Chapter I Introduction I.1. Introduction And

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

I.1. INTRODUCTION AND JUSTIFICATION OF THE TOPIC

After the Buddha's Maha-parinibbāna, Buddhism was divided into different schools of which the most popular ones which have remained up to now in many Asian countries are Theravāda and Mahāyāna. The Theravāda school, corresponding exactly to the Sanskrit Sthaviravāda, was founded by those senior monks who wanted to preserve the early practices in accordance with the original doctrines of the Buddha. The Mahāyāna, founded on the basis of the early Mahāyāna Sūtras compiled in the first century B.C.E, was advocated by those Buddhists who elaborated Buddhist teachings and practices with a new perspective suitable to the need of societies in various ages. The Mahāyāna school was further divided into many sub-sects; the Sukhāvatī (Pure Land) school is one of the most popular traditions among them. While the Theravāda tradition believes in the possibility of emancipation through one’s own intellectual power of cultivation, the Pure Land holds that it is possible for one to get salvation through Amitābha Buddha's power. In other words, the former maintains that we must rely on our own powers to attain the final liberation, whereas the later advocates that in order to get rebirth in Pure Land realm practitioners have to depend on the power of salvation of the Buddha Amitābha.

The Theravā da was a distinctive group within the Indian Saṇgha community at the time of King Ashoka. They preserved the teachings of the Buddha in Pāli through their oral tradition, and they held their own position of specific points of doctrine and practice. They also made a significant contribution to the Buddhist propagation in Indian subcontinents as well as

abroad. According to Theravāda school, the main practice leading to enlightenment is meditation. Of different techniques of meditation, Ānāpānasati and Vipassanā are the most popular ones. Vipassanā meditation is a method of self observation. In Pāli, Passanā means to look, to see with the open eyes in an ordinary way. But Vipassanā is to observe things as they really are, not merely as they seem to be. Apparent truth has to be penetrated until one reaches the ultimate truth of the entire mental and physical perspective. It is a logical process of mental purification leading towards full enlightenment gradually. It is a straightforward, practical way to achieve peace of mind and to live a happy, useful life. The Buddha declares in Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta:

"Here, a monk, a monk dwells ardent with awareness and constant thorough understanding of impermanence, observing body in body, having removed craving and aversion towards the words [of mind and matter], he dwells ardent with awareness and constant thorough understanding impermanence, observing sensations in sensations, having removed craving and aversion towards the world [of mind and matter]; he dwells ardent with awareness and constant removed craving and aversion towards the world [of mind and matter]; he dwells ardent with awareness and constant thorough understanding of impermanence, observing mental contents in mental contents, having removed craving and aversion towards the world [of mind and matter]."1

The teachings of Pure Land School were preserved in Sanskrit literature, whereas the Theravāda teachings were well preserved in Pāli literature. “Pure Land Buddhism” refers to a set of beliefs and practices that espouses for its aspirants the realization of the stage of non-retrogression

1 Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta, Maharashtra: Vipassana Research Institute, 2006, p.3. 2

either in the present life or through rebirth in a Buddha land or realm called “Sukhāvatī (Land of Bliss). According to the Pure Land Sūtras, Sukhāvatī exists billions of Buddha lands away, in the western direction, from the Saha world-realm, the world that we live in. The Buddha Amitāyus (Immeasurable Life) or Buddha Amitābha (Immeasurable Light) is the 'transcendent' Buddha who presides over the Sukhāvatī world-realm. The tenet of Pure Land School was mainly depicted in The Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtras and The Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra. These Sutras exhort both monks and laities alike, who aspire for rebirth in Amitabha’s Sukhāvatī to get engaged in a broad range of practices that include: meditation, observances of precepts, virtuous acts, building of stūpas (relic monument), reciting the Amitābha Buddha's name and contemplating the Amitābha Buddha and His Sukhāvatī (Pure Land). Those who are reborn in Sukhāvatī will abide in an ideal environment which enhances their spiritual practices. Such rebirth guarantees the practitioners to attain the stage of non- retrogression and eventually to realize the Mahāyāna goal of perfect enlightenment (samyaksambodhi). Upon attainment of enlightenment, some will return to this Saha world-realm to carry out the Bodhisattva task of leading others to Pure Land rebirth and ultimately to Buddhahood. According to the Pure Land teachings, Amitābha presides over the Western Paradise, which he has created out of his boundless love for all sentient beings, and he vows that anyone who has absolute faith in him and his Pure Land will be reborn at his place. In Pure Land, Amitābha has Avalokiteśvara as his chief minister, the always compassionate Boddhisattva who is ready to go anywhere to lead the faithful to the Land of purity and bliss. All that is necessary to attain rebirth is to have faith and devotion as indicated by the repeated recital of the formula namo Amitābha or “reverence be to Amitabha". The Śakyamuni Buddha teaches the same thing in The Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra:

"Whatever son or daughter of a family shall hear the name of the blessed Amitāyus, the Tathāgata, and having heard it, shall keep it in mind for one, two, three, four, five, six or seven nights, - when that son or daughter of a family comes to die, when that Amitāyus, the Tathāgata, surrounded by an assembly of disciples and followed by a host of Bodhisattvas, will stand before them at their hour of death, and they will depart this life with tranquil minds. After their death they will be born in the world of Sukhāvatī, in the Buddha country of the same Amitāyus, the Tathāgata. Therefore, then, O Sāriputra, having perceived this cause and effect, I wish reverence say thus, every son and every daughter of a family ought with their whole mind to make fervent prayer for that Buddha country."2

Moreover, in understanding the Sukhāvatī (Pure Land) of Amitābha Buddha, there are two ways, theoritical and practical. From the theoritical point of view, based on the Pure Land Sūtras, Sukhāvatī is considered to be an independent realm outside existing of mind. In other words, theoritically, people understand that there exists a realm called Sukhāvat ī billions of Buddha lands away to the west. It denotes a specific location in the universe where practitioners actually go to be reborn upon death. Sukhāvatī is just one of the billions of such lands that fill the universe in the ten directions, among which are included other Buddha lands such as Buddha Aksobhya's Abhirati and Buddha Bhaisajyaguru's Vaidūryanirbhāsa.

