21, 1829. 24 nine his elevation to the purple brought him the Blshopric ot Montalto. During the Napoleonic control ot Italy, he inourred the enmity of the ~enoh authorlties and was banished from his lee to and . Be became the right-hand man ot Pius VII when the trouble between the Roly See and Napoleon became acute regarding jurisdictional ~latms. Tbe services that he rendered Plua VII as a canoniat were rewarded after the restora­ tion. on March 8, 1816, Castlglionl was ralsed to the Cardinal­ ate and named of Ce_. the pope t s own city. In the course of ttme, he waa brought to Rome and glven the title to the see of Tusculum or Pl'ascats'. At ROlle he served as Penitentary and ot the Oongregatlon of the Index. He had not been mentioned as one at the possible candidatea by the journa11sts writing of the conclave in 1829. Nevertheless, he was elected. Out of reverence t.O the Pontitf who had raised him to the purple and prophesied he would someday be Pope, Cardinal Caatiglioni chose the name of P1us VIII. The electlon caused aome contuaion in the French pres., and thls is told by the Courier. The Measepeer in turn asserted that the new Pontiff was preciaely the one dealred by Franoe, and who WaS described by the noble speech of Chateaubriand. ~oreov.r M. de Chateaubriand baa • • • worthily accomplished hi. mis.ion to the Saored College. Catholic Prance bas acquIred an ally at the same ttme aa a SovGreign Pontiff, and, inatead ot being afflicted at such a choice, the 28

frlend.~of the Galllcan Church have reason to congratulate themselves upon It.6 The Gazette -de Prance dld not agree and argued that Chateaubriand had favored the electlon of Cardinal Zurla. The Charleston editor, reprinting theae deapatche., added no comment. The of the new Pope was noted in the Nil•• -Reglater during the month of Augu.t. Ita source of newa was a letter tram an Engli.h atudent at Rame, dated May 17. The comment indicated the feeling of the Romans for thelr new ruler.

Thi. pope appears to be a f~eat favorite wlth the Romana, but the generality ot them are a flckle set, and it he were to dle tomorrow, I teel confldent that the most bltter aar caema and pasqulnade s would come out against him. 7 Plus VIllts extremely abort reign ot twenty months denied him opportunity to give full expression to his polic.". henc., not much appeared in the newspapel's. There was some approbation ot b1s reign in the liberal press when he restored to and Christian dissenters certaln privilege. taken from them by Leo XII, and the Charleston Courler 8ald he "is dl.posed to act wlth liberallt.,."8 The peDAl Cyclopedia, however, declined to credlt him for that actlon. Plus VIII dld nothing remarkable during hl. short reign.

6 Charleston Courler, I&y 21, 1829. 7 Nl1es Register, August 29, 1829. 8 Charleston Courier, JUne 16, 1829 • • 26 B1s early death laved htm from dealing with an abortive. llberal insurrectlon In the that waa inspired by the -July Day." of 1830, to France.9

Some te.. other Ite~ about Pope Plua VIII made print. The edltor of the Oourier erroneoualy reported a ramer, that w.s oopied tro. a we. York paper, t9 the etfect that ftthe Pope haa decided upon granting permi •• ion to Roman C~thollc to marry.nlO There was allo a short notlce laylng the pope had held a oonalstory with the intentlon of elevating .everal peraonal friend. and the ot Rame to the Cardinalate ,11 another item informed the public that the Marquess ot Palma, Ambassador ot Bra.il, waa engaged in .ecret meeting. wlth the pope to obtain approbation tor aeveral Blshope apPointed by the lmperor.12 - 'Olldel" date ot September 9, the edltor of a New Y~k pap.r prlnted a ahort tiller article entitled "Age. and other Particulars ot the European Sovere1gns." When he came to the Pope, he stated that Pope Plua VIII N1. a1xtl-e1ght and 1n

9 pennI 2lclopedla, XVIII, 204. 10 ChaI'lelton Cour1er, JUly 14, 1829, cItIng the New York CommerCial Advert1ser, 3aly 6, 1829.

11 Charleston C~1.r, Sept. 22, 1829. 12 -Ibld., Nov. 7, 1829. tolerable vlgOr,· and added the corament that "the Church 1. usually considered favorable to longevity,,,13 Th1s was not too true ot Piu. VIII, tor Mr. Nile., citing a letter tram Rame ot November 26, under the column "Poreign Intelllgence" reported pope Flu. VIII to be "tutterlng trom the gout whlch had ascended to hls .tomach and 1, at deatbf~ door.,,14 By the time Ml'. Nl1e. bad told hi. readers that the "pope was at doath" door," Pius VIII bad already died, but it was January 31, 1831, betore Mr. Oardoso ot the Southern Patrlot

could pr1nt the eventful newa dell vered by the ship O.pr~I out ot

Liverpool on December 1&. The terae notice read. It Intelligenoe has been recelved ot the death ot the Pope. He was sixty-nine years ot &ge.,,15 A more complete accOWDt ot the Pontitt'. death was prlnted on , at Charleston, on Pebrua17' 4, at .e. york; and on February 5, 1n tbe Hl1e. ~eSlst.r.16 All three

journals copied tram a COllllon 80'U.l'Ce. the London Herald.

13 Ne. york Uorni~ Courler & Enguirer, Sept. 9, 1830. !e! .Ca.s.k.e_t, Philadephia, sept:,I830, 40~. . 14 Nl1es Resister, Jan. 8, 1031.

15 Oharleston ~_S_ou_t_h_._rn_ Patriot, Jan. 31, 1831. 16 The three papers oarrying the account were. Charledon Southern Patrlot, Feb,g, 1831~ New York Amerioan, Feb. 4, 183lJ and Nile. Register, Feb. 5, 1831. ITAtf.:pope Pius VIII died 1n November. Thia princ. ea7' the Herald, waa raised to the Holy See in 1829, was a man ot mild mannerl, and unassuming good aenae. The poa.e sslon ot the latter he proved in a high degree by the tbstaD4 and cordial acknowledgment which he made ot the change ot government in Pranoe, almoat the last act ot his reign. The lmpre.sion his death hal made at Rome i. certainly that ot regret, not sO mnoh, however tor his loas, aa that the .itting of a Conclave will ~~ole the theatres, and19rlve. tor a t1me, the vi,tera ~1~ to Naple. or .

TWO ef the three paJ?era, the s~thern Patriot, and the Nile. Register omitted the lalt aentence, which was Icarce17 campli- -mentary to the departed pope, and .howed no understanding ot a custom ot public . The latter jourtULl mentioned the pope's death again on Februarl 12, along with the tuneral account according to a Paris papert The tuneral services ot the late pope took place at Rome on the 14th ~c. S. had been a liberal patron of the fine arts, and all the protessors, wlth tbeir pupils attended. Three tlmes have tbese services now been performed by cardinals, and, on each occasion, tive members ot the c£ft­ clave pronounced absolutiona In behalf ot the decea.ed. It 1s evldent trom the precedlng pages deallng wlth the relgn ot Pope Pius VIII that the expressed oplnion ot American journalista was, tor the moat part, reserved and un­ marked by feeling ot prejudice towards the pope or the Papacy_ Perhaps the brevIty of his pontlticate was the chler rea.on. It ..e.s that the general impre.sion or pope Plus VIII was that

17 New York Amerloan, Peb.4, l8Zl. 18 Niles Reslater, Feb. 12, 1831. 29 be waa a kindly mlld mannered old man. SUch i8, alao, the ver­ dict ot hi.tox-lana and wl'iters like Nieleen, !lippold, Wi.eman, McKilllam, Pir.e, Parrow, Corrigan, Browne.Olt, and Leflon, who treated hi" pontlficate. In a word, Plus VIII, tn the contem­ porary American press and in the verdict of history, deaerved the judgment given 1n hi. deat~ notlce in the Nl1e. Reglster, that he was fta man ot mild maranera, and unassumlng good senae.· ...

CHAPTER III

GREGORY XVI, POPB lli UHSI'!TLBD 'rIDS Since pope Gregory XVI (1831-1846) owed hi. position as Pope-Xing to election-in conc~av. b1 the Cardlnals, lt wal ratlonal that the American pres. glve the conolave some consid­ eration. When the briet reign ot Plul VIII ended in 1830, the cardinals gathered again at the ~irnal to choos. another Pope. A Papal election ranked high in new. value J oonsequentl, the pre •• gave con.iderable space to the conolave. Th. W•• York American mentioned it in the -Important trom Europe tt column. The writer hoped that the work ot the Cardinale would oa.e to a speed,. termination with an amicable result. Cardinals Gregorla_ Paeea, Oappelari, OtttaoDi, and Zurla .ere mentioned .e qualiti.d oandidate.. Zurla .....d to be the popular tavorite. Se had bee~ chosen b,. the Emperor Alexander ot Ru ••ia to conduct a surv81 ot hi. realm, England admired htm tor hi. two volume work on Marco polo, and Prance approved ot htm .speciall,. becau.e ot his abilit, aa a theologian. Oardinal Capellari ranked high becau.. ot his exten.ive knowledge and 1011d piet,._ Cardinals Rudolph ot Austria and Pesch were eltminate4 because ot pollttcal reasons. It wa. hoped that the ne. Pope would be elected by the early part ot 50 ~l january.l In Charleston, a month later, the editor ot the southern Patriot printed without oomment an artiole trom the -;ngl1ah papers that was baaed on pure wishful thinking. The Inglish writer said: As it is now oonaidered almost oertain that Cardinal Weld, w111 be eleoted pope by the Kembers ot the aaored oollege, the tollowing particulars at this seoond Englishman who baa ever oOCUDied the ohair ot'st. Peter, will not be without 1nterest.2 He then prooeeded to give aome at the details ot the lite ot cardinal Weld.3 It any hope tor an English Pope ever existed in the United Statea, it waa oompletely discredited when the Nimrod arrived trom Liverpool with the European papers that carried the

Dews of the latest papal election. April 12, the South~n Patrio made the terse announoement, "Cardinal Mauro Cappellar1 .~B elected Pope on the 1st February, under the name of Gregory the 16th. ft4 Two days later appeared a more complete aocount taken trom a Frenoh journal. The article supplied certain details

1 New York American, Feb. 9, 1831. 2 Charleston Southern Patriot, Mar. 17. la31. 3 Thomas Cardinal Weld (1773-1837) belonged to an old and Important English Catholic family. The tamily waa moat generous to the Cathollcs ot England, one ot the benetactlons being the land tor the Jesult oollege at Stony-hurst. became a prlest atter death of hia wlte in 1821; Biahopric in CaUda until 1830; raised to Cardinalate at Rome in 1830. 4 Charleston Southern Patriot, Apr. 12, 1831. 32 concerning tne new pope, namely, his birth at Belluria, September 18, 1765; his distinction because ot ecclesiastical learning; his lite as a monk, and his apPointment in 1826, by Leo XII as head ot the Propaganda. It was noted that in 1828, Cappellari was among the most respected candidates outside the conclave, but he was violently opposed b~ the Austrian party. Cardinal Albani--who has been called the Austrian patriarch--strongly supported Pacca against Cappellari. However, the impresslon was glven that the election ot Gregory was well received in Rome and Italy, and would remain such, • •• provided the dispositions tor a revolution do not turn the attention ot the public trom a decision whlch. in calmer times, would be highly interesting.5 The Frenoh looked tor good relations with Gregory because he had received Ambassador Latour Maubourg wlth extreme kindness and expressed a great attachment to Franoe and Louis Philippe. Many writers have declared that Gregory was thorough­ ly antl-liberal, but at the beginning ot his pontificate the Charleston Southern Patriot printed the favorable observations ot an English editor. In this liberal and enlightened period the spiritual Sovereign of the C,thol1c World has shown that he can appreciate his situation and hi. age. The predecessors ot the present pope Gregory XVI have always shown a reluctance to oontirm the nominations of Bishops made by the new

5 Charleston Southern Patriot, Apr. 14, 1831 • • Governments of America, from the double fear of displeas­ ing the oourt of and of giving a sanction to revolu­ tionary principles. His Holiness, disregarding these scruples, proclaimed, in a consistory held at Rome on the 23ult. Bishops to the sees of Puebla de los Angelo, Guadalajara, Valladolid, Durango, and Sonora, in the united states oteu.xioo, appOinted by the Government of that Republic. Greeley and McElrath's New York Tribune printed a letter from Rome expressing a similar opinion. The letter might well have been entitled itA Yankee in the Vatican" or PA Yankee discover. the pope is . 1t The letter began; We have frequently seen the pope on public occasion., and like other curious persons, felt a de.ire to see htm in hi. home--the Vatican. Accordingly we made known our desire to the Consul General, and a week afterwards.ere informed that His Holine.s would give us an audience at 22 o'clock, which in our way of marking time, is halt past 3 O'clock, P.M. Of course, we were in readiness at the apPOinted time. The Consul waited for us at the Vatican in his court dres., with his award dangling at his side. We were admitted into an ante-room, where .e waited t1ll the Pope was prepared to receive us. Here the walll were covered with , oardinals and pope., looking down upon us from the canva•• , and some of them seeming to whisper cruel things about the horrid inquisition. But we felt safe enough under the roof of Hi. Holine.s. In due time the door was opened, and the party was uahered into the presence of the Pope. Gregory received these American. in a kindly and familiar fashion. He created a good impression because of his knowledge of the United States. The writer then went on to describe the pope's casaock, Shoes, and