Practically, Pure Land is regarded as an analogical expression of the purified or enlightened mind of the Bodhisattvas and the idea that Pure Land

2 F. Max Muller (tr.), Sacred Books of The East, Buddhist Mahāyāna Texts, Vol. 49, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publisher Private Limited, 1997, p.99. 4

has an independent existence outside the mind is rejected. Vietnamese Master Tố Liên explaions it and says:

"If we are discussing the different manifestions of the universe, the Pure Land of Amitābha Buddha is indeed ten billion Buddha-lands away. However, if we are speaking of the Pure Land of the Mind, then the ten billion Buddha-lands are not outside the narrow confines of our own minds. If we recite the Buddha name singlemindedly, the Pure Land can be found in every recitation - the Pure Land is here and now."3

So from the practical point of view, all of space in the Ten Directions and all the worlds countless as atoms are originally things created by this Mind of ours and this is what Pure Land is meant for. However, deluded and confused we may be in our lives, if even for a single moment we return to this Mind, the Land of Ultimate Bliss, originally inherent in our own mind, we cannot be troubled any longer by any worry or doubt. Therefore a hundred billion worlds are not beyond one moment of thought, since fundamentally there is nothing outside the True Mind; whenever our mind is fully aware, free from worries and disturbances, it is the Pure Land itself. Especially, this practical point of view of Pure Land tradition is similar to the view of meditation in Theravāda tradition. Because when we practice meditation, our mind becomes calm, concentrated, and when we reach samādhi, our mind is clear and clean, and thus we can reach Pure Land wherever we are in this universe.

3 J.C.Cleary, Mind-seal of the Buddhas, Taiwan: The Corporate Body of the Buddha Education Foundation, p.58. 5

Therefore, in order to understand the Buddhist practices and philosophies in both Theravāda and Pure Land traditions, we have chosen the topic: "The spiritual practices in Theravāda and Sukhāvatī tradition: A comparative study". This research aims at bringing a comprehensive understanding of the similarities and differences in the spiritual practices in the Theravāda and Pure Land traditions; and it tries to help the Buddhist followers to choose the suitable methods in practicing Buddhism so that they can have a better life in this society.

I.2. THE SURVEY OF THE WORKS DONE

The Therav ā da Buddhism and the Pure Land Buddhism are two important Schools. While the first one has been very popular in some countries such as: India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia… The second one has been famous in China, Korea, Japan, Taiwan, and Vietnam... Therefore; a large number of people are interested in studying these subjects. The followings are some important and significant works on the Theravāda and the Pure Land tradition:

1. Luis O. Gōmez, The Land Of Bliss, Delhi: Motilal Barasidass, 2002. 2. Kenneth Kenichi Tanaka, The Dawn of Chinese Pure Land Buddhist Doctrine, Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990. 3. Mark L. Blum, The Origin and Development of Pure Land Buddhism, New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. 4. K.T.S. Sarao, A Text Book of the History of Theravāda Buddhism, Delhi: Department of Buddhist Studies, University of Delhi, 2007. 5. Kanai Lan Hazra, History of Theravāda Buddhism in South-East Asia, New Delhi: Mushiram Manaharlal, 2008.

These studies are, more or less, of general type. A deep study and comparative analysis on the practices of the Theravāda and the Pure Land tradition have not been done yet. Moreover, no considerable attempt has been made so far to study the variants found in the commentaries. Among these works mentioned above, the endeavours made by Luis O. Gōmez, Kenneth Kenichi Tanaka, Kanai Lal Hazra and a few others are of great importance and are worth mentioning.

The work of Luis O. Gomez is very rich from the point of view of a modern research. This is a free translation of the two Buddhist texts, the most popular of all Buddhist conceptions of an ideal world, the “Land of Bliss” of The Buddha Amitābha, The Buddha of Infinite Light. These two texts, known to Western students of Buddhism as the “Smaller” and “Larger” Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra, they explain the conditions that lead to rebirth in the Pure Land and the manner in which human beings are reborn there. The longer of the two texts also tells the story of how the Buddha of Infinite Light came to preside over this marvel-filled paradise.

Each of the two Sūtras is translated from Sanskrit and Chinese version to capture some of the nuances of South Asian forms of The Pure Land faith. The Sūtras accessible to those only who are vaguely familiar with Buddhism and Buddhist ideas by paraphrasing his interpretation of the text instead of echoing the syntax and surface meanings of the source languages. Translation is preceded by introduction for the layman. The present volume, containing a free English rendering of both Sūtras, is to be followed by two forthcoming volumes that will contain the original texts with detailed scholarly translations and notes. It must be admitted honestly that all later researchers have based

their works on his work alone. However, from the point of view of interpretation, the work seems to be inadequate and incomplete because it contains translation only.

The Dawn of Chinese Pure Land Buddhist Doctrine by Kenneth Kenichi Tanaka is also worth mentioning. This book sheds new light on four areas. Firstly, it contradicts the conventional perception that Pure Land Buddhism comprises a popular teaching for only the religiously inferior. Secondly, the findings extend to Hui-yuan a long overdue recognition of his contribution to Chinese Buddhism and to Pure Land doctrine. Thirdly, the study further broadens the traditional boundaries of Pure Land teaching. This challenges the adequacy of previous definitions. Fourthly, this study considers the question of the sectarian formation of the Pure Land School in China. Numerous factors contribute to the formation of a school. Modern writers generally cite the historical events confirming the eschatological message on the arrival of the Last Period of Dharma as one of the primary factors contributing to the emergence of the Pure Land School. Moreover, this book deals with the doctrinal elements and, specifically, examines the critical role played by a commentary written by Ching-ying Hui-yuan. However, the approach of this work is basically historical and contains Chinese view points. Therefore, a deep analysis on the similarities and differences of the practices between the Theravāda and the Pure Land tradition remained a desideratum.