6 Charleston Southern Patriot, App.2l, 34 ring tor the "'Rtaithtul to kiss", and how the Pontitf's ..ell built body was topped off by the white skull cap. The papal nose seems to have attraoted the interest ot the correspondent, tor he note. that 1t was rather large, and hazarded the op1nion that It was • • • Inorea.ed perhapI in slze by being made the reoeptacle ot much snutf, and I assure you he usea a tirst­ claas article, for, aa he with great atfability passed his box around, I with equal aftabI11ty, and to ahow that I was not all proud, dipped my digits therein and titl1ated ;Y--­ nostill. therewith. Th1s snutt-taking by the way, il a very common thing among all arders of the Roman clergy_ They would canonize Lorillard, and one ot Mr. Clay's pi~ches would hardly be a prtming to one ot theIr charges. Dur1ng the year 1843, the New york Tribune printed other letters ot an American travelIng in Europe. The writer who .igned himself aHa was not as ourious or as tolerant ot the Papacy as the earlIer corre.pondent. When he arrived 1n Rome, he tilled hIs letter wIth descrIptIons ot the city_ He did not omit mention of the Pope altogether. He spoke ot the Pontitt aa robust and healthy even though eighty years ot age. He observed that Gregory walked slowly and somewhat bent, but he seemed to acquire "extra vitalit,.a when he mounted the Papal thl'one. "Ha believed Gregory got the Chair ot st.Peter as the re.ult of com­ promiae atter much party strite, and DBe is not regarded as a very olever man, although he bears an excellent moral oharaoter. ft

7 New York Tribune, Feb_ 4, 1842. 35 rncldentally,'"Mr. "H" missed a chance to aample the pope'l Inutf, tor he resented the idea ot dressing for a papal audience, as was the case with an ex-preaident of the Un1ted statel aome years later.8 Though a Pope'. health wal alwaY8 good copy for the current newapapers, the condlt10~ of Gregory'. health was leldom mentloned. Be waa robust. Yet, in 1837, 1t wal noted that the

Frenoh journals, espeoially ~ Temp', aought to "throw the pub110 mlnd into a state of anxlety by ra1sing freSh reportl respecting the Pope, fortunately h1s Ho11neas wae never 1n better healtb."g NO more appeared until Gregory's last 111ness. In March 1845, Greeley printed letters trom Rome that desor1bed the popets health as alarming, which taot had the Cardinale on the "qui v1va" tor whatever might happen slnce his Holiness i. "upwards ot seventy-nine years ot age. nlO But a year and more after, the

New York ~ recorded that accordlng to the latest English paper. trom Liverpool, May 30, 1846, "The health of the pope il spoken ot in favorable tel'lU. ,,11 However, two daya atter this had been·

8 New York Trlbune, inly 6, 1843. Note: T. Rooaevelt. 9 New York Daily Express, Mar. 13, 1837. 10 New York Tribune, Mar. 1, 1845. 11 New York -Sun, June 16, 1846. 36 printed in England. Pope Gregory XVI died. The arrival ot the news of Gregory'. death shows the progreas which altered the means ot communication during the nineteenth century. Whereaa, previou.ly, it was almost two month. betore Americana knew ot the Popela death, that ot Gregory XVI waa printed in the New. York -Sun, only thirty-tive days later, July 6, 1846. This was due to the BUcceastul use ot the steamboat to oceanic travel. On July 4,,1846, the Royal MaiJ steamer Britannia docked &t Boston at 9 A.M. w1th the latest pari. papera up to June 16. under the headline "Death ot pope Gregory XVI" the Sun reported: pope Gregory- XVI died at the V.tlcan in Rome, on the let ot June, atter a abort illness. Card1nal Fransoni, Pretect ot the Congregation ot the propaganda, i8 expected to be hi. succesaor. Elsewhere in the same 1asue the editor noted: The Pope departed thi. 11te on the 1st inataat Lii!7. pope Gregory XVI waa a good, kind, benevolent man, sincere in h1. religiOUS prtnciple, and more tolerant than moat othera.1.2 The death notice ot pope Gregory XVI was in the Baltimore -Sun, New Orleans PlcalS!e, and Ph11adelphia Pub11c Ledger.13 All thea. papers used the report carried by the Britannia. The Ne. Orleans editor took hiacopy trom the above mentioned Balt1more

12 New york -Sun, July 6, 1846. 13 New Orleans !E! Daill Pioayune, July 14, 1846. 37 sun, whioh haa in turn oopied trom the New York papers. ot -the •• papers only the Philadelphia editor made added comments on Gregoryt. death.

The news by the Britannia~ though not presenting any teature ot great importance is interesting. The death ot Pope Gregory theS1xt.enth, i. an ev_t whioh will oocasion Bome sensation among the protessors ot the Oatholic religion in all parts of tbe world, aDd,may be produotive of ~portant events in Italy, which has been tor some time in a disturbed and unsettled oondition. Pope Gregory was alway8 di.tin­ guished tor the benevolence and kindne •• ot his character. Those ot our oount~en abroad who have visited him have alway. been treated with attention, and have spoken of him with great respect. Hi. death will no doubt be f~ly noticed in the various Oatholic Ohurche. of the country. The following day the Bwatn, Abell. S1mmo.ns paper of Philadelphia published the account. ot the Pope-s death trom the Paris Conatltutlonnel and the London Globe. The contents were sub­ stantially the same as the earlier notice •• Artleles to the press dealing wlth Gregory's aotivities as spiritual ruler were quite rare. There was the brier notice about the elevation of Oardinal Spinola, who had prev1qu..1,. represented the Bol,. See as Nuncio at Vienna.15 Diffioulties regarding religiOUS Jurlsdiction .ere noted between the Holy See and governments of Germany and Spain. Betw.en March and October of 1838, the atfair involvlng the Archbiahop ot Oologne was

14 Philadelphia Public Legger, July 6, 1846.

15 New York DailZ ~dverti.er, Peb. 11, 1833. 38 mentloned.1S ... In March, the Austrian ottered to mediate between the pope and .17 The tollowing month the news despaired ot an amioable settlement between Rome and Berlln.1S Prom the

Viario ~ ~ through the Frenoh press to the New york Daill -EXpreas oame tntormation that the Catholic clergy ot Prussia -war'. ver,. active at the papal court.. 19 The situatIon at Cologne waa given attention atat1ng the Church's side in October. The Pope, at the sacred Consiator,. held on the 13th sept. pronounced a long allocution • • • in which • • • hi. Roliness antmadverts in severe terms upon the prooeedings adopted in Prulsia with regardS to the Archbit.b0pl ot Cologne and po.en. The Pope complatns ot the intringments thus made on the libert1 ot the Catholic Churoh, and calla "Beaven and to witne •• while he elevates his voice in tavor ot the right. and authorit1 ot the chair ot st. peter." Ris Holinesa concludes by expressing hi. conviction that the other Prelates in the Pruss ian dominions' will continue to act with tirmness in strict accordance with the rule. ot the ancient canons and apostolical decre.a, and that his Pruss ian will allow the to preserve its own laws and liberties.SO

16 The Cologne attair was a conflict between the HOly See and Prussian government regarding the que stion ot mixed marriages. The tension became very great when the ot COLovne was tmprisoned tor a time because ot his insistence on the Church's rights. The Cologne was Droste au Vischering. ArchbIShop Dunin ot Posen suttered imprisonment tor the same reason. The Ohurch won out tinally around 1840. 17 New York Daill Express, Mar. 10, 1838. 18 -Ibid., Apr. 24, 1838. 19 Ibid., May 31, 1838. 20 -Ibid., Oct. 27, 1838. 39

aevlral years later the Baltimore ~ mentioned Gregory'. difficulties with Spain. There was a tinge of liberalistic bigotry in the editor's manner. have struck another blow at popery by refusing to allow the circulation ot the pope's bulls, briets, , monitories or any other documents issuing fram the papal .ee, which have not had the tiat ot the Spanish government. The government , also, the suppression the ·society for the propagation of the faith,· enjoin. the civil and ecclesiastical authorities to prevent it. assembling, and to stop the Circulation of its papers: Judges are ordered to sequester fund. of propagation. The Pope in fiery indignation baa refused recognition of Spanish envoy to Oourt 01' Rome, lIarquis de Villalba. 2 In December, 1839, Pope Gregory XVI publi shed hiB Brief condemning the .egro Slave !rad8. Although the Brief was not specifIcally addressed to the Ohurch in America, it cau.&d some commotion during the national campaign ot 1840. The Honorable John Forsyth gave a speech in Georgia durIng the month of August, in which, he stated that the real issue of the coming election was slavery_ He declared that Harrison was in tact an anti-alave candidate who had been forced upon the Southern sec­ tion of the party by a combination of Anti-Ma.onry and abolition­ lsm. 'he Oatholic Church, according to Forsyth, was connected with this combination. He gave aa proo~ Gregory'a Apoatolic Brief on the Slave Trade) and it was clear that the Pope was

trying to legialat~ tor Americana. Concerning the power 01' the

21 Baltimore -Sun, May S9, 1841. 40 pope, then, t~ere aroae a dispute between Dutf Green, editor ot . the Baltimore Pilot ~ Transcript, and Biabop John England ot Charleston. The Briet on the Slave Trade wal dragged into the debate a8 an example of papal interference in the American way of life. Mr. Green charged that the Pope had already required the Je.uits to dispose ot their ~lave8; 10 that wal one instance when he bad attempted to exercise civil jurisdiotion by inter­ fering with private property held in the United States. The teud ot Green versus Bishop England went on in the pagel of the Pilot

~ Transcript for several montha, at t~ea oonwwming a whole page of the four page edition. The identical copy was printed at trequent intervals. This page was composed of a letter of

Bishop England and columns of refutation by ~~f G~een. But tor the most part the dispute seema to have been local and confined to the columna of the Baltimore dally.22 The actual text ot the is not found in the papers until 1843. It appeared on the last page of the November 30,edition ot the New York Tribune,. but then Mr. Greeley printed it in the left hand column on the back page of his paper in apace ordinarily reserved for want ads. In the Dd.dst ot paid adver­ tisements il Pope Gregory's Briet "Relative to Retraining fram

22 Baltimore Pilot ~ Transcript, Sept., 7, 10, 11, Oct. 23, Nov.5, Dec. 12, 14, 25, 28, 1840. 41 ... Traffic in Blaoks." Even then then there ia no comment, though eight phrases are in italic•• 23 Beyond that the secular press gave no attention to the Slave Trade letter. It waa read and accepted by the assembled Bishops at the Fourth Provincial Council ot Baltimore, but was not mentioned by the Charleston Southern Patriot, which oarDmd news of the Council together with 8iahop England's opening .ermon.24 Nor doe. the !!! Epgland anti-Slavery Almanao, a rabid abolitionist publication hungry tor any statement. favoring it. cause, make any mention of Gregory •• letter.25 The political picture of the Papal States during the reign of Gregory XVI waa not a happy one. The foroes of liberal-

1~ had been active trom the very beginning ot the pontiticate, and secret societies together with the tollowers of Joseph Mazzini were at work to bring about a new and revived Italy. !n idealistic but unrealistic atms they sought to destroy all those institutions that seemed to restrain the individual. In the mad rush to cast ott the old and embrace the new, there were those [who advocated a program of anti- and anti-Catholiciam.

23 Wew York Tribune, Nov.30, 1843. A recent English ~ranslation of Gregory's BrIef appeared in Interracial aeview, reb. 1930. The Latin text is found in the Catholic HistorIcal ~ociety studies ~ Amerioan Church H,storll XV, 20~-205. 24 Charleston Southern Patriot, Kay 22, 1840. 25 ~!!! !ESland anti-Slavery Almanac, Boston, 1840. 42 ... The Church and Pope were said to be linked with Austria as obstacles to the new order ot the "patrtots- program. Such liberal fanatlelam drove Gregory XVI to a detense ot the statu. Suo and the po.ltlon of a tenaclous protector of conaervattve standard.. Consequently. a heavy ahadow shrouds the political role of this pontiff in the pres.. Oreates Brawn.on wrote ot Gregory XVI as Ita prlnce of great benevolence ot heart and ex­ tenslve learning. worthy ot better ttmes, or, at least, of more prudent advisers.a26 According to BrownaOll, a conservative and reactlonary stand was forced upon Gregory because the country was not ripe for change; moreover, he waa deserted by his own and w.a obliged to rely upon the support ot Austrian bayonets. SUch w.s, ln general, the background ot reports trom Rome in the eonte~ porary Amerioan preas. When treating ot the civil disturbancea in Rome at the time ot Gregoryts eleotion, the Charle.ton Southern Patriot reported that the Papal State. were in an unsettled conditic)n. The opinion was that the rural dwellers were in sympathy and falthful to the Holy See, that Austrian forces were actively interested in pacifying the country, and that "accounts from Ita~ we are sorry to say, leave little hope. for the cau.e ot the

26 Brownson'. quartOI'll Review, January 1848, 120. 43 patriots. n27 ~On11 a few weeks previously it bad been reported from the Frenoh papers that the revolutionary army, in which members ot the Bonaparte tamily were serving, was approaching Rome flying the trl-color. It waa believed that that army would soon plant lts banner upon the seven hills becaua8 the Papal armed showed little zeal or cour,ge. Then the soldiers of Austrij swept through the land not only interfering in the internal attairs ot the Italian states, but dictatinS in the ftmost minute details, as it they had the civil governmsnt and pollee entirely in their handa. ft28 The end of the abortive revolt ot 1831 was delcribed 1n language becoml.ng frustrated liberals. The artairs ot Italy have been in the language ot the tancy, t aettled' • The insurgents ascribe their disasters to the treachery on the part of the Hon. /:ii§! Father and cardinal Benvenutt.29 The rebellion was reported as the -frult ot the Holy Allianoe and Viennan because the people had ..en the1r rIghts Injured, Iympathie. and habIts disturbed, and been forced into unnatural conditions. The ~iter ooncluded, -Europe 1s marchlng towards its new dest1nies, and scarcely do the ministera at the kings

27 Charleston Southern Patriot, May 25, 1831. 18 -IbId., Apr. 27, 1831. 29 -Ibid .. , , 1831. 44 percelve thi movement. w30 In two art1cles that appeared 1n Atkinson's Casket, Philadelphia, one of the popular magazines ot the n1neteenth century, there was the pronounced 11beral outlook and condem­ natlon of the Papal government. The disturbance of 1831 had been

successfully checked when an un~1gned art1cle 'in the Casket discussed the polit1cal conditions ot Europe. When the writer came to consider the Papal Statea, be sald: The stat.s ot the Church are worae governed than any others ln Europe. In add1t10n to exactions under the color of law. i~dP~:d;n~~b;:~:r!8a;U~!~it~~.itpr.dation. from organ-

A month later a wr1ter who signed h1~elt the "Vilford B.rd" discussed the same .ubject in the Casket. Be deplored the 80rry fate of those nations eubjected to despotlsm, and spoke ot Italy as enslaved by -the tyranny thundered trom the palace of the pope •••32 There he felt the caua. ot llberty was stlll sunk beneath rulned temples and trophies of the gloriou8 past. Atter the ces.atlon of tighting in lome, the London Courier, May 15, 1831, noted that from ita louroes dated the first ot May, moderate cOWlael was successful in reatoring peaoe, and

30 Charleston Southern Patriot, Apr. 4, 1831. 31 Atkinson's Casket, "Present state of Europe", PhIladelphia, Aug. 1831, 3S0.

32 Casket, "Liberty and Revolution", Sept. 1831, 406~ .. 45 Gregory XVI was to proclatm a general amnesty for all politioal ottenders.33 The New york American related that the willingness of the pope to grant the amnesty was opposed by Cardinal Bernett~ the Secreta,y ot state. because it would endanger Austrian .upport.34

The Italian torce. ot ~iberall .. went underground tor several year., and the American pre.s confined itself to tactual intormatlon ot sporadlcal riots and arre.ts ot revolutionarie •• Durlng that time "the !ntelligenoe tram Rome • • • cra!7 devoid ot intere.t.-a5 On the I'U.rtace Rome was at peace. When, the oholera broke out in Italy during the .wmmer ot 1837, it Was news tn the New York paper.. The epidemio paralysed all oommerioal activity for .everal months. Itt Rome, the disease struok persons ot all age. and classe. as it apread to every quarter ot the oity_ Letters ot the 31.t ot August aay, that acoording to the laat bulletina the mortality 1,8 rather inoreasing than abatins • • • Irh!/ number dead 1. thought to be between 3 and 4000. T~. populace take a maliciOUS pleasure in

33 The Roman l1tuatlon was reported in America by the Charle.ton Soather.n ,atriot, June 21, 1831. 34 New york Aaerloan, JUly 18, 1831. The aoknowledg­ ed souroe ot this report'ias ESe Paria Constitutlonne~, May 18.

35 The oo~nt ot the edltor ot the Wew York,Dal1y Express, Apr. 25, 1837, writing of Roman po11t1cal oond1tion•• 46 .., seeing that the higher classes do not escape, and loudly express their discontent that the pope, the Cardinals, ang6 prelates seclude themselves instead ot tacing the danger. Bad the editor ot the New York daily received accurate news trom Rome at this period, he would not have printed this. It was not correct to state that the Holy Father sought to escape the perils ot the plague, tor he remained in Rome and personally conducted a public in honor ot the KotheI' ot God asking super­ natural aid to stop the epidemio.37 Eventually the cholera came to an end, and the tact was reported in Hew York during December when the packetship Roscoe delivered the news trom Europe.38 Another dark line painted in the picture ot Papal civil government dealt with tinancial matters. According to a magazine article in 1835, the Pope's government was hard pressed tor moneYI yet Gregory was indulging in such extravagant expenses as the rebuilding ot st. Paul-' s beyond the walls and the creation ot five cardinals.39 A letter trom Rome to the editor ot the Hew

36 He. york Daill Advertiser, OCt. 17, 1837. 37 This report waa talae. Even the non-Catholic historian Fredrik Hielsen would disagree. ct. B1story ot the papac in the XIXth Centurl' II, 79. However, blame ihoula:Dot be 1at d upon-tHe lew York editor, but his European source. 38 New york Daily Advertiser, Dec. 4, 1837. 39 North American Review, April, 1835, 40, 434. 47 ... york Daily Express mentioned the sad state of finance again in 1637. The correspondent was of the opinion that necessity would ,oon foroe the Pope to cut down on his budget, tor his "govern­ ment is now two years behind hand in payments, and every year, talls still faster and farther into bankruptcy. "40 As the reign of Gregory XVI went on, the po11tically conditions of unrest became more and more evident with reports tollowing the 11beral "party line." In 1843, r10ts and guerilla activ1ty oocurred. An attempt was made upon the 11fe of the pope shortly atter h1s thirteenth anniversary celebration, February 2, 1844. Again, the police were oritioized as inefficient because open murders and robberies were committed with the utmost impunity. 41 In 1845, surveillance and immediate auppresion ot attempted revolts maintained a semblance of oalm within the Pope~

~om1nion. Nevertheless, the Papal States cont1nued to be greatly agitated a8 repression instead of conciliation remained the set

~Olicy. The editor ot the New York Tribune felt that: Nothing could be more stupid, conci11ation would secure peace for the government without many saorifioes; severity will exa.perate the people beyond enduranoe and though they may be put down by brute foroe they are sure to tr1umph in the end.42

40 New York Daily Express, Sept. 19, 1837. 41 New York Tribune, Mar. 25, 1844. 42 -Ibid., NOV. 29, 1845. 48 ... A Southern gentleman, who visited Italy during 1846, agreeing to the general theme that the Papal State a were in a sorry oondition, sent his triend, the editor of the We. Orleans -Daill Pioayune, accounts ot his travel. and observations. In his letter of April 29, trom Paris, h. spoke ot Italy-

Nature and art have combine~ to render it a pertect paradis~ but the lower cla.s.s, particularily ot the States of the pope _ • • are tndolent, ignorant, dishonest, and miser­ able • • • • At Rom., whose d•• potie and miserable Govern­ ment is a shame to and Christianity, there are at least 2000 beggars to 150,000 tnhabitants • • _ • The good Catholics tell you that His Holiness has too much charity to contine the poor wrs'tches, so he leavea them to atarve 'in the streets and disgust society. It is a govern­ ment, between us, alone sustained by the interest of Austria, and tEi ignorance and superstition ot it. people.43 The bad impression which "S.M.J." gave ot Papal government in the columns ot the Daill Picayune was expressed also in the New york press. May 1846, the -Sun pOinted out that the London and Paris liberal press was engaged oontinually in "throwing squibs at the pope." The latest attack upon Gregory was because ot his torbidding the introduction ot gas lights into his dominions.44 Thus the general impression ot the seoular press towards Papal civil government during the reign ot Gregory XVI was unsympathetic. pro-papal items were rare, with hardly any attempt to excuse the "miserable and despotic" government ot

43 New Orleans ~ Daill Picayune, July 12, 1846. 44 New Y~k -Sun, May 23, 1846. 49

Gregory XVI. ~One of the rare approaches to the situation was the New York Tribune explanation ot political conditions in Papal territory, "There has been no real cause tor discontent, difficulties are attributed to the machinations of anarchist. in France and England. n45 The blame for all the trouble was placed upon the followers of Mazzini, ~oung Italy." The Tribune source, the Gazette at the sixth of July, thus bore witness to an opinion that late:r history confirmed. Two natations referring to official relations between

~he United States and the Holy See were also tound in the papers pf this period. "January 17, 1837, the published list at presi­ dential appointments included the designation of G.OF~ W. Greene to the position ot American Consul at Rome. 46 In 1840, it was reported that President Van Buren had apPOinted James E, Freeman ot New york as the Oonsul ot the United States for the port ot ~ncona in the Papal Siates.47 Xr.Greene wrote" six letters trom Rome, but he did not discuss political conditions. He confined his remarks to the sights in Rome and geology of the territ~rl.48

45 New York Tribune, Oct. 5, 1844. 46 New York Daily Express, Jan. 17, 1837. 47 Charleston Southern Patriot, Apr, 28, 1840. 48 Knickerbocker, New York, July 1841-December 1842. The letters ot dei. dreene may be found 1n volumes 18, 19, 20. rr------,

CHAPTER LV

PlUS IX THE LIBERAL POPE

Undoubtedly the most remarkable. pontiticate during the nineteenth century was that ot pope Pius IX. It was the long•• t in the history ot the Papacy, as well a8 one ot the most event­ ful. It marked the end ot the pope as a temporal ruler ot im­ portance in European politica, for Liberalism wrested trom him that prominent position held since the time of pepin in the eighth century. It sounded the death knell to the practice ot caesaro-papi8m in the election ot successors to the Chair ot st. peter. It was important for the dogmatic definitions, and the assemblying of the latest . Throughout, John Mastai-Ferretti, who wore the fisherman's ring at the time, was its leading figure. A great deal was printed about this pope and his reign, but it has not as yet been given objective treatment. Here we make no attempt to present a complete picture.

By mid-July ot 1846, most Americans had been inform6~ of the death ot Gregory XVI. The news reached the outpost--it New Orleans could be so considered--of civilization at that time. On July 18, 1846, the readers of the Bew York -SUn were aware of 50 51 the electlon ot John Mistal-Ferretti to the Papacy. The com­ munlcatlon ot the event to the -Sun came trom the European papers, that the steamer Cambria had dellvered at Boaton atter a thlrteen day crosslng trom Liverpool. From Boaton, the news waa sent to New York vla the electric telegraph. The edltor ot the -Sun pub- llshed the account with the head~ine ftELECTION OP POPE PIUS, AN ITALIAN. ft The article stated that the election ot the Pope had resulted after a comparatively short conclave ot torty-eight hours, even before the forelgn Cardinals had arrived at Rome. The new pope, aged fifty-eIght, was one ot the youngest men ever to have been elected to that o.ffice. m.s pont1tlcate promised to be successtul, tor • • • it all that 1s said ot him be correct, he cannot tail to make a shrewd temporal ruler In addition to the tunctions ot his spir1tual ottice. The previous habits and character ot this Pontitt do credit to the Judgment and impartiality ot the Oonclave which elected htm.~ The news ot Piua' election moved rapidly tor the times across the nation. It was published, July 20, 1846, in the PUblic Ledger at Philadelphia. The Ledger using the Cambria papers repeated substantially the account ot the New York -sun. 2 Within another week, the news had traveled the wires ot the

1 New York Sun, July 18, 1846. For the reterence to New Orleans, conter !S!~ll1 Pica~ne, July 14, 1846. 2 Philadelphia public Ledger, July 20, 1846. 52 electric telegraph from Baltimore to Charleston; thence it was relayed by express to New Orleans. The Daill Picayune communi­ cated the accurate news on the Papal election Jnly 28, 1846, and thus corrected the talse rumor that it had previously copied and printed from the local Commsrical Times which had printed that "Cardinal Perrotte has been elec~ed Pope of Rome."3 Throughout the next tew months, the press manitested a very tavorable opinion ot the new pope. The Philadelphia Public Ledger printed several letters trom its Brussels correspondent. The speedy conclusion ot the conclave was explained by tear ot political disorders within the Papal Statea. The election was unhampered by Spain, France, or Austria, even though the French journals attempted to claim influence through Rossi, the French Minister at Rome. 4 Pius IX was said to be a member ot the ultra-montane party and ot moderate political opinions. The correspondent called attention in each ot his letters to the domination ot Italy by Austria, who at that time had some ninety thousand troops massed along the borders. The Austrian menace to Italian liberty had already brought forth a petitlon that Plus

strive tor lndependence from Austria. ·Tbe author ot the petltio~ a certain Massimo d i Azegll0 ot , had distributed about

3 New Orleans ~ Daily Pica~, July 25, 28, 1846.

4 United Statel C.tholic Ma~azin., Baltimore, Aug. 1846, 454. Si twelve thousand ooples.5 The second letter dwelt upon the Austrian virus and set up Pius IX as the antldote. The liberal thinking oorrespondent believed that the best thing for civiliz­ ation, those mOlt unfortunate for Austria, was the lelectlon ot the new pope, who has proved htmself Worthy of his trult by

• • • abandoning at onoe, ~ultria to her tate, instead ot pandering • • • to the ungOdly appetites of that base and corrupt power. Be evidently intend. follOWing out a liberal and humane policy.6 . The liberal policy was derined al a favoring of public improve­ ment., free press, and participation of the in the civil .. government of the Papal statea. The October letter fram Bruasels contained the same approving opinion ot Piua and antipathy to Austria.7 The story of the papal election was also given in the New York -Sun when the editor reprinted the evidently English treatment of the conclave. The item, dated June 24,Florence, bore the title, "The Pope Elected by a Mistake." His Holiness the present Pope Pius IX, haa been elected by a miltake, or rather he waa, as those familiar with the electtons in "Merrie England" well know, set up aa a oandidate without the intention ot his being tinally electe~ It ocourred thus--When the Cardinals are duly "fixed" ·In the conclave, they begin in the evening by giving the name ot

5 Philadelphia Public Ledaer, July 24, 1846. 6 -Ibid., Aug. 7, 1846. 7 -Ibid., Oct. 7, 1846. one whom'" they have no intent10n should be ultimately chosen; th1s is done ••• as a "teeler". It appears that on the second evening ot the conclave, the cardinals • • • gave in the names of those whom they did not intend ahould be elected Pope; and Cardinal Giovanni Marla .aata1 Perreti ••• was appointed to callout the name. aa they came out of the urn, and to h1s great surprise he found the t1rst seven or eight billets marked w1th his own name. Hi. tee1- ings at so unexpected an honor, when 1t reached the 14th a11p that his name waa written on, were so exc1ted that he tainted. Nevertheless, the calling ot the name. went on, and to the great surprise ot the Sacred College, ftis name was found to have the requ1site number of v01ces. In the same issue the ed1tor gave instances ot the new popefa humility. According to the German journa18, the Pope had ordered his cook to 11mit dinner at three dishes. In the spirit ot economJ household expense. were cut, and "four thousand Roman scudis which were annually spent in rare plant. have been cut out ot the budget, and halt ot the horse'. ot the pontifical stables have been sold." About a month later, the -Sun ventured the opin1on that Pius IX would "create a new era in the policy ot the Papal State~ Because he was a man ot l1bera1 principles and energetic character, the Pop. would run ahead ot Austr1a 1n h1s retorms. Eftorts would be made to check him, but they would b. us.l.s •• 9

8 New york Sun, Aug. 10, 1846. The ta1nt1ng inc1dent ot Card1na1 ..sta1-Ferretti in the conclave was also recorded in the United States Catholic MagaZine, Aug. 1846, 453. It was g1ven as a quotation trom the Gazette ~ Postes ~tAugsbours. 9 New York -Sun, Sept. 5, 1846. 55 Orestes Brownson~ shared the same view. The work commenced by the Sovereign Pontiff is the work of God, and must and will be crowned with that sucoess so ardently desired by every heart i8 which the Sacred Charity of is not a stranger.