Besides the works mentioned above, History of Theravāda Buddhism in South-East Asia by Kanai Lal Hazra is worth mentioning as well. This work tries to show that Ceylon had strong cultural links with her neighbors in Southeast Asia. From eleventh century onwards, the Sīhala Saṇgha and Sī hala Buddhism constitute a strong and vitalizing force in the religious history of Southeast Asia, and the Buddhist countries in Southeast Asia looks on 8

Ceylon as the fountainhead of Theravāda Buddhism. This book also deals with the introduction and development of Buddhism in India. The chief aim of this book is to present the introduction and development of Buddhism in India and examine and evaluate the evidences found in the primary sources relating to the religious ties carefully. This book will, no doubt, be helpful to those interested in the study of Buddhism culture in India as well as in South and Southeast Asia. Again, a deep analysis and comprehensive comparison of the similarities and differences of the practices between the Theravāda and the Pure Land traditions have not been done yet. Hence, there is a need of the present study.

I.3. SCOPE FOR RESEARCH AND SOURCES

This thesis is an attempt to give a comparative analysis of the practices of the Theravāda and Sukhāvatī (Pure Land) traditions in terms of different systems of Buddhist thoughts (Theravāda and Pure Land). We have no intention of re-writing or re-focusing on the history of Buddhist thoughts, in detail. We aim at analyzing the similarities and the differences of the practices in different systems of Buddhist philosophy. The materials of study used for this research are confined to the Buddhist literature, in some Sanskrit and Pāli texts such as the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta, the Longer Sukhāvatīvyyūha Sūtra, the Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra and the Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra, Tipiṭaka and post Tipiṭaka literature, in particular. Besides, we have also used some of the secondary sources such as Blum Mark L., the Origin and Development of Pure Land Buddhism; Donald S. Lopez, Jṛ, Buddhism in Practice; Elder George R., Buddhist Insight; Goenka, S. N., Meditation Now – Inner Peace through Inner Wisdom and Gōmez Luis O., the Land Of Bliss, etc.

I.4. METHOD OF STUDY

As this study deals with two traditions of spiritual practices, we have followed the method of comparison between the two as our main method of study. We have also followed the analytical method to reach the right interpretation of teachings and practices prevelent in both systems. Therefore, the study is chiefly comparitive and partly analytical.

CHAPTER II: THE CONCEPT OF PURE LAND IN THERAVĀDA AND PURE LAND TRADITIONS

II.1. THERAVĀDA'S VIEW OF PURE LAND

II.1.1. Buddhist Cosmology as Depicted in Theravāda

Cosmology is a very important notion of Buddhism, and Buddhists belive that out of the human world where we are living, there are also other planes of existence that is closely related to our world, and they are visible to human eyes. And they are places where rebirth takes places.

According to Buddhism, the condition for the one's future rebirth is kamma, the actions we do in the present life. From this kamma, after death, one can go to the planes of happiness or the realm of misery. So far as kamma is concerned, our present world seems to be the center of all other worlds and this present life is the determining causes of future lives. From the point of view of rebirth, the human world and other planes of existence are mutually related. After passing away, the beings of this world may take rebirth in other planes and it happened at the same way for the beings of those planes.

In Buddhism, 'loka' means 'world', it denotes three planes of existence involving the whole universe. They are: the sensuous World (kamma-loka), where all the senses of knowledge find their dominating roles to exert; the Fine-material World (rūpa-loka) that corresponds to the four fine material Jhānä, and the Immaterial World (arūpa-loka) that corresponds to the four immaterial Jhāna.

The process through which sentient beings move from one plane of life to another is purely based on conditions. Giving or charity, moral conduct, and meditation are three main things that make up these conditions. Two things put forth the required conditions for rebirth in the kamma-loka, and they are moral conduct and practice of giving. As far as as the rūpa-loka and arūpa- loka are concerned, the practice of meditation is the only required condition. Liberation from all rebirths requires wisdom as an extra condition in addition to moral conduct and meditation.

According to the moral and immoral Kamma of every individual, birth may take place in different spheres of existence, and there are thirty one planes altogether.

The Pāli Canon speaks of four types of birth in different planes of existence: that is being born from an egg (aṇḍaja), being born from a womb (jalābuja), being born of moisture (saṃsvedaja)and the fourth type is that of spontaneous uprising (anupadaka).

In the Sammādiṭṭhi Sutta the Venerable Sāriputta speaks of the cause, the cessation and the path leading to the cessation of bhava for each and every individual. Attachment (upādāna) is described as the cause of loka. Attachment is the cause for one to be reborn after death, and where there is rebirth, there is loka. Therefore, the cessation of attachment leads to the cessation of loka. The Noble Eightfold Path is considered to be the ways required to be followed for the cessation of loka.

There are 31 planes of existence which are divided into kamma-loka, rūpa-loka and arūpa-loka

II.1.1.1. Planes of desires (kamma loka)

Kamma Loka, the sensous world or planes of desires (kamma-loka) has eleven realms. These realms are dominated by the five senses. The inhabitantants of these realms experience both pleasurable and unpleasurable things. Seven of them are considered favorable destination for human beings. Among these some of them are also occupied by devas. The lowest realms are considered to be the four bad destinations, these are the realms of the animal and of the hell.

II.1.1.1.1. UNHAPPY PLANES

There are four realms that are considered to represent planes of somewhat very low quality, it is believed that there we have lots of unimaginable sufferings and anguishes. These planes are believed to accommodate them who perform unwholesome actions such as murdering their parents or an Arahant, harming the Buddhas, causing a seperation in the Sangha, quarrelling and annoying others, etc.

1. Niraya (Hell)

Niraya means devoid of happiness. This is considered to be the lowest level in the hell; there being no happiness in the place whatsoever, only being abound in different kinds of sufferings. However, when the evil kamma is exhausted, there is a possiblility for beings to be reborn in blissul states because of the result of their good actions in the past lives.

2. Tiracchāna-yoni (Animals)

Tiracchāna-yoni (tiro = across; acchāna = going): the animal kingdom. This realm includes all the non-human forms of life that are visible to us 13

under ordinary circumstances: animals, insects, fish, birds, worms, etc. Buddhists believe that beings are born as animals on account of evil kamma. It would be more reasonable to state that kamma which manifested itself in the form of a human being, may manifest itself in the form of an animal or vice versa.