In December, the ...... Sun oorrespondent, unidentified beyond 418 lnltlals, C.D.S., wrote from Edlnburgh of the popularlty whlch Plus IX was acqu1r1ng wlth the people of Rome. ll The paper allo mentloned the publloation of the enoyclloal letter on December 23, 1846, whlch Brownson prlnted 1n Lat1n and wlthout comment. 12 Prom the moment ot hls election Pope Pius IX was popular. It seems sate to say that he recelved more favorable attention in the Amerlcan press in a tew months than his three predeoessors had in some twenty years. This attention oentered on him ohiefly as the Pope-King of the Papal States striving to "modernize" the lands of the Church. Benoe, he was frequently in these early months of his reign oalled a liberal pope. The elasticity of the term was evident. Pius IX was a liberal because he took steps to give his subjeots a more representative form of government. Be was a liberal because he showed an interest in publlc works of material progress. He was a liberal

10 Orestes Brownson, ·Political Regeneration of Italy~ Brownson Quarterly Review, January 1848, N.S. II, 134. 11 New york ...... Sun, Dec. 26, 1846 • 12 Brownson Quarterlz Revie., April 1847, 249-262. 56 because he granted~ an amnesty to erstwhile po11tical rebels. ae was a liberal because h1. political v1ews ran counter to those of Me tternichi am. Pinally_ he was a liberal because he indicated a willingness to give freedom to the press, an important point in the American meaning of liberal!... These good deeds made

American. see Pius IX a8 "the h~ro of our age," and were frequen~ 11 mentioned in the period to the revolution. There was the amnesty for political prisoners of whom there were about two thousand in 1846.13 The New York -San noted it several times.14 The Catholic Magastne reprinted the text of the trom the Pari. Univers.15 Brown.on called it the

"declaration of Roman independence" and the "harbinger and corne~ stone" ot the new political order, while the New Orlean. Pical!Pe informed banned Papal aubjecta living in America, ot the ,oppor­ tunity granted to remove their political .tigma.16 an October 29, 1846, it announced to the people ot New Orleans: A Papal Amnestz - Otficial notice is given by the Consul General or the pontifical States, to the United States, the etfect ot Which i. as tollow.: All the Pontifical subjects in the United Itate., exiled from political motive., will be allowed to return,

13 Vnited states Catholic Magaaine, June 1848, 299. 14 New york -Sun, Aug. 4, 5, Dec. 15, 1846. 15 ~.!. Catholic Maga~ine, Sept. 1846, 511. 16 .22,. ill.., Brownson g,uarterlz Review, Jan. 1848, 118. 57 provided that within one year from the of this notice they declare solemnly and upon their honor that they will in no manner and at no time abuse the aot of clemency of their legitimate sovereign, Pope Pius IX. Tho •• who wiah to avail themselves ot this Aot, should make the prescribed declaration before thelconsul General or the Vice Consuls of the Pontifical states. 7

The social reforms which the ne. pope en~ouraged were also mentioned by the -Sun. To ijave funds for poor relief, it was noted that Pius retained hi. control over the See of !mola.18 He was sald to be contemplating a change in the penal code that would substitute lite imprisonment for oapital puniabment.19 When floods caused distress in Rome during 1846, the pope gave ot his own purse and personal exertions to mitigate the hardships ot the viottma. The Pontiff issued direotives to etfect exten­ sive drainage proJects and ordered a raise in wages for workera~ His interest in the young and promotion of tree eduoation'ilao made news among these 1tems olassed aa aocial benefita.21 Where Pope Gregory XVI waa wary ot modern inventions, the liberal Pius was not. Betore long the new pope authorized the building or railroads in the Papal Statea. The action was, 1n the worda of the -Sun's editor, "another effort to extend the

17 New Orleans Daill Picazuee, Oct. 29, 1846. 18 New York Sun, Sept. 9, 1846. 19 ~., Wov.19,- 1846, Jan. 26, 1847. 20 ~., Feb.ll, 1847, Daill Pica~e, May 4, 1847. Ibid" Dec.15, 1846, Apr. 22, 1847, Washington The .~!1 26, 184'1. - 58 area ot 11beral prlnclples, by concentratlng all classes, commerce and productlve, capital and labor near Rome. 2S Thia ral1- road program wa. viewed enthuslastically in a letter trom Rome prlnted in the .abington Weekll Union which copled tram the Charleston .ercurl~Z The ...... Sun lauded the e.t~bllsbment ot two journals in Rome to advocate 11beral vlewa, tor it waa an example that the n~ of the Pontitf apeak louder than irote •• lons." It was said that Plus had encouraged the conductors "to speak the truth, and fearlessly advooate all retorms whioh do not militate against the orthodoxy of the Church." This manitestation of liberal pr1n­ oiples and sincere conv1ct1on on the part of the Pontitf pleased the ...... Sun, because it was a modern program and one that waa putting the laity in po11t1cal power. Of the two journals one was pub- lished ln English and called the Roman Advertlser, which the New York editor glorltied as a marvel ot the age and a "triumph of the Preas." It was used as a source of Italian news and offered for 8ale by the New York ...... Sun. 24 The popular1ty ot Piu. IX continued to receive attentla in the columns ot the ~ during a good portion ot the years 1846

23 Washington Weekly Unlon, July 26, 1847.

24 New York ~, Dec. 7~ 15, 18461 July 12, Dec. 6, 'ug. 4, 1847. .. 59 and 184V:. 25 It was an echo of the "vlvas" of the Roman popul~ ace who crowded about the pope on his publlc appearances. It brought forth the publ1oatlon ot his pioture January 1847, and was probably the flrst time an AmBrican new.paper sponsored the eale ot a pope's 11keness. This was the announcement.

Th1s popular ruler having a~tracted considerable attention, we have considered it our public duty to present to the public. beautiful 11keness of Bis Ho11nes., with a large vlew of st. Peter'. Church at Rome, and a pretty engraving of the ceremonies at his coronation. !hese excellent plctures are all in the Weekly Sun issued atgsur office th1~ morn!el and for sale atthree cents per copy. The editor did not publiah the wocess of his venture, but he continued to give good notices to the Pope as the feelingot great enthusiasm mounted in Amerioa. SUch literary leaders a. Ore st •• Brownson and Margaret fUller took up their pens to tavor the new pontitlcate. The tormer seemed to give the most reasoned oontemporary evaluation ot American reaction to Pope Pius' liberal program. In January 1848 he wrote:

25 New york Sun, Aug. 4, 5, sept. 9, 21, 1846; Jan. 2~ Apr. 22, JUly 19, 31, Aug. 4, NOV. 11, Deo. 2, 1847. 26 Ibid., Jan. 9, 1847. Enthusiastic outlook was evid­ ent in the foll'OWI'ng: New Orleans Daill: Pioa~e, Apr. 20, May 4, 1847, and the periodicals. Democratic RevIew~pri1 1848, American L1tera~ Maf:!ine, IBIS, II, lSS.lg2J pros~ective Revi.w, 1848, III, iS3- OJ . rioe Rif Review, November S:t7. More treatment on the 4ame goda wi s noiea by Boward R. Marraro, in his volume, AD:i:r ioan QplnlOD. on the Unifiea tioD. ot Ita11. 1845-1861; Colum51a unIversity pre.&;-New York, Ig3~ 60 ... Some of the Rationalistic • • • .a. nothing in Pius the Ninth but a man ot powerful genius in the act ot glvlng a new torm to the beautlful 81.tem tramed by men .imilarily gitted who bad gone betore him. ot Protestants in general, lome wil.ly dlscovered that a ne., thorough, godl,. retorll&­ tlon wal on the carpet; lome ea. nothing but a cunning artitice ot Austria in disguise} while other. hesitated, unoertain what opinlon to expresl at what the,. oon. ide red al the ,novel event ot Anti·Chri.t transformed auddenl,. into a George WashIngton'S? The only rational applause came ·trom the unprejudiced triends ot true liberty who were glad to see an opportunity given to Italy_ A' tor Oatholics, Brownson believed they w.re pleased to watch the Hol,. Se. get tree ot the "hateful trammels ot secular intrusion." But there wal also the camp ot opposition to this liberalism ot Piul IX. Margaret Fuller at tirst approving Pius IX, later swung to the other side. J.T.Headle,., an American vi.itor in Rome, was skeptical ot the whole artair.SS H1s opinim in briet denied the posslbility ot a liberal pope, tor snch was a contradlction in term.. The dally papers, however, saw the

~anger to the llberal program ot Pius, not In indlviduals, but in ~ustrla and tears ot other nations. Protestant Europe was said to be alarmed. France begged His Holiness not to outstrip the

~onarchiel, and even liberal England thought Pius was goIng too

27 Brownson Quarterly Review, Jan. 1848, N.S. II,125. 28 I&rraro, 12-14. Here are given quotationl trom Margaret Fuller's memoirs, and the letters ot J.T.Headley. 61 tar. But the~consi8tently teared .pecter was Austria who vlewed with uneaslness and jealousy the progress ot liberal principle. in the pope'. dom1nlons. 29 So the pres. and the general American opinion continued to tavor PiU8 IX. The latter eventually evolved into a serie. ot civic demonstrations ot sympathy tor the cause ot liberty and the liberal,pontitf. The press gave much space to these various sympathy meetings, which were tavorable expressions of public opinion in the United States towarda the liberal Pope Pius IX. The most publicized ot these meetinga waa that held at the Tabernaole ot , November 29, 1847. A prinCipal promoter was Horace Greeley and his New York Tribunel opposit1on came from the :aera.ld of the same oit.,. Since other pub11 abed works g1 ve the newspaper account of. th1s gathering, here consideration 1s con­ fined to the treatment glven by the s~.30 While the Sun doe. not seem actually to have promoted it,- the paper gave ---much favor­ able publicity to the meeting. It labeled the gathering a noble movement and one to meet the approval ot every friend of the

29 New York Sun, Aug. 16, Nov. 9, 19, Dec. 7, 1846, Mar. 23, May 1, 8, 184~Livias Age, Boston, Feb.19, 1848. 30 Por full details of the meeting ot lovember 1847, aee Proceeding. ot the Public Demonstration ot smathI with pope Pius IX, andiltnIti'Iz, ISi'7. larraro, 5-10. sier Lareita 'CrIire-prelertag;-Imirlcan Ji'6Iic Opinion on the Dlilomatlo Rela­ tions between thi Unltea States ana Ehe Jip&r-Sta ea, 'aahington, 1033, 5-14. - -- 62 r1ghts ot man: 3l The darot the gathering the ed1tor reminded bis readers. The Great Sympathy demonstratIon take s place tOnight in tavor ot Pius IX and Italian liberty. From the glorious nature ot the struggle to which the meeting proposes to respond, and the noble and heroic character ot it. illustrious leader, the present republican pope, we trust that the Tabernacle will be crowded to ita utmost capacity_ Whenever rising liberty appeal. to the American people what­ ever the nation or clime, ltt a response be sent back that shall animate her eDdeavor_~2 The day after the meetinS an account was given ot the celebrit­ les present, the enthusiastic spirit ot the crowd, and the resolut1ons that were adopted. All present seemed to be ot one mind as the deafening appaluae abo ok the T.bernacle in great appreCiation ot Pope Pius IX and the "noble caule ot liberty." nIt was the most enthusiastic demonstration we have witne.8ed tor years," wrote the -Sunls edltort "and .e trust that it. voice wlll reach Italy and aerve her brave hearts still more tirmer tor their high and gloriOUS task."53 the echoes ot the clapping hands dId reach ttome. In apprecIation Pius IX sent six medals, two gold, two silver, and two bron.e, "'exqUisitely executed and appropriately tn.cribed" to Monsignor Alex Vattemore who pre­ sented the., December 1, 1848, to the Mayor and c1tizens ot

31 New york -Sun, Nov. 18, 1847. 32 -Ibid., Nov. 29, 1847. 33 -IbId., Nov. 30, 1847. -

NeW York at the City Ball.34 Philadelphia, January 6, 1848, The Louisiana state Legislature, March 16, 1848, and Washington, D.C., March 28, l84a joined in public expressions ot good wl11 towards the Pope and Italy. Meanwhile, the knowledge at the W.. York demonstration was received in New Orleans whex:e it ~d8 trant-page n .... in the -1)8.111 Picayu.n!IJ meriting the headline, "CIVIL LIBERTY IB ITALY DEMONSTRATION 0' AMERIOA. SDlPATB!' WITH. POPB pms II IB HIS BP'FORTS TO ESTABLISH OIVIL LllJERTY III ITALY." An immense concourse ot citizen. met at the Tabernacl. in Be .. York on the 291t., to testify their Bympathy with the great measures ot retorm which POpe Pius IX has organized tor the regeneration ot the Italian States. The meeting was attended and addressed by gentlemen ot the highest . reputation in Ne .. York, and numerous letters were read trom diattnguiahed men residing in other citie.. .. ••• Tbe Mayor ot the City presided aaslsted by thirty vice presidents. Robert Hogan, Seq., explained the objects ot the meeting. A hymn to Piua IX was played by the band atter Which the follOWing beautitul address and resolutions ••. & ..ere read by Horace Greeley, interrupted by loue appAauae and ..as subsequently adopted by acclamation. . The edltor's account was longer atnce be inclUded the address and the six resolutlons adopted. In the same issue he noted that the American Review, a periodical, had illustrated its November number ..ith a portrait ot Pope Pius IX. 55

34 New york ---The 'I'rue Sun, Dec. 4. 1848. 35 Ne.. Orlean. Daily plca~.. 1)6c. 11, 1847. one mal also find the text of the .dares. an~.801ut1on8 in Artaud, II. 858-860. 64 The~New York demonstration has received the moat atten­ tion by recent writer. who have omitted to mention that the ot New Orleans had anticipated the citizen. ot the East­ ern metropolis by over a month. The Daily Picayune carried thi8 ,tory. Accordlng to the New Orleans Courier, which the editor ot the Daily Picayu!! copied, a gr~p of intelligent men animated by liberal principles and indignant over Austria's pollcy in Italy met "at the coffee-house adjacent to the New Orleans theatre, at S o'clock in order to express their sentiments on the present condition of their country and the events therein tranap1ring. n36 On the tollowing Sunday night a large group assembled at the New Orleans Ball Room to give public expre.sion of their feelings of sympathy with Pope Pius IX. The meeting resulted in the follow­ ing re solutions: Whereas Plus IX is the head of the church, by whom at last the duties of pope are understood as they relate to Italy, Whereas Pius IX is preparing the way for a national union, so devoutly desired: Whereas it is by and through him that the movement in Italy is created, which at this moment excites the admiration ot the world, and gives rise to the most glowing hopes for the future: Resolved, that the Italians residing in Ne. Orleans venerate In Pius IX the head of the Italian league, which 1. destined to expel a foreign soldiery from their country. Resolved, that Pius IX is the man sent by Providence to resIst the attempt (whencesoever it may proceed) to retard by force the progre.s of the holy caus. ot Italy.

36 Ne.. Orleans DRill Pica~ne, Oct. 17, 1847. .. 65 Resolved, that our prayers are tor him and for the success ot every undertaking to which hi. patriotism may prompt htm, in order to promote the .eltare of Italy. Resolved, that we await with impatienoe the next news trom Italy in order to adopt the necessary mea~res tor this purpose. Resolved, that a .tand1ng comm.1ttee ot tlve gentlemen be appolnted who ahall take charge of everything connected with an Itallan Natlonal Manlfestation. pollowing adoptlon ot the reso1~tlo.ns, the Presldent appo1nted a8 coanlttee Dr. Nat1l1 and Me.sra. Santlni., Lantranco, Lanata, and Ferrav1. ~he meeting closed wlth the t1rst otticlal act ot three triple cheer. tor Piua IX and V1va Italla\ glven by all with great enthuaiasm.37 The country-wide 1nterest ot the preas on condition. tn the Papal State. succeeded in bring1ng the aaus. of llberalism betore the nation. Generally speaklng, the pre.s waa favorable to Plu. IX, and trom this stll111latlon the un1ted state. began to consider openlng dlplomatic relatlons with the Holy see. The recommendation was made to Congre.a by Pre.1dent polk, December 1847, in his message to the Thirtieth Congress. Thepre •• opinion, Congre.sional debate, and backgrounq story ot th1e rather short-lived diplomatic mission bas been presented quite thoroughly in two special studies.3S Consequently, cons1deratlon

37 New Orlean. Dally P1cazupe; Oct. 19, 1847.

~8 Felertag, Publio ~1nlon eto., whlch haa been ~n­ tloned above, and Leo Franci. s~oi, Unlted Statea M1nisters to !e! Papal Statea, Waahington, D.C., lOSS. -- 66 ... of that mission has been omitted in tbis stud,., and also due to the tact that much ot the lite span ot the mission extended be­ yond 1850. In 1848, Europe was subjected to a 8eries 01' political revolutions. The inaurrectiona which sent the Citizen Xing and letternlch seeking refuge in England bad a 8Jmpathetic reaction at Rome that sent the pope.King aeeking aatet,. at in the contines ot the Kingdom ot . The liberal policy ot Pius had tailed. Concession followed conces.ion, and still the anti­ clerical mob., incited by doctrine. of Ma.aini, cried tor .ore and more. Finall,., the 01''1 was tor blood, the blood of Oount. Rossi, Prime I1inister 01' the Papal Stat.s, who wa.s assassinated November 15, 1848. Violence continued. As it seemed to draw .ver closer to the person ot the Pontitt, he resolved to take flight trom Rome. On the twenty-fourth of November, with the assi.uance ot the c~t and Count ••• Von Spaur, a disillusioned disguised Pope hurried to .anctuary at Gaeta. The Raman revolu­ tion had begun. The Amerioan newspapers showed a good deal ot intere.t in the event occurring at Rome. Prequent reports ot the tighting were printed together with the ever constant retrain of the IPope is still at Gaeta." Th. press was thoroughly contused. It felt sorr1 for the dethroned Pius. it desired succe.s to the .. 67 Roman Republio; and it condemned Prance as a traitor to the cause of liberty. The tirst notice ot the changed conditions at Rome was given by the ~J JabUary 9, 1848, trom dispatches brought to .ew York by the steamship Waahtaaton. Pour days later its editorial was sympathetio. The pope at Gaeta is placed in a peculiar predicament. But for hi. flight from Rome we believe he would nOlV hold the sceptre. Hi. flight gave boldness to the harlds and tongues of men, who would not have dared to do violence to his person. The powers of Europe may interfere for his temporal restoration, but never more can he rule in peace a people who must ever feel consciou8 of the past. Should the good, liberal and faithtul Pius find no reating place in Burop., here, in the Weatern world i8 a aate asylum tor him. Be as spiritual father of his mighty fold, will be weloomeigand protected in all that is dear to men and . yet a month later the editor was applying the doctrine ot politioal selt-determination to the event. in Rome and willing to see an end ot the temporal power of the Pope. The Amerioan people oannot look with approval upon any attempt on the part of any European nation to impose a tem­ poral upon the people ot the Roman .tate.. We are bound by every conviction of right and justice to re­ gard the people everywhere aa the only legittmate arbiters ot their national de.tiny, and if the Romana have seen fit to assums the reina of power, it will be tyranny to deprive tbem of those reins by torce. Ot all nations, France should

39 New York Sun. Jan. 13, 1849. Oertain Catholics in New York planned invltiBg:Piua IX to move to America_ but the plan was opposed by the Catholic newspaper Freemanta Journal. cr. 'Marraro, 99. Statement of the Boston Da!iJ IVen1lf 'ranacr!Rt Jan. 8, 1849. waa a typical American boaat, Plul came to America we would make htm a Democrat." .. 68 be the last to try sO unholy a crusade against a people aspiring like herself to freedom and representative govern­ ment. The Romaas are glad to receive the Pope as a spirit­ ual ruler, and even as a temporal one, it he will accord with a legislature chosen by the people, 1n thia much republic~a everywhere Should sympathize with them, and no turther.40 , The last statement of the editor may have been prompt­ ed by the recent news from, Italy that told ot the unsuccessful attempts ot the provi.ional government to induce Pius IX to return to Rome. Demands ot the Pope included a ot the legislature, the disbanding ot the National Guard and ailenc­ ing ot the preas. The rebels refused; Pius remained at Gaeta.'l Poreign interference to replace the pope at Rome was mentioned. 42 Every friend ot Italy awaited the next steamer trom Europe bringing news. Americans were informed by the -Sun that they could not be neutral when a liberal govermnent aroae, since they were pledged to the cau.e of liberty. Foreign interference ••• will be looked upon, we are aure by the American people, with indIgnation. Aa the Commercial ot last evening justly observea, there was no 'interference, when the people drove Lou!s Phillipe and Ferdinand ot Austria trom their , and why should the rule be broken in the case ot Italy' Do the hatetul tyrannts mean to violate her because

40 New York Sun, Peb. 15, 1849. The cauae ot the re­ public was espoused alsO"'5'y New York lveniP6 !2.!.:E., and Herald. 41 SpriDgtleld, Mas •• , Dail1 RePHblican, Jan. 13, 1849. 42 SpringfleU Dalll Reebllcan reported the presence of Austrian troops Jan.31; the rumor or Prench ald Mar. 10; and the sending ot Spanish naval squadron to aid the'Pope Peb.26.1849. 69 ... ahe 18 weak? Aa a temporal lovereign, .e regard the PQp8 al amenable to the exigencles to whleh other lovereigns have been torced to submit. The people want liberty and they must have it.43 That liberty seemed to have attained realization when the revolutionary torces succeeded 1n gatning control at Rome ~d made the news ot importance at Boston from the papers on the steamship Amerloa. The SpringfIeld DaIl: RePRblloan thus design­ ated. the announoement ot the formal establi.hment ot t he Roman Republio on the ninth ot February, and the simultaneous depoait- 10n of the "pope ot Rome trom hls pOlitloal"power.44 Thi. news brought torth great ju.bilation in the Ne. York , , !S. A aepubllc declared at Romel Atter a lap.e ot 1048 years, the Imperial City and state has wltnessed a change 1n ~er rullng temporal dynasty. Rome 11 declared an 1ndependent natlon, her sovereignty the people. IT'he rule which was inaugurated by Pepln, , and'i.6o III bas come to an e~. • • the guns of St. Angelo have thundered Its requ1em. Great as is our admiration ot Plul the nth, shall we not rejoice at such an event as th18,45 The edltor continued saying that PluB had lost nothing, while freedom had -won a splendld triumph." Moreover, it the nations of Europe would acoept the way of wisdom they would not attempt to wrest this republlc, the work of destIny's flnger, from the people ot Rome.

43 New York -Sun, ~b. 23, 1849. 44 Springfleld Dall1 RepublIcan, Mar. 10, 1849. 45 New York -Sua, Mar. 12, 1849. 70 ... Recognition by the great powers, a necessary stamp 01' approval, was refused the new . Nor did the United states government otter to recognize the young and unstable republic. The first United States Minister to the Papal States, uawis CaBS junior, one of the few foreign diplomats to remain in Rome during the Revolution, was instructed to have no otficial business with the Republio. James Buohanan, ,

80 warned Ca8s, for he telt that the "almost insuperable difficulties by which it is surrounded, render it extremely doubtful whether it will be able to maintain ,itselt. Indeed, I consider the speedy restoration 01' the Pope highly probable, it not absolutely certain.n46 Yet, despite reports of the weakness of the new Roman government, the press demanded recognition.47 There was an element of wonder in the mind of the editor as he noted the absence of meetings in America to give encourage­ ment to the Italian Republio. We have seen no enthusiastic demonstrations for Italy similar to those which are leading politicans hailed the republican ~vemftnt' in France, and the liberal policy 01' the Pope. Why this ditterence,48

46 Stock, Miniaters !2 ~ Papal States, 17, 19. 47 Springfield DailZ Republican, Apr. 9, Kay 14, 1849. 49 New York Sun, Apr. 6, 1949. June 26, the policy to- wards Roman Republic wa.-aescribed as "mealy-mouthed" and against the spirit of the men of 1776. Cas. was declared unworthy, tor he had "played the gallant in the ladies' boudoir too long to repre­ lent Republican America among Romans." 71 ... perhaps, continued the writer, the silence ot America was to be construed as approval ot t he schemes which de.potic aussia and Austria planned tor the treemen ot Italy. Margaret Fuller enter­ tained similar thoughts. In a letter written trom Rome, Kay 27, 1849, ahe enlarged upon condItions that had developed out ot the revolution. She believed it was an ettect ot the timea and that French bayoneta ahould not be allowed to .appress the sentiment of liberty_ She pleaded tor united Statea reoognition of the republic and was surprised that Lewis Caas remained inert. She was aure the pope would understand .uoh American action and would even admire a bold policy. She closed with the idealistic plea: Send, dear America, a talisman to thy ambassador, precious beyond all that boasted gold of Oalitornia. Let it loose his tongue to cry "Long lIve the Republic, and may God bles. the oause of the people, the brotherhood ot nations and ot men---the equality of righta for all." Viva Am.erica \ Hail to my country' May she live a tree, a gloriou8, a loving life, and not periah, like the old dominions, tram the lepros,. of aelfiabn•• a.49 '

The liberty bell s~ded again tor the Italian caul. thraogh the papers of the New york -Sun. Thia time every repub- lican the world over who ,regarded God aa the parent of libert,. was told that the Italian struggle was "eminently right," and the deposition of the Pope from his temporal power was just and waa sanctioned by Providence because the Pontitf had presented

49 Li;i;s.yAS;, , 1849. This magazine quoted the letter trom tne e or ~rlbune, the orlgtnal reCipient. '72 ... himself as an obstacle to "the perfection of republicaniem." Moreover, Italy did not revolt against Plus IX as her spiritual father or head ot the Church, ••• but as a temporal prince, who after hlmself agitating Italy to freedom, was forced by surrounding despotio in­ tluences to turn against the very work he bad begun. 50 Nor were the Italians to be oriticized in turning against the pope sinoe they still loved the faith of their tathera, the.,. had came to the on17 conclusion possible, &S was witneased by our American Revolution, that the "Church has no right to trample upon the civil liberty ot man." That typical liberal attitude favoring destruction ot Papal temporal power tended to glorify republicanil. and KaszIn!. The Bew York p.ourier ~ En~irer, reportedly liberal, was adversely oritloiaed tor viewing the troubles of the new Republic with the complacenoy ot a pro­ monarohical European journal. Every liberal ought to look upon

_ssini as a pat~iot and a George Washlngton promoting the "shin1ng .tar ot Republicanis•• "51 Kaszin1 was a nman ot sterl­ ing character" whose learning and able writings marked hi. as a true and thorough democrat. 81s able lieutenant, Garlbaldi, the veteran triend ot liberty and republicanism, bad tought on both 11d.1 of the Atlantic tor liberty. "It these men are brigands

50 New York -Sun, Apr. 16, 1849. 51 Springfield Daill RepublIcan; JUne 16, 1849. 73 ... ~d assassins, because they battle for the freedom of the land ot their birth and love, why not oall Washington and Patrick Henry assassinst-52

However, the talk of the to~ waa divided as to the eharaoter and intentioDS ot the leaders ot the Raman revolution. The one opinion held they were "aotuated by the worst motives and guilty of atrocities and acts inoonsiatent with honorable mlman­ ity" with the people giving support out of compuls1on rather than .ympathy'. !rhe oppo.ite view saw in the struggle "a spirit of devotion to pure republican principle." with the multitudes giv1ng aocord out of considered apprec1atioa ot their ­ ereated right ot equality. In .ubstantiation of the latter op1nion, the editor reproduced tram the "Iv.ntes ~ ot Wedne.dal ,' •• a letter publiShed tram Rome, wr1tten by a h1ghly respect­ able gentleman who bas resided in that city tor same year •• "