It is one's kamma that determines the nature of one's material form which varies according to the skillfullness or unskillfullness of one's actions. So, there is possiblility for animals in this realms to be born as human beings as a result of the good kamma accumulated in the past.

3. Peta loka (Hungry ghosts)

Petayoni (pa + ita): departed beings, or those absolutely devoid of happiness. They are not disembodied spirits of ghosts. They possess deformed physical forms of varying magnitude, generally invisible to the naked eye. They have no planes of their own, but live in forests, dirty surroundings, etc.

"This being", was remarked as a cattle-butcher in his previous birth, and as the result of his past kamma he was born in such a state.

According to the Questions of Milinda, there are four kinds of Petas – namely, the Vantāsikas who feed on vomit, the Khuppipāsino who are hungry and thirsty, the Nijjhāmataṇhikā, who are consumed by thirst, and the Paradattūpajivino who live on the gifts of others. Furthermore, in the Tirokuḍ ḍa Suta metioned that merit were shared to Petas by their living relatives, and they could thereby pass on to better states of happiness.

4. Asura-yoni: the place of the Asura-demons.

Asura, literally means those who do not shine or those who do not sport. Asura, demons or titans are powerful and warlike, but it seems that they don’t harm humans. These demons that dwell here are engaged in relentless conflict with one another.

These four lower realms are unhappy or dukkha (suffering) realms.

II.1.1.1.2. HAPPY PLANES After the four woeful planes, there are seven happy planes (Sugati). They are: 1. Manussa – The realm of human beings.

This is our realm, and rebirth as a human being is extraordinarily rare. It is also very precious because it is the mixture of both unhappy and happy planes. In this plane, human beings can make the development of virtue and wisdom to liberate from the cycle of rebirths; and the atttainment of stream- entry (sotāpatti) guarantees that all future rebirths will be in the human or higher realms.

2. Cātumahārājika - Heaven

This is the lowest of the heavenly realms where the Guardian Deities of the four quarters of the firmanents reside with their followers. This plane is also home of the gandhabbas, the celestial musicians, and the yakkas, tree spirits of varying degrees of ethical purity.

3. Tāvatiṃsa Heaven

Tāvatiṃsa literally means thirty three. This is the Celestial Realm of thirty three Devas where Deva Sakka is the King. The origin of the name is attributed to a story which states that thirty three selfless volunteers led by Magha (another name for Sakka), having performed charitable deeds, were born in the heavenly realm. It was also in this heaven that the Buddha taught the Abhidhamma to the Devas for three months.

4. Yāma Heaven

Yāma Devas. These devas live in the air, free of all difficulties.

5. Tusita Heaven

Tusita literally means happy dwellers. It is the realm of pure delight and gaiety. Bodhisattvas abide here prior to their final human birth to attain Buddhahood. The Bodhisattva Maitreya, the future Buddha, is at present residing in this realm awaiting the right opportunity to be born as a human being and become a Buddha.

6. Nimmānarati Heaven

This is the world of devas delighting in the sense objects of their own creation.

7. Paranimmita-vasavatti Heaven

This is the world of devas wielding power over the creation of others. These devas enjoy sense pleasures created by others for them. Māra, the personification of delusion and desire, lives here.

These six Celestial Planes are temporary blissful abodes where beings are supposed to live enjoying fleeting pleasures of sense.

The four unhappy planes (Duggati) and the seven happy planes (Sugati) are collectively termed Kāmaloka – Sentient Sphere. However, all these divine abodes are full of sensual pleasures and are fully enjoyed by the celestial beings, so that they do not find the necessity to meditate or to keep their precepts. Thus there is no possibility of doing good or practising the Dhamma or meditation in these Deva Lokas. Therefore, when their kusala kamma is exhausted and they haven't accumulated further merits, they will again fall into the unhappy planes when they pass away in this life. Thus, it is not always a great thing for beings to be reborn in the Deva Lokas or celestial planes; if we are not careful enough, it may be a nasty trap for us with lots of hinderances towards spiritual progress.

I.1.1.2. The Fine-Material World (rūpa- loka)

The Fine-Material World (rūpa-loka) consists of sixteen realms whose inhabitants (the devas) experience extremely refined degrees of mental pleasure. These realms are accessible to those who have attained at least some level of Jhāna and who have thereby managed to (temporarily) suppress hatred and ill-will. They are said to possess extremely refined bodies of pure light. The highest of these realms, the Pure Abodes, are accessible only to those who have attained to "non-returning," the third stage of Awakening. The Fine-Material World and the Immaterial World together constitute the heaven (sagga). Rūpaloka consists of sixteen realms according to the Jhānas or ecstasies cultivated. They are as follows:

a. The Plane of the First Jhāna :

1. Brahma Pārisajja – The realm of the Brahma’s retinue. 2. Brahma Purohita – The realm of the Brahma’s Ministers. Beings in these planes enjoy varying degrees of jhanic bliss. 3. Mahā Brahma – The realm of Great Brahmas. The famous inhabitant of this plane is the Great Brahma, a deity whose delusion leads him to regard himself as the all-powerful, all-seeing, supposedly a creator of the universe (see Digha Nikaya 11), and Brahma Sahampati, who begs the Buddha to teach Dhamma to the world.

The highest of the first three is Mahā Brahma. It is so called because the dwellers in this realm excel others in happiness, beauty, and age-limit owing to the intrinsic merit of their mental development.

b. The plane of the Second Jhāna :

1. Parittābhā – The realm of Limited Radiance. 2. Appamāṇābhā – The realm of Infinite Radiance. 3. Ābhassarā – The realm of the Radiant Brahmas.

c. The plane of the Third Jhāna :

1. Parittasubhā – The realm of the Brahmas of Limited Glory. 2. Appamāṇsubhā – The realm of the Brahmas of Infinite Glory. 3. Subhakiṇhā – The realm of the Brahmas of the Radiant Glory.

d. The plane of the Fourth Jhāna

1. Vehapphala – The realm of the Brahmas of Great Reward, they enjoy varying degrees of jhanic bliss.

2. Asaññasatta – The realm of Mindless beings, only body is present, absence of saññā cetasika. 3. Suddhāvāsa – The Pure Abodes which are further subdivided into five:

i. Aviha – The durable realm, Brahmas not falling away. They live their full life span. ii. Atappa – The serene realm, umtroubled Brahmas, they are not troubled by the five hindrances. iii. Sudassa – The beautiful realm, Brahmas have magnificient body forms. iv. Sudassi – The clear-sighted realm, Brahmas see things with ease. v. Akaṇiṭṭha – The highest realm, peerless Brahmas. Beings who become returners in other planes are reborn here, where they attain Arahantship.