!.hat gentleman stated that the were in unan1~s accord tor the Republic. Only the priests were des1rous ot tull restoration ot the old papal temporal power. !nerasing the

• 52 lew York Sun, .rune 15, 1849. In AUgust, Beach sup­ ported hi. op1nion ot GarIbaldi by an undated quotation trom the C1nc1nnati Oommercial which told that Garibaldi once kept ". pub- 11c house on Btith street, between Plum and Weste~ Row • • • • He kept liquor, but his eatables, and to.m11iar yet gentlemanly convers., tormed the pr1ncipal attraction. tor Hammond." Oharles Bammond was a local editor. When Garibaldi 801d out and lett tor Italy, he was given a b1g tarewell, tor all who knew him "1do11ze" :the man. 74 ... oharge of cruelty from the revoluttonariea, the Roman letter supplied data which threw the accusatlon to the slde of the "restorers." Be alleged that the Neapolltan army had raped women whl1e thelr husbands and brothers were forced to look on. Returnlng to the real problem, the writer observed that the essence of the dlspute was whether Plus IX Should return to Rome In his full ecclesiastlcal and temporal power or only a8 the supreme spirltual leader.53 The Sun, In general, seemed to hold that the popela temporal power muet- yield to the spirlt at the times. The Llvlas Age# a Boston publl.hed periodical, prlnted excerpts tram Engll.h papers holding the same opinlon. The Spectator aald the temporal power of the Pop •• muat end because It was a product at the Mlddle Ages, and the noble ettorts ot

Pius IX could not 8ucc.ed~ The Ohronicle said the Church must surrender her clvil claim. into secular handa, and aOme other mean. must be tound to give the Papacy a statue "l.se repugnant to the irresistible tendencle. of the present and the coming age.- The Examiner held the vIew that spIritual and temporal do not mixJ eo the Pope ahould get rld at the temporal, for h. la primarily a priest. 54 aeassured by DBWBthat Captaln Engle bnought from Europe on the Princeton,assertlng that the Romans

53 New York -Sun, June 29, 1849. 54 L1vl~ Ag., Boston, Feb.ll, 1849. 75 opposed the return of Pius as their temporal prince, the ~ became eloquent in bewailing the obstinate stand taken by the pope and his acceptance of foreign military aid. Contrasted with this temporal policy ot 's protessed vicegerent, how strangely appears the example of Christ himselt, who never raised or sought to raiae a band ot violence against his enemies? When he was butfeted by the multitudes, and Peter drew a sword to defend his Master, Chriat aaid: "Put up thy sword ••• n Would that the representative ot Christ· might be moved to speak thu. to all men who draw the sword 1n hi. behalt _ Hia weapons should be spiritual, not carnal. 55 Wben the Catho11c power. came to the a1d of the Pop., their action waa denounced, even though politioally just1tied, as tyrannical in princ1ple. The att1tude towards Austr1a rema1n­ ed unchanged, for she bad been for year. a notorious conspirator seeking seltish aims. But Prance Was branded as a turncoat and traitor to the Cause 01' 11berty_ Prance was a hypocrite gu11ty of damnable treachery to the republican principle. Sooner or later all true lovers 01' l1berty "w11l curs. her name" and become disgusted with "the hypocritical taroe" she played in Italy.56 Loui. Napoleon's promise to restore the Pope with a gRaranty of a liberal was merely a means to lull the French into concurrence and approval of General Oudinotts exped1tionary torce

55 New York -sun, July 19, 1849. 56 Springfield Da11Z Repp.bl1can, :May 9, 1849. .. 76 in Ital,., which waa "the most damnable outrage ever perpetrated in the nam8 of freedom."57 Nevertheless, the French moved steadily toward. Rome and entered the city on the third of July_ The Daily Republican made a mere note of the tact, while the !!a recorded the vIctorious march as made through empty streets and' asked, "Where were the loyal citizens of Pius IX?" that triends of France and lying journal. had reported758 Apparently. the !2a included the Freeman's Journal, the New York Catholic paper, among the friends of Prance. There tollowed a series of articles disagreeing with the views of the Freeman's Journal.59 The argu­ ment rambled from charges of incorrect statementa about the fall of Rome to Irish loyalty to the Pope to French intervention to

the 21'0 and 2.2!! of the Pope' 8 temporal authority. There was an interesttng editorial on the Pope's temporal power, which Should be cited because this question received, in later year., much

discussionl also because it revealed the liberal American opinio~ The edItorial began with a quotation from the Catholic journal to the effect that one who denied or opposed the temporal power of the pope put himselt on Protestant or ground, for the

57 New York Sun, July 4, 1849.-Also May 18, June 4, Jul,. 16, 18, 23, 1849. -sprIngfIeld Daill RepublIcan, Sept. 27, Aug. 4, 1849. - 58 Springfield Daily Republican, July 27, 1849. New York -Sun, Jul,. 27, 1849. 59 New YOrk ~IJuly 28, Aug. 25, Sept. 1, 6, 1849. 77 ... pope "has declared the necesslty of the temporal power, Li~ no Cathollc ls at llberty to contradlct him." This was the -Sun's comment. The above appeared In the last 1.sue of the Journal in a dialogue between Cathollous and Politious. We hardly need say to our . that It.~irit 1. at alrect war wlth the tundamental prinoiple of Republicani.m, and of liberty a. profeased and ~njoyed by-Amerioan.. We believe that every subscriber to the Sun, nat1ve citi.en. or adopted, whatever may be hi. religious belief, i. a republican in .0 far aa temporal government is concerned. Not one ot them, therefore, will deny to the Roman people the same right to govern themselves that we exerci.e. Republicanism 1. a un1versal prinoiple, and its applioation to the Bomaas ls the aame as to American.. Suppo.e then, the pope ha.the r1gpt to dictate temporal rule to the Romans, has he not the aame r1ght to dictate tt to the Americana? The Romana are the peoile or Rome, as muoh as the Amerioana are of the Uniteatatea. Becau.e a man' a religious faith i. Catholio or Protestant, or because he live. in a particular section of the world doe. not alter hia oivil and political right. aa a man. No, a thousand time. not aiiQ""we are nol; a1'rala of any Catholio treeman's' .aying to the oontrary. All temporal power torced upon the people i. usurpation and tyranny; that is, if the principle ot republicanism i8 right anywhere. He who can. endorse the Pope fa right to temporally oppress the Roman., repudiate. the principle ot republican­ ism. Such an one can owe no allegiance to a government in which the people are sovereign, for he denies the right ot the people to sovereignty when he admita the right to_anyone man, Pope or Xing, to impose temporal rule upon them. 50 After the apparent deatruction of the argument. from the Journal, and this attempt to prove there was no conneotion between the Pope" temporal and spiritual power, the editor concluded with an argument deecen~ing to personalitie. and not to the point by

60 New York ~, Aug. 25, 1849. .. 78 asking whether or not the Irish would preter the temporal tyranny of the Pope to that ot the British; or American Catholics prefer the same to the .evolution. When Rome had been pacified by the French butchers ot the Republic, the sorry plight of the Romans worked the editor in to mourning because the kingdoms,ot Spain, Naples, • • • and the Pope rejoice over the ruin of republicanism while France with hollow heart and tolded handa, looks upon a work of devastation and humiliation whigh ahe incited by example and alone might have auppressed.61 Throughout the remainder ot 1849, the news frequently repeated that the Pope had not returned to Rome. Though the observations were of a tactual nature which occaaionally added condemnatory remark. of the atoot preparatory to the restoration of the dethroned Pope-Xing, there waa still the ten­ dency to ridicule the French action and state that the Romans considered the concessions granted by the Pope as niggardly. Ope writer hoped that the new gaslights would simultaneously enlight­ en both the Pope and the city of Rome. 62 It was well into the spring of 1850, betore the way was cleared and Pius IX deCided to return to Rome. The steamship Canada stopped at Halifax on the second of Kay with the foreign

61 New York Sun, Sept. 27, 1849. The New orleans DaU~ ?ioaI2!e also shared in~e grief over the Republic'. fall. 62 Ibid., 'Nov. 15, 1849. Opini.on expressed by the Romar. correspondent or the London Times. 79

~ news that told of the Pope's return to Rome. The New York ~ printed the brief notice without comment.

He ~iu. Ix7 was well received. At the entrance of the pope into Rome there was no p~ and public diaplay, beyond the necessary guard and staft.63 Interest in Papal affairs temporally waned with the restoration, and since it coincided with the limits set to thia study we ceas~ consideration of expressed American views of the Papacy. In summary; it may be stated that the Am$rican opinion moved from a great enthn.iaam tor the liberal pope and his liber& program to something ot sympathy and pity when the revolution forced htm to flee. As to the revolution itaelf, the newspapers favored the cauae olthe revolutionariea and the Roman Republic, for it was a realization of liberal principles. France was branded as a traitor to liberty and grouped with the other despotic powers, Spain, Naples, and Austria, aiding in the Pope'. restoration. Mr. Marraro, who has studied the revolution of 1848 in detail, concluded that American opinion was divided. Catholi~ generally were in sympathy with the Pope and condemned the Roman republicana, while non-Catholics enthusiastically espoused the cause of the insurgents. A few bigoted Protestant clergymen siesed the opportunity to denounce anew the Catholic Church and . the institution of the PapacYJ and in general, it was the liberal

63 Wew York Sun, May 3, 1850. Similar treatment was in the Washington Republic;-!ay 9, 1850. 80

~ group who rejolced over the formatlon of the Republlc whlle stlll sympathlzlns wlth the well-meanlng but "vaclllatlng" Plus rx. 64

64 Karraro, 99. ...

CHAPTER V

FACTORS BEHIJID THE EDITORS' WORDS

The faded print ot newspapers, turned a dull yellow with age, revealed the quarter-ot-century story of the Popes in the American press. Since the sum total of thoae accounts was comparatively meagre and did not permit a full understanding of the contemporary opinion, attention should be given to certain elements or factors behind the printed word lest an unfair interpretation be given the thought of a former generation. That thought, in our own time comparatively neutral and impasaionate, once possessed an eleotric oharge. A whole history lie8 in the

~aokground of it; and is composed of traditions going back to the , Protestant Revolt, and .

~hey were the oontext into which the opinion of the Papaoy was fItted. Those traditions influenoed the newspapers treating of the affairs of the papaoy as well as other material factors. Basio to a newspaper's opinion was the taotor of spaoe itself. No new. meant no expressed viewpoint. Suoh was otten the case ot news relative to the ot Leo XII, Pius VIII, and Gregory XVI. Here little attention was given the Papaoy. The 81 CiA

82 salem Gazette,• tor example, prInted one InconsequentIal Item trom March 1824 to September 1825. Durlng the year 1827, the

BaltImore Patrlot ~ MercantIle AdvertIser published but two artlcles, while John Glbson'. New Orleans ArguS during 1828 completely omitted papal new. altogether. Throughout 1830, only twioe dld the New York Mornips cpurier ~ !ASulrer mention any­ thing on papal attaira. In Charleston, South CarolIna, the edltor prlnted only one item during the perlod JUly to Deoember 1832. Then there .ere the papers whioh gave nothing at all, tor example, New York Dal1l Advertiser trom January to Deoember

1835, Holland, Sanford, and Davl •• t .!!! .;;;;li_or.... k.... Times tor the year 1836, New York Dal11 Expre.s tor 1839, and the New york Tribune tor 1842 and 1843. However, the tour year. ot Plul IX'I reIgn studIed were well covered. The one exceptlon was H. Bullock's avannah Georglan, which allowed but one item trom. February to cember 1846. The ourrent perlodioal prell pald little attent­ The London Llterarl Gazette, which ciroulated In the Unlted tates, contained nothing in the yearl 1840, 1841, 1842, 1843, 846, and 1850. The Museum 2! poreie Literature, ...... ___ bli.hed by E. Littell ot PhIladelphia, printed nothing trom October 1836 to December 1839. The Dial ot BOlton, edited by argaret PUller (July 1840-April 1844) was too muoh absorbed with transcendentallsm to notice the pop., While the Knlck.rbocker 8a magazine of New• York gives nothing tor the period from July 1841 to December 1842. Prom January 1827 to December 1840, the Casket, a monthly magazine publiabed at Philadelphia, printed but three or tour items of minor importance. Graham's Masazine, successor of the Casket,.. maintained a "no-mention" policy throughout, 1841, its whole first year. The space given to papal news was intimately dependent upon the exlstlng means ot communlcation. 'rhe fact that the 1820'. and 30's produced little interest inpapal affalrs may be laid in part to the snail-paced sa11ing vessels of the era. Ge~ ting news from Europe to the American press was a slow and devi

as the news they bore, entered t~e regular trana-Atlantio servioe in 1838. Prom then until 1850, the average sea voyage between England and Amerioa took trom tourteen to sixteen days. Ne. invention. also helped the passage ot news overlan The ironhorse displaced the Pony EXpress in the East during the 1830's. In 1835. the New York Daill Advertiser oocasionally gave the caption "Per Railroad Line" to the news tram Philadelphia, but the greatest boon ot the century tor the newspaper oame in

the to~ ot the invention ot Samuel B. Morse. His "Electricft or "Magnetio" telegraph went into operation, 1844, when the line between New York, Baltimore and Washtngton was oompleted. Atter 1846, the news sped with the speed ot thought over wire. whioh linked Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York, Ne. Daven, Springtield, Boston, Albany and Roohester into one'great unit. These improvements in the means ot oommunioation betwee 1824 and 1850 are retleoted in the Ooverage ot papal new •• Interest and spaoe expanded as the means ot oommunioation develop ed. Obituary aooounts ot teo XII arrived about seventy days atter his death in 1829. When Gregory XVI died in 1846, reports 85 ... were publlshed In Amerloa thlrty-tlve days later. Three yeara later In 1849, the French vlctory over the Roman Republlc ot the third ot July was reported by the New york -Sun and the Spring- field Daily Republican on the twenty-seventh, twenty-tour days atterwards. Perhapa there waa no cauaal connection between the new inventlons and lnterest ln papal aftalra, but the records show an lncrease of such lnterest after the development of better means of communlcatlon. The thlrd factor which formed the opinlon of the Unlted $tatea regarding the papaoy were the American edltors themselves.

~he primary a01mce. were the various journala brought from Europe, and in thia the Engllah press took flrat place. The souroe was not always explicltly acknowledged, but often it was. News was

~lven as being from the Times, the Oou1'ler, the Herald, the Globe, and the Shlpplng qazette, all English papers, the London Tlmes [fias the most frequently quoted.

The French papers were used a8 well. Some of thoae acknowledged were: the Courrler Francaia, Paria Monl tau!', Journal ~ Debata, Gazette £! Prance, Pari•• e.senger, Etol1e, gonstltutionnel, and £! Te!ps. The only German aource admltted was the Augabourg Gazette. Untll the pontiflcate of PlU8 IX, the Italian source waa the Dlario --d1 Roma, and after 1847, the Roman paily Advertlaer. The result was that the views on the papacy received into the United State. were subjected to the personal 86 • likes or dislikes of several or more Bur ope an editors, and the translation of translations could also add to the contusion. yet, in general, the American editors did not seem to be very critical of their source material. Though we have not formally studied the European sources, we can say that the continental journals tended to be favorable .to the papacy, while the English account. are tainted with no-popery. In this country editors copied trom each other at Will, and even re-printed verbatim. Consequently, certain papers be­ came the chief source of particular new. for the nation. The New York papers were important for foreign events, the Washington National IntelligenceI' supplied news of the National government, and the New Orleans Daill Picayupe kept the nation informed ot the progress ot the Mexican War. The reault was that in, for example, papal matters, much depended on the editor ot origin and his opinions. The fourth factor was the personal reaction of a par­ ticular editor towards his source material. Unsatisfied with accounts that were received, Duhy and Stroud informed their readers ot the New Orleans Mercantile Daily Advertiser, April 28, 1825, nThe state of the markets is the only thing interesting from Europe.~ Three years later in the aame city, the ArguS editor, , 1828, despatched the news from New York papers With "We find but little of anything interesting." April 25, .. 1837, according to the New york Dally Express, "The lntelllgence trom Rome and Naples ot the lOth 18 devold ot interest." The

Baltlmore ~, March 5, 1841, reacted in similar tashlon statlng, "We do not flnd any important lntelligence trom elther Spain, , or any other of the States ot lurope."

The ed1tors' reactlon~as also reflected ln the mere printing ot papal news without comment. TWo instances seem i~ portant. The first was the printlng by several papers ot that portlon of Pope Leo XII's "Encylic Letter" that condemned Blble Socleties. The other was the neglect to publlsh the Brlef of pope Gregory XVI on the Slave Trade. Lack ot comment on the condemnatlon ot Bible Societles seemed extraordinary because at the time that group was very actlve and numerous in the Eastern states. The latter document was not even published ln the papers lnvestigated until November 30, 1843, when Horace Greeley printed it in a most inconsplcuous part ot the Tribune, that 1., on page four surrounded by advertisements. The herltage ot the Protestant Revolt colored the printed account. about the Popes. Americana were still predo.mln­ ately Protestant and tllled wlth the dylng embers ot the no­ popery of the Colonial period. Resurrected hates and tears upset the nation to some extent when Natlve Americana contused the evi ot increased immigration with Roman Catholiclty. Tbose emotions operated chlefly in the rellgious preIs ot the nation. The 88 ... transfer of such feelings to the secular preIs was not too evident, most editors wanting no part of religious disputes, for it was not financially profitable to devote news space for con­ troversial material. Though the general practice was to stay free of the same, occasional disputes were pr~sent in the news columns or as paid advertisements. For example, there was the letter to the editor of a certain irate citizen complaining of 1 Bishop Duborg's appointment to govern Irish Catholics in New yor~ The National Advocate printed the letter, september 20, 1826, adding the paper desired to have nothing more to do with suoh questions. However, that did not mean the suppression of news conoerning Catholics. That such was the case was ahown by the spaoe given by the Washington papers to announoements from Georgetown College and st. Mary at Emmdtsburg. June 28, 1837, the New York DailZ Express noted that Webster had delivered an address at st. LOUis University. Conaecrationa of or deSignations of Amer10an B1shops were regularly announced in the secular press. 'he Baltimore Sun, November 11, 1941, reported the apPOintment of Peter Paul Lefevre to the d10cese of DetroIt, and on the second

1 Either author of the letter or the ed1tor oontused Bishop Duborg (Dubourg) with Bishop Dubois. The former was B1shop of New Orleans 1815-1825. upon h1s resignation he returned to Franoe. The latter, John Dubois (1764-1842) was consecrated for the see ot New York, October 29, 1826, 89 .... of December of the aame year int'ormed its readera that Bishop Kenrick was named to the Bishop of st. Louis. November 25, 1826, the opening of a Catholic orphanage in New York was announced in the columna of the National Advocate, while the New Orleans Mercantile Daily Advertiser, June 2, 1825, wrote of the local Corpua Christi procession"and st. Patriok oelebrations always received good publioity in the Charleston and New York papers. It would be unfair, therefore, to explain the abaenoe ot news on Popes Leo, Pius vtII, and Gregory by the "Proteatlant tradition." Likewia., the news given cannot be interpretated as a warning to Protestant Native Americans ot the gains and encroach menta of popery in the United Statea. Perhapa the facta were twisted by some to suit other purposes, but the existant record does not reveal intentional distortion by the newspapers. They

~ere interested in objective statementa. Another factor was evident. The ohief purpose of many of the secular papera in the early nineteenth century _aa to give information, and thereby to make money. Their interests were

~rimarily economic. The average paper devoted three of its four

~age8 to market quotations, shipping news, and commeroial adver­ ~isements. The very names of many of the papers, Commeroial

~dvertiser, Ledger, Mercantile Advertiaer, Express, connote inter­

~st in trade. The second page of the paper alone waa given over to the news: and domestic issuea, National politiCS, and the 90 western migration were considered more important than foreign lntelligenoe, whioh was used and published, ohiefly it seems, for its business value. Then there were the vital contemporary lssues of Nullifioation, National Bank, Missouri Compromise, and the Mexioan War whioh took valuable spaoe. ~noe,pre-ocoupation with oommercial affairs and polttics explains to some degree the small amount of news given to the Popea. Then since the Frenoh Revolution, the newspapers were basically liberal. Liberalism, in its American dress embraced a devotion to the cause of "republicanism" in the political order; in the soolal order it championed the right of free press and material progress; and in the field of religion it advocated broadmindness, tolerance, independence, in general what the oon­ temporary Popes branded "." Liberalism among the editors ot the secular press accounts tor the neutral attitude towards the "reactionary" predecessors of Pius IX just as 1t ex­ plains the great popularity g1ven the "liberal" Pope at the start of his reign. Even the excitement over all the new developments in the mechanical world resulted from American liberal thought. In the tield of religion, the liberal attitude worked to change the American mentality. For example, october 25, 1823, Niles Register published a full page editorial entitled "The Church is in Danger." The editor's purpose was to allay the tears ot certain persons oonoerning the future of Amerioan Protestan~m 91 ... and promote good-feeling and . To develope his point, he noted that he personally had recently attended a Catholic tunera1 at which the mournerl represented a variety of sectl. All joined in prayer together, and this was an American wonder prompting the editor to thank GOd because his lot had been • • • cast in the land of the free, wherein differencea 1n for-ma are not regarded as differencea of principle, or even in oppoaition to any set of religious opinions otherwise considered than as belonging to the rights of man and oom­ patib1e with the duties which he owes to his KAKER. This view was evident in the comment of the New york National Advocate, January 12, 1826, on Bishop John England's address on Christianlty in the House of Representatives. The two hour speed before crowded galle,riea and lobbiea was termed, "one of the most 10glcal, condensed and liberal exposltions of the na*ure and obligations of Christlanity, which we have heard for aome time. If there were a 11bera1ity in extendlngto the Bishop thia opportunity, there wal no leis liberality in the manner in whioh it waa used." Also, contrasted with the eighteenth century, was the relpectful manner in which the Pope's perlon was treated.2

2 SlIter Vary Augustina Ray, American ~inion of Roman Catholioism in the Eighteenth Centurz, Wew York,SS. on-page 184, ahe oitii'"£1li 1!ew Eng~and courant, Boston, June 17, 1823, aa reportlng the healtE.'"Of the pope In tbe following: He "complains of a Pain in his Foot, whioh undoubtedly affects hls Toea; and we all know that the honour and Happiness of a great Number of Cath­ olioks depends upon the Health of His Holineas's Great Toe, which by this Acoount, I am afraid, is not in a kissing Condition.1t 92 ... A tinal factor influencing the news was population. The Catholic Church in the United States had a predominately urban organization. Therefore, her members were great readers ot the secular press with whom the editor had to reckon with tor the material good of his paper. Yet, it is bard to assess the popul­ ation facbor and its influence on papal news, because Catholics were a minority and not evenly distributed throughout the nation.3

There had been Catholic settle~nts in Maryland and Louisiana from colonial days. These people, undoubtedly, influenced the $ecular press ot New Orleans, Balttmore, and Washington. The new immigration gave numerous Catholics to Boston and New york, the newspaper capital of the nation. Consequently, the population factor ought to be inoluded when evaluat10n ot papal news in this per10d 111 under consideration.

3 Statitics ot the American Catholic population are not accurate for the per1od, but the tollowing comparison 11'111 be ot some assistance to the problem. Figures for the united States are trom tnformation Please Almanao, New York, 1951, 65; the num­ [bers tor the CatholIc population are trom P. Guilday, John ~~ I, 27, and J. McSorley, H1storl ot the Church, 6th ed.~ LOU18, 1947, 850. --- Population ot U.S. !!!!: Catholio population 6,938,453 • • • • • • • 1820 • • • • • • 195,000 12,866,020 • • • • • • • 1830 • • • • • • 318,000 17,069,453 • • • • • • • 1840 • • • • • • 663,000 25,192,876 • • • • • • • 1850 • • • • • • 1,606,000 ...

CONCWSION

Opinion in the United statel relative to the papaQY f'rom. 1824 to 1850, a8 expre.sed in the seoular newspapers of the period, was of' marked differenoes. There were two distinct periods. The first included the pontifioates of Leo XII, Pius VIII, and Gregory XVIJ the other, the tour years beginning Pius IX" very long reign. During the period, 1824-1846, American papers paid relatively 1ittle attention to the Popes. That given dealt with the several conclaves, biographioal sketches, Popes' health and obituary accounts. Infrequent were the reterences to the tunct­ ions ot papal ecclesiastioal-and/or temporal *evernment. The printed aocounts were quite cold, tactual, and devoid ot editorial comment tor the ~ost part. Beoause of' the great per10ds ot silence, opinion may be said to have been almost non-existent. That expressed should, it seems,· be characterized as neutral sinCE it was neither openly hostile nor explicitly favorable. Opinion was, therefore, negative regarding the three popes of the first division of' years. The expressed opinion of Pius IX presented a oontraet. From the time ot his election both the quantity and quality of the

~ew8 improved. Because ot the personal and political popularity 93 94 ... of Pius IX, expressions of opInIon became frequent as editors expanded the news with personal comments. The secular press welcomed news of the reforms in the Papal States and with univer­ sal enthusiasm hailed Pius IX a8 the "hero of our age" and the "liberal pope." They saw htm a8 the leader of his people striv­ ing to overthrow the reactionary. of Austria and intro­ I I duce the prinCiples of lIberty and republicanIsm Into the Papal I government. That idealIstic liberal opinion of Pius prevailed until the revolution. During that period, 1848-1849, however, opinion in the UnIted States underwent a rapid change and was, divided acoording­ ly aa the insurrection was considered as favorable, or as it was viewed as radical and violent. Editors hoped for the success ot the Roman Republic while at the same time they sympathized with

Pius in exile. Some believed that he should have stayed at Ro~; others invited h~ to sanctuary in the United States. As the revolution seemed to gain and the Roman Republic was established, some held for United States recognition, while others hoped that Pius would realize the spirit of the tImes and yield' his claims to temporal power and ceaa. hIs opposition to the advance of lib­ erty. French military aid also affected newspaper thought, and France was labeled the traitor to liberty and republicanism. The success of the combined powers over the Republic enabled Pius' re­ turn to Rome, but there was no return to the previous enthusiastic opinion of the American press. BmLIOORAPHY

I. PRIMARY SOURCES A. NEWSPAPERS All the newspapers 1n the followlng llst, except those marked wlth an asterlsk, were studled from the flles of the Llbrary of Congress, Washlngton, D.C. Wlth the exceptlon of the Salem paper, whlch ls ln the Cudahy Library, the other papers are from the Newberry Llbrary. altimore Patriot and Mercantile Advertiser, 1827. Pilot an~ranacript, 1a40. -sun, 1'Bn'. oaton Daily Advertiser, 1824. Charleston Courier, 1829. SOUthern Patriot, 1831,1832, 1840. New Orleans Mercantile Dalll Advertiser, 1825. Irgus, laSS. ew york *.American, 1831. ~aiil Xdvertlser, 1833-1835, 1837. a t misreaa, 1837-1839. lorn X!gourler and En~Ulrer, 1830. National Idvocate;-182 • Sun, 1846, la47, 1849, 1850. '!"Iii' True SUn, 1848. 'l'lii lliW'York Times, 1836. narl~rlDUne, 1842-1844. 'ee~l Tribune, 1845. Phl1ade1phla Public Ledger, 1846. a1em Gazette, 1824-1825 ••

Savannah ~ Georglan, 1847.

95 96 ... Springf1eld *Da1ly Re~b11can, 1849.

Wash1ngton *Nat10nal ~ntelligencer, 1824-1828.