In these sixteen planes, since there is no sensuous feeling of any kind, residents of the planes are not liable to be affected by any kind of attachment or emotion. Furthermore, beings of these planes are necessarily male, as the belief has it. They who are reborn there, they become male, there being no mention of females in these planes.

The condition for getting an access to these realms is the practice of meditation for them who have reached at least some level of attainment in their meditation. It is said that beings in these planes are possessed of extremely refined bodies of pure light, they are beautiful and radiant in different degrees and their faces shine brilliantly, lighting up the surrounding area.

II.1.1.3. The Immaterial World (arūpa-loka).

There are four other planes called Arūpaloka which are totally devoid of matter or bodies. Buddhists maintain that there are realms where mind alone exists without matter. This is a temporary separation of mind and matter, which normally co-exist.

Arūpa means not having any form of body; having no material body and possessing mind only, beings in these realms do not feel physical dukkha. Life here is very pleasant and extremely long. One may be reborn in such a realm by practising strong and deep concentrating meditation techniques, and these realms are accessible only to those who have attained to “non-returning”, the stage of Arahantship. It consists of four realms that are the abodes of those who pass away while meditating in the formless Jhānas. This is the purest of the 31 planes of existence.

The Arūpaloka is divided into four planes according to the four Arūpa Jhānas. They are as follows:

1. Ākāsānañcāyatana – The sphere of the Conception of Infinite Space. 2. Viññānañcāyatana – The sphere of the Conception of Infinite Consciousness. 3. Ākiñcaññāyatana – The sphere of the Conception of Nothingness. 4. N’eva Saññā Nāsaññayatana – The sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-perception.

In short, for sentient beings to be reborn in such planes depends on various causes and conditions. There are generally three factors that cause rebirth over there, and they are charity, moral conduct, and meditation.

Howerver, planes of existence in the Rūpa-loka and Arūpa-loka are not encouraged by the Buddha, because its blissfulness, pleasedness, etc will end when the good kamma of beings finish. Therefore, the final liberation from the cycle of rebirth, namely getting enlightenment, is the main aim of all Buddhists. Thus it can be said that beyond all planes of existence is the unconditioned Nibbāna, the final goal of the Buddha's teaching.

II.1.2. Jhāna and Sainhood in Theravāda

After getting enlightenment, the first sermon taught by the Buddha is the Four Noble Truth. The first Nobel Truth explains the life of human beings are full of sufferings. However, the Buddha also finds out the cause of sufferings and of course the method to cease all kinds of sufferings. The method is none other than meditation. Only meditation can help people to emerge from the darkness of ignorance and develop wisdom; it can resolve their problems once and for all and lead them to the final liberation and nibbā na, the eternal happiness. Meditation can be considered as the heart of applied Buddhism, letting human beings understand the cause of sufferings in the true sense of the term through intellect.

Methods of meditation taught in the Pāli Buddhist tradition are based on the Buddha's own experiece, forged by him in the course of his own quest for enlightenment. There are diversity of techniques of meditation which are taught differently to different kinds of people, but its purpose and procedure is the same for all: it produces the purity of mind and clarity of vision needed for the liberating wisdom to arise. One of the most important aspects of 21

Buddhist meditation is a set of attainments called, in Pāli, the Jhānas, which are mentioned repeatedly in the scriptural texts of early Buddhism. The practice of Jhāna meditation aims at developing a calm, concentrated, unified state of consciousness as a means of experiencing inner peace for generating wisdom.

According to the exposition of canonical and comentaries, the word Jhā na has two meanings. One meaning is “to contemplate” (a given object) or “to examine closely” the characteristics of phenomenal existence; and the other means “to eliminate” the hindrances, or the lower mental elements, which are detrimental to higher progress.

In the book: “The path of serenity and insight”, Venerble Henepola Gunaratana explains about the etymology of Jhāna clearly. According to him, Jhāna (Skt. Dhyāna) was traced to two verbal forms by the great Buddhist commentator Bhadant ā cariya Buddhaghosa. One, the etymologically correct derivation, is the verb jhāyati , meaning to ‘think’ or to ‘meditate’. Buddhagosa explains it further and says: “By means of this yogins meditate, thus it is called Jhāna . The meaning is that they cognize a given object”. According to another derivation, the form comes from the verb jhā peti meaning “to burn up”, the reason being: “It burns up opposing states, thus it is called Jhāna .” The purport of this second account is that Jhāna “burns up” or destroys the mental defilements preventing the development of serenity and insight.4

In Buddhism, the meaning “Contemplation” or “Meditation” of Jhāna embraces not only that extensive system of mental development, but also the

4 Henepola Gunaratana, The Path of Serenity and Insight, Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Private Limited, 2009, p.7.

process of transmitting the lower state of consiousness into the higher states, from the form-worlds, through the worlds of the formless, to the summit of progress in religious traning. Therefore, the term ”Jhāna" is to be understood in a collective sense as the progress of mind from its initial transition from a lower to a higher state, and the mental image taken from an external object which burns the defilements of the mind whereby the meditator experiences supernormal consciousness in the intensity of Samādhi.

The practice of Jh ā na, also called serenity-meditation, aims at developing a calm, concentrated, unified state of consciousness as a means of experiencing inner peace and generating wisdom. The result of that is a set of meditative attainments called the four Jhānas. The Jhānas themselves are states of deep mental unification characterized by a total immersion of the mind in its objects. They result from the centering of the mind upon a single object with such a degree of attention that the discursive activity of thought is slowed down and eventually stopped. The members of the fourfold set of Jhā nas are named simply after their numerical position in the series: the first Jhā na, the second Jhāna, the third Jhāna, and the fourth Jhāna . All the four of them appear repeatedly in the suttas described by a stock formula showing their process of attainment:

"And when a monk knows that the five hindrances have left him, gladness arises in him, from gladness comes delight, from the delight in his mind his body is tranquillise, with a tranquil body he feels joy, and with joy his mind is concentrated. Being thus detached from sen-desires, detached from unwholesome states, he enters and remains in the first jhāna, which is with thinking and pondering, born of detachment, filled with delight and joy.

Again, a monk, with the subsiding of thinking and pondering, by gaining inner tranquillity and oneness of mind, enters and remains in the second jhāna, which is without thinking and pondering, born of concentration, filled with delight and joy.

Again, a monk with the fading away of delight remains imperturbable, mindful and clearly aware, and experiences in himself that joy of which the Noble One says: "Happy is he who dwells with equanimity and mindfulness", and he enters and remains in the third jhāna.

Again, a monk, having given up pleasure and pain, and with the disappearance of former gladness and sadness, enters and remains in the fourth jhāna which is beyond pleasure and pain, purified by equanimity and mindfulness."5

To attain the Jhānas, as the passage shows, the meditator must begin by eliminating the unwholesome mental states obstructing inner collectedness. These are generally grouped together as the five hinderances: sensual desire, ill will, sloth and torpor, restlessness and worry, and doubt. The mind's absorption on its object is brought about by five opposing mental states – applied thought, sustained thought, rapture, happiness and one-pointedness of mind called the Jhāna factors because they lift the mind to the level of the first Jhāna and remain there as its defining components.

After reaching the first Jhāna, the ardent meditator can go on to reach the higher Jhānas. This is done by eliminating the coarser factors in each Jhā na, those who remain being in each case as mentioned above the defining

5 Maurice Walshe (tr.), The Long Discourses of The Buddha, Dīgha Nikāya, United States of America: Wisdom Publications, 1995, pp. 102, 103. 24

factors of the successive Jhānas. In this way the meditator can move from the first Jhāna up to the fourth.

It is to be noted here that whereas the suttas arrange the Jhānas into a fourfold system, the texts of the Abhidhammapiṭaka arrange them in two ways – it presents the systems as fourfold and fivefold as well as fivefold system. The fourfold presentation of Jhāna becomes fivefold through the division of applied thought (vitakka) and sustained thought (vicāra). In the fivefold system the factorial constitution of the five Jhānas is as follows:

First Jhāna : applied thought, sustained though, rapture, happiness, one-pointedness. Second Jhāna : sustained thought, rapture, happiness, one-pointedness. Third Jhāna: rapture, happiness, one-pointedness. Fourth Jhāna : happiness, one-pointedness. Fifth Jhāna : neither painful nor pleasant feeling, one-pointedness.6

In following the fivefold system, a meditator, who has mastered the first Jhāna and aspires to go higher, reviews its factors and finds only applied thought to be gross. Thus he endeavors to eliminate only applied thought, and attains a second Jhāna which is devoid of applied thought but still associated with sustained thought. This second jhāna of the fivefold scheme is the addition which is not present in the fourfold scheme. After mastering the second Jh ā na, the meditator finds sustained thought to be gross, so he eliminates it and attains the third Jhāna which is identical with the second Jhāna of the fourfold system. The fourth and fifth Jhānas of the fivefold system are the same as the third and fourth Jhānas of the fourfold system, respectively.

6Nārada Mahā Thera, Manual of Abhidhamma, Malaysia: Buddhist Missionary Society, 1987, p. 44. 25

Two meditators of the respective fourfold and fivefold systems can be compared to the two mountain climbers. The position of both mountain climbers is the same when they start at the bottom and when they reach the top of the mountain. The difference is only in their rates of progress and in the number of stops they have to make to arrive at the top. Similarly, the first Jhāna and the final achievement of two meditators are the same. But the follower of the fivefold system has made an additional stop that is to be passed over by the follower of the fourfold system. This stop is added in the second Jhāna of the fivefold system, that is that it is free from the applied thought, but it has the sustained thought.

Beyond the four Jhānas lie four higher attainments in the scale of mental unification. In the suttas these are referred to as the four ārupas, "immaterial state", or as the "peaceful immaterial liberations transcending material form". In the commentaries, they are called immaterial Jhānas (arū pajjhānāni); However, the lower four attainments are the four fine material Jh ānas (rūpajjhānāni) or simply the four Jhānas. The immaterial Jhānas are individually designated, not by numerical names like their predecessors, but by the names of their objective sphere: the base of boundless space, the base of boundless consciouness, the base of nothingness, and the base of neither perception nor non-perception. They receive the designation "formless" or "immaterial" for two reasons: (1) because they are achieved by surmounting all perceptions of material form (rūpa), even of the subtle material form of the counterpart sign which serves as the object for the fine material Jhānas; and (2) because they are the subjective counterparts of the immaterial planes of existence. The two sets material Jhānas and immaterial Jhānas are often joined together under the collective titles of the eight Jhānas or the eight attainments.

So far is the concept of Pure Land as mentioned in the Theravāda tradition. Now we would like to deal with the same concept according to Pure Land tradition.

II.2. THE CONCEPT OF PURE LAND IN PURE LAND TRADITION

II.2.1. Origin and development of Pure Land Buddhism in India and China

Pure Land Buddhism has a long history of development. Kenneth K. Tanaka remarks that: “According to archaeology, the sencond century stone foundations for an Amitābha image dated 104 C.E. from Mathurā comprise the only nonliterary trace of exclusive Amitābha devotion.”7 This testifies the existence of Amitābha Buddha worship even before that time. Thus, it may be said that Pure Land Buddhism originated between around 100 B.C.E. and 100 C.E. in northwest India 8 , in Gandhara region, northern Pakistan and Eastern Afghanistan. After that, Pure Land Buddhism spread into China and became prominent there. Gradually, it became popular in Japan, Korea, Taiwan and Vietnam.

Before the composition of the Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra, there were the worshippers of Śākyamuni, the worshipers of Akṣobhya, the worshipers of Amitābha and so on, among them there were conflicts with regard to their beliefs and thoughts, and finally, the Pure Land of Amitābha became the most longed for by Northern Buddhists. In the Buddhāvatamsaka-Sūtra the Pure Land of Amitābha was regarded as the most inferior one among many Pure Lands. It means that Pure Land was thought to be the most accessible plane

7 Kenneth K. Tanaka, The Dawn of Chinese Pure Land Buddhist Doctrine, Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 1995, p.3. 8 Carl Olson, Original Buddhist Sources, New Delhi: Heritage Publishers, 2007, p.189. 27

to common people. The tendency to suppose the existence of a happier land in the western direction is a religious belief which can be noticed among primitive tribes, and Pure Land Buddhism must have shared it.

The Jataka-like legend of Dharmākara is supposed to have originated somewhere in the district near Gandhāra under the reign of the Kuṣāna dynasty. While he was a monk, Dharmākara, maintained the original vows (pūrvapraṇidhāna) to establish Pure Land.

The idea of the original vows can be traced in early Buddhism. When Pure Land Buddhism appears for the first time, the consciousness of crisis that they were living in the age of moral degeneration was very strong among the followers of Pure Land Buddhism.

In India, in the early time, the worship of Amitābha Buddha was closely connected with stūpa worship, but in later days both came to be be seperated. That is why there are few references to stūpa worship in Pure Land Sūtras. However, the historical fact is that the worship of this Buddha was widely prevalent in India. It is likely that early Pure Land Buddhism appeared from among the orders of laymen. The idea that Amitābha receives his belivers had its origin in Pāli literature.9 At that time, Pure Land Buddhism was only an aspect of other schools, whereas in China and Japan it was one of the great Buddhist schools and flourished independently. Buddha in Pure Land Buddhism had two names: Amitāyus and Amitābha from very early days. But the appelation “Amitābha” appeared earlier than the appelation “Amitāyus”, and later it was associated with the strong of Dharmākara in his previous existence. The traditional philosophical explanation of both the

9 Hajime Nakamura, Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Bibliography Notes, Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass Publisher Ltd., Delhi, 2007, pp. 201, 202. 28

epithets is as follows: Since the wisdom of emptiness pervades the whole atmosphere and reaches the dharma-spheres in the ten directions without limitation, it is called the infinite light. The great compassion that develops infinitely in the infinite course of history of human kind is called the infinite life. This Buddha had other various names also.

Especially, the worship of Amitābha Buddha is also mentioned in a great number of Mah ā y ā na S ū tras and discourses composed in India. According to Kotatsu Fujita, the number of such scriptures that exist in Sanskrit is 31, and the number of scriptures that are translated into Chinese is 290.10 But later the teachings of the Pure Land (or the Pure Realm) as the Buddha-land of Amit ā bha Buddha are mainly based on the following scriptures:

1. The Smaller Sukhāvativyūha- Sūtra (The smaller Pure Land Sūtra)

2. The Larger Sukhāvativyūha- Sūtra (The larger Pure Land Sūtra)

3. The Amitāyurdhyāna- Sūtra

They are called the “Three Pure Land Sūtras”; the larger Sukhāvativyū ha- Sūtra was composed between 100 B.C. and 100 A.D11, the smaller Sukhā vativyūha- Sūtra was composed around the first century B.C12. Also related to the Pure Land tradition is the Praryutpannabuddha Sammukhāvasthila

10 Hisao Inagaki, Tan’s Luan’s Commentary on Vasubandhu’s Discourse on the Pure Land, Ryukoku University, Nagata Bunshoda Kyoto Publisher, 1998, p.209. 11 Hajime Nakamura, Op.Cit., p.205. 12Ibid., p.204. 29

Samādhi Sūtra, which describes the practice of reciting the name of Amitābha Buddha as a method of meditation.

In India, Nāgārjuna (c.150-250), the founder of Mādhyamika school and Vasubandhu (c. 320-400), the co-founder of the Yogācāra school are known as advocates for the practice of Pure Land Buddhism. In the Daśabhū mika vibhāsā (commentary on the Daśabhūmika Sūtra portion) of the Avataṃ saka Sūtra, Nāgārjuna puts forth the two paths of difficult and easy praxis, lists the vows of Amitābha Buddha, recommends the Land of Peace as a spiritual goal, he also mentions the practice of keeping in mind the image of Amitābha Buddha and visualizing Him. This practice is not based upon the aforementioned Three Pure Land Sūtras, but it is rather upon another early Mahāyāna Sūtra called the Pratyutpanna Samadhi Sutra (Sutra on the Meditation to Behold the Buddhas). And the “Discourse on the Pure Land” of Vasubandhu emphasizes the visualization of Amitābha Buddha, the merit contained in his name, and the saving power of his 18th vow.

After that, the Pure Land faith gradually spread in China from the later half of the 3rd century. The progenitor of this cult is Hui-yuan (334-416 A.D), in 402 he formed a religious group called Pai-lien-she on Lu Moutain and practised meditation on Buddha Amitābha (buddhāsmṛti-Samādhi) together with the members of the group.13 So Master Hui-Yuan is regarded as the first patriarch of Pure Land shool in China. After Hui- Yuan, Pure Land school has been transmited to the following patriarchs: T’an-Luan (476-542), Tao-Cho (562-645), Shan-Tao (613-681), T'zu-Min (680-748), Fa-Chao (766-822), Yung-Ming (904-975), Sheng-Chang (959-1020), Lian-Chi (1532-1612), Zhi- Xu (1598-1655), Xing-Ce (1627-1682), Shi-Xian (1686-1734), Ji-Xing (1741-

13 G.P. Malalasekera (ed.), Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Ceylon: The Department of Buddhist Affairs Ministry of Buddhasasana, 1997, p. 454. 30

1810), Yin-Quang (1861-1941). The Pure Land school is still popular in other countries such as Taiwan, North Korea and Vietnam today. Among these patriarchs, Shantao is considered as the greatest master by Chinese and Japanese Pure Land followers because of his doctrinal systematization and propogation in Pure Land Buddhism. So Pure Land Buddhism originated in India, but it was not much popular at this land. However, when Pure Land Buddhism was spread into other countries such as China, Japan, Vietnam etc, it has become one of the most important Buddhist schools in these countries with lots of great patriarchs and followers.

II.2.2.The Main Pure Land Sūtras

The teachings of the founders of any religion are considered to be the backbone if that religion; Buddhism also has a great tradition of teachings. After the Mahaparinibbāna of the Lord Buddha, his teachings were kept by oral transmission with many repetitions, standardized phrases, and poetic rhythms through many Buddhist generations. After that, when Buddhist monks got worried that the teachings of the Buddha would be forgotten and led to disappearance, they started writing down Buddhavacana or the word of Buddha. The Theravāda Pāli scriptures were first written in the year 80 BCE.14 And when the movement which became known as the Mahāyāna arose some time between 150 BC and 100 AD,15 they also had lots of sūtras written down in Sanskrit. In the early days, Mahāyāna had three main ingredients. Firstly, a wholeheart adoption of the Bodhisattva-path, which various early schools had outlined. Secondly, a new cosmology arising from

14 Sangharakshita, A Survey of Buddhism, Its Doctrines and Methods Through The Ages, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, 2006, p. 363. 15 Peter Harvey, An Introduction To Buddhism, Teaching, History And Practice, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005, p.89. 31

practices devoutly directed at the Buddha as glorified, transcendent being. Thirdly, a new perspective on Abhidharma derived from meditative insight into the deep “emptiness” of phenomena that led to a new philosophical outlook. As sacred texts of Mahāyāna Buddhism, the Pure Land Sūtras share with other texts of the same tradition believed to be associated with the same form of Buddhism. They are texts about extraordinary being who possess wisdom, knowledge and extraordinary powers. These are the Buddhas who have attained supreme enlightment. There are many scriptures and translations about Sukhāvatī or the Land of Amitābha Buddha, but the most important scriptures recognized are three Sūtras - The smaller and larger Sukhāvativyūha- sūtras and The Amitāyurdhyāna- sūtra.

The Tathāgata Sākyamuni, illuminator of the Dharma, preached the Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra on Gridhrakūta in Rājagṛha; He preached The Kuan-Wu-Liang-Shou-Fo-Ching or The Kuan-ching (The Amitāyurdhyāna- s ūtra) in the palace of King Bimbisāra in Rājagṛha, and he preached the Smaller Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra at the Jetavana monastery in Srāvastī.16

In The Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtras, the Buddha is called ‘Amitābha’ – Infinite Light – because his light is immeasurable, illuminating myriads of Buddha Fields in every direction with its radiance. Later, Pure Land provided and exegesis that is to say the Infinite Light of Amitābha Buddha is in fact a reference to his infinite wisdom, his all illuminating and infinite omniscience. He is also called ‘Amitāyus' – Infinite Life – because his life is immeasurable, lasting for innumerable aeons. He remains for the benefit of sentient beings, constantly helping them in many different ways. Thus, responding to his

16 Mark L. Blum, The Origin and Development of Pure Land Buddhism, New York: Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 165. 32

infinite light as wisdom, Pure Land scholars refer to Amitābha’s infinite life as an expression of his boundless compassion.

Furthermore, the first two Pure Land Sūtras lead us to a vision of the paradise of the Amitābha Buddha. This is a distant world system (lokadhātu) called Sukhāvatī (Sukhāvatī or “blissful” – hence the free rendering “Land of Bliss”). The second part of the title of the sūtras, “vyūha”, refer to the “magnificent display”, narrative as well as visual, or the wonderous qualities of that Land. Thus, the complete title of both texts, Sukhāvatī-vyūha Sūtra, means "The Sūtra on the Display of the World of Bliss” or “The Sūtra on the Displaying the World of Bliss”.17

There are many controversies about the chronology of The Amitābha S ūtras. It is unclear which of the two Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtras is the earliest. The Larger Sukhāvatīvyuha Sūtra is said to have been translated first into Chinese during the second century CE, although the version most freqently used to day by the Pure Land traditions is that attributed to Saṅghavarman and said to have been translated in 252.18 This attribution now looks unlikely. Either way, however, it seems to be a little doubtful that the Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra is an old Sūtra, dating from before the end of the second century. Japanese scholars suggest that it may have originated among monks of the Mahīsāsaka school in Gandhāra during the Kuṣāṇa period, possibly influenced by the Lokottaravāda tradition, and like the stylistically similar Akṣobhyavyūha it was probably originally in the Gāndhārī language of an other Prakrit similar to it. It is likely that the original of the Larger Sukhāvatī-vyūha brought to

17 Luis O. Gōmez, The Land of Bliss, The Paradise of the Buddha of Measureless light, Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Private Limited, 2002, p.3. 18 Paul Williams, Mahāyāna Buddhism, The Doctrinal Foundation, London and New York: Routledge, 2002, p. 252. 33

China by Saṅghavarman and his Chinese translation of this sūtra evidences some traits of Gāndhārī and the fact that Kharoṣṭhī manuscripts existed in China in that period will also support this supposition.19

The Chinese version of The Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra now read most frequently is generally considered to have been done by Saṅghavarman, but it is said that the real was Sangharakṣa. Scholars and specialists in doctrine have also used for their doctrinal pronouncements other Chinese translations of the Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra (of which only five, including Sanghavarman’s survive to this day). Of the other four surviving translations, two have often been used by traditional interpreters as critical checks on Sanghavarman's version. The oldest of these is the translation attributed to Zhi Loujiachen (167-186 C.E.), which is accepted for its putative antiquity. The younger of these two translation is the version by Bodhiruchi (Bodhiruci, 693-713 C.E.), valued for its clarity.20

The Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra is known as “The larger Sūtra” (Dajing in Chinese), or “the Sūtra on the Buddha of Infinite (measureless) life. Of the several versions of this Sūtra, the one by Bodhiruci represents the latest pattern. There are tremendous discrepancies between the Sanskrit original and the Chinese versions. It is supposed by some scholars that a large number of passages were inserted by translators in the Chinese versions. For example, some scholars believe that the passages of the Five Evil was added in China, whereas others reject this supposition. At any rate several versions are different from each other to a fairly large extent.

19 Hajime Nakamura, Op.cit., p. 205. 20 Luis O. Gōmez, Op.cit., p. 126.

The Larger Sutra starts with Śākyamuni