B. MAGAZINES The per10d1oals listed below, with the exception 01' the N1les weekly news summary, contained very little on the topio. Files of these magazines are ln the Cudahy or Newberry Libraries. Brownson guarter1l Review, 1848-1854.

~ Casket, Philadelphia, January l827-December 1840. --The D1al, Boston, July l840-Aprll 1844. Grahams Magazine, Phllade1plila, January-December 1841. Knlckerbocker, New York, July l84l-December 1842. Littels Living Age, Boston, 1848-1849. London Literary Gazette, 1840-1843, 1846, 1850. Museum of Fore1gn Literature, Sc1ence and Art, Ph1ladelph1., bctober 1836-Dicember 183g. ------North Amer1can Review, Boston, 1823-1844, 1850. Portfolio, Phi1adelph1a, January l824-December 1825. Saturday Magaz1ne, London, 1832-1844. United States Catho11c Magazlne, Baltimore, 1844, 1846. Niles Register, Baltimore, 1823-1835.

II. SECONDARY SOURCES The nature of this study required the works listed here chlefly as supplementary material for the newspapers investlgated. The llst represents some of the more trequently used works. It should be noted that the in the nineteenth century stlll awaits truthful objeotive treatment. The splendld work of Ludwig von , unfortunately, stopped short of this period. The first three Popes flguring in this study .. 97 have been negleoted by serious hlstorians, whlle the numerous volumes publlshed on Pius IX are otten so obseoured by the ~ and oon sympathies of the authors that the true oharaoter or-the man ~dlttioult to evaluate. Artaud de Montor, Chevaller, Lives and Times of the Roman Pontiffs, 2 vols., New York, IB7I. -- --- Billlngton, Ray Allen, Protestant Crusade,1800-1860, New York, 1938.

Brennan, Rlohard, pope ~ 2 Nlnth, 2nd ed., New York, 1877.

Colllns, J.A., The New ~land Antl-Slaver: Almanao,l841, Boston, 1840. -~- - Corrigan, Raymond, 5.J., The Churoh and the Nineteenth Century, Milwaukee, 1938. ------Earle, John'Charles, Manuel ot the lives of the popes, New York, 1878. ' -- ---

Diokinson, S.v. ~ Boston Almanao, 1840 and 1841.

Farrow, John, Pagent ~ ~ popes, New York, 1942. Feiertag, Sister Loretta Clare, Amerioan Publio Opinion on the Diplomatio Relations between the United ~pates and tne-'&pal States, Wash!ngtDn,'1933. - -- Gullday, Peter, Lite and Times of John Bngland, First Blshop ot Charleston, 2 VOIi7i~' 1921.

Hassard, John Rose Greene, ~ ~ Pope Plu. IX, New York, 1878. Lee, James Melvin, History £! Amerioan Journalism, New York, 1923. Leflon, Jean, Histoire de LtEgll •• , La crise revoiutlonnaire, Paris, 19i9. --

MoSorley, Joseph, Hlstory £! ~ Churoh, St.Louis, 1947.

Varraro, Boward R., Amerioan ~inion on the Unification of Italy, 1846-1861, New York, 193 • -- - Mott, Frank Luther, Amerioan Journalism, A Hlstory of Newspapers, 1690-1940, New York, 1941. 98 ... Nielsen, Frederick Kristian, The History of the P&iaclyinkthe XIX Century, Ed. and trans., AFEliur las on, , 'VO':i., ew or:;-I9tnr. Nippold, Frederick W.F., The Papacy in the , Trans., Laurence H. Schwab, We .. York, lWO:------pennl Clclopedia, 27 vols., London, 1823-1843. Ray, Sister Augustin., American 2iinion of Roman CatholicisM in !h! Eighteenth Cen~urz' Wew . ork, lV36 • Shea, John Gilmary, Lite and Ti~. of the Sovereign Pontiff, Pius -IX, New york, 1'S'1'7':" - -- - Shearer, Donald e., Pontificia Americana, Washington, 1933 • . Stock, Leo Francis, united states M1nisters to the Papal States, Instructions and despatcnes, 1848-IS6B,-WaiEIngton, IgS3. -----Proceedinss of the Publio Demonstration ot S'l!Path7 with Pope Plus 1& anCI ltaIy; Ie. Yorti, Is4S. - . - Trollope, T. Adolphus, The Story ot the Life of Piu. the Ninth, Detroit, 1877. ------Wiseman, Nioholas Cardinal, Recollection. of the Last Four Popel, London, 1858. ------Wood, James P. Magazines !!! the United States, New York, 1949. liP

APPENDIX I EDITORIALS FROM THE NEW YORK -SUN Influence ot Austria 10 Rome. The Catholics, and indeed all religious denominations in this country, are looking with great interest to the result ot the liberal demonstrations made by the new pope, and the many excellent reforms he proposes in the gover~nt and condition ot the Papal States. Some have doubted the sincerity of pope Pius IX., and do not be11eve that he is 1n reality a friend ot Italian liberty--that necessitate, he must still bend to the influence ot Austria--that his measures are intended to draw around him triends and supporters of liberal prinCiples in the Roman states, and by degrees disband and disperse them. But Acts ot the Pontitf speak louder than professions, and the peculiar character ot the times is intmical to all intrigues. The Pope has permit­ ted two journals of liberal principles to be established at Rome­ one in the English language--and has encouraged the oonductors to speak the truth, and fearlessly advocate all retorms which do not militate against the orthodoxy of the ChUrch. This is an import­ ant and fundamental demonstration of liberal principle. and sincere conviction. Then he bas favored a proposition tor a railroad throughout the Papal dominIons lengthway, and another prOjected to , both ot which the late Pope denounced. Here we have another effort to extend the area of liberal principles, by concentration all classes, commerce and produotion near the capital. We have then the amnesty • • • • Among those liberated was the Pope's own . PropositIon ot NatIonal guard, lay­ men in civil otfices--Codify the law--eoonomyin government. Co~rcial treaties--free eduoation, if honestly carried out th~ measures will produce a most valuable and benefiCial reto~ in the Papal States. The question now is, will not the intrigues of despotic and benighted Austria be exerted to check the operation and ettect of these measures? We apprehend they will. Austria, since the downfall ot Napoleon, has completely overshadowed the smaller powers and ot Italy • • • • It is now Rome and Austria. And Austria has forced the petty princes to submit to her Black Eagles. Whenever rebellion Austria puts it down. 99 100 ... Austria everywhere 1s in Italy as a poliee foroe. France oould cheek this, but is busy at home. Spain, portugual eot and EnglEd can only remonstrate. Austria

Ital:y--The Conspiraoies . Liberty begins to revive among the old Raman altars. The voice ot pope Pius sounds like another Brutus beaven inspir­ ed to rescue a people from the thraldom ot a worse than Caesar • . Who ot modern prophets saw or thought, within these ten years past that Italy, the abandoned and oppressed, would be the tirst to rise up and reassert her treedom. Lingered there any Patrioi~ spirit ot , around the Capitol--or hovered there any Plebian ghost in the waitl-s a pause in the storm ot despotism, to rekindle the tire ot liberty and fan it into a flame. So it would seem. The gloriOUS old republic has never been tully torsaken by her good genius, and now wh11e the rest ot Europe struggles to tighten its oords and thongs to shut out the light and bowdown the heads ot mi1110ns, Italy like a bird ot promise unfolds her wings and rises out ot the ot Empire. "Libertas vivett" the cry ot the , is become the watohword of the Italian. And the good old Pope cries loudest and lustiest of all Libertas vivet! And so liberty recreates and spreads trom the Vatican, the Quirnal and trom the saored altars ot St. Peter, out through the imperla1 oity, suburb and Ghetto, and over hill and dale until ml11ions oatch up its songs and shout Llbertas vlvet and long lite to Pius the Nintht But the noble and heroic plus has aroused a hyena in un100s1ng 11berty. Austria, the godmother ot all --whose oratty and terocious Metternioh onee said he "would oppose a wl1l ot iron to the spread ot liberal prinolp1estt"--Austria, whose toot tramplea on impatient HUngary and the Lombard-Venetian States, views wlth abhorrenoe what she oalls the madness ot the Pope, in humoring the cries ot the people, and she sends her assassin with pOisoned stilletoa to take hls heart's blood. But God watches over the liberty--lovl~ Pope, and though Cardinala and even the Governor ot the EternaI City lae1t, oarry thelr daggers, threatening the 101 ... the lite ot Pius the N1nth. they are d1acovered and driven out w1th shame. They t1nd that his l1te 1s charmed whom the people love. What ahould he have done, when all Italy oried 1n diatre8~ but relieve the flook ot hi. told? Austria wbuld have given them a stone tor bread, a dungeon tor 11ght, and ohains tor liberty. She would have smothered Llberta. V1vet with shrieks trom the Inquisition and sent orowa. or peaceable but aggrieved people despairing to their bonds. But thank God, Austria i. powerless! Europe will not dare permit her to trample on libertI sanotioned by the spiritual head ot the Catholio Ohurch n~ wil she dare openly to attempt it. From Italy, a gloriOUS light i8 arising for the ot Europe, let every treed man watch it well. --August 27, 1847 APPBNDIX II

A LB'l'TER FROM ROMI TO THE CHARLESTON MERCURY COPIED BY THE WASHINGTON WEEKLY UNION

ROD Janua.ry 9, 1847 The death ot the late pope, the eleotion ot hi. auccessor and the wonders done by the new administration, are the usual topics ot conversation here. Rome ot '47 is a century in advanoe ot Flome ot '46; and this through Pius IX. lt1s tirst act was to-liberate all who were imprisoned merely tor political ottence., restoring them not ,only to their tamilies, but also to the capability ot holding any ottice in bi. dominion.. A strict inquiry into abusea, and the tormation. of deputation. in all the cities ot the Papal State, have already made him the terror, not ot his subjeots, but of his corrupt subalterns and the despotic powers by whom he i8 surrounded. Every thought is ocoupied in studying the weltare ot his subJeots. Rigorous econOtBy, and every en~ouragement to oommeroe, seem to be the moving springs, 0 the new government. Ot the tirst, the Pope, give. the example in his own palAce; and the permi.sion to build five railroads in hi. state., with the re-open1ng of Porto d'Auzo are-pretty strong indioations of the latter. Unpoet1cal as the idea may seem, in the course of a few years one may contemplate the ruins of the Colliseum, and at the same time have his ears greeted by the hisBing engine of a steam-car. One will run from Rome to Civita Vecchia; another from Rome to Ancona; one from Rome to Albano; the fourth trom Ancona to Bologna; and fltth trom Rome to Porto d'Auzo, with a branch from that part to the confines of the king­ dom of Naples. The most dlfficult will be trom Rome to Anoona, a. it has to pass the Appenlnes; and although the whole affair 1s managed by a private assoolation, the Pope has of.fered a reward of some thousand dollars for the best project of cutting through the range. Many restrictions have also been removed trom the press, and the consequenoe has been the publlcation ot about thirty new journals; the prinoipal ones are an English new.paper styled the Roman EXposition, and 11 8ecolo Illustrato. Some ot our venerable wiseaores has propheised the end ot the world to be 102 103 ... at band, and whenever ob11ged to enter 1nto oonversat10n about the present ohanges, most so1ent1f1oally shake the1r heada, and answer every argument you br1ng 1n the1r defenoe w1th ~ell,well! ..e'll see where th1ngs w1l1 end." Others ..ent so far as to tell the Pope that 1t he oont1nued in th1s way, the ~eoP1e would soon demand a oonst1tution, and were horrified when ~e answerea:·--wn' a oonstrtutlon be for the good ot !l subjeots, ..~w should I denz It f » -- - - .::.:!tl.. - Though not a Papist, I th1nk .,.OU w111 now read11y and heart1ly join me in ory1ng, V1va pio Nono • • • ./lere the writer spoke of the Tibe~ in f1ood,-computatron-of t1me Tn Rome, and the popefa deoisionto adopt astronomioal time~

~he wonder-working Pius IX i8 st ill :mov1ng on the go­ ahead prinoiple and if God spares his 11te for a few years he w1ll oause the government of the Papal States to become one ot the f1rst in Europe. I hope to see Italy regenerated; and that the start should come tram Rome, must oerta1nly be a source ot joy to every Catho11c; and yet the greatest opposit1on our good pope bas had in h1s reto~., bas arisen trom the Catho11c powere of Europe. This bowever, oould be borne w1th, if Italyts own Bona would be fal thful to bel'. --July 26, 1847 ·$!

APPENDIX III

ROD She triumphs Yet! God. bless the hills On which the Eternal City stands) She triumphs yet! despite of all . The Austrian hordes, and Gallic banda; She triumphs yet! heroic Rome A glorious picture for all tfme. And Naples t Bourbon butcher flies Back to hi. den of lust and crime. She triumphs yet! God bless the d&7S j Which speak her glory to the world; She trlumph. 7etl Bod bles. the hands 1 Which Freedom's to Rome unfurled; Sbe trlumphs 7et! and 7et, 0 Shame ! The modern Gaul is at her gates, And be in Freedom's name would quench j The fire which Rome'a proud aoul elate •• .' She triumph. yet! And stl11 0 God I Give ber the triumph to the last'} Stand bI her While the t7l'ants rage Unt 1 War's horrid sto~ ls passed; She had the l'ight! give her the might! To strike the last oppressor down; o be her soul. her guide, ber shield, Until she wears the victor's orown! July 6. 1949 O.D.Stuart This poem appeared on the tront page ot the SprIngfield DRill Regrb1ican, July 12, 184.9. It Is another way ot shOWing the op n on 0 lmerica towards Pius IX during tbe revolutIon. He i. completely forgotten; he no longer promoted republicani~. Here in verse the foea of 1ibert7 and French treason are dealt with in keeping with the spirit of the editorial and reporting pollcy ot the American pre.s.

104 ...

APPROVAL SHEET

The thesis submitted by John V. Mentag, S.J., has been read'and approved by three members of the Department of History.

The final copies have been examined by the director of the thesis and the signature which appears below verifies the fact that any necessary changes have been incorporated, and that the thesis is nOW' given final approval with reference to content, form, and mechanical accuracy.

The thesis is therefore accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts.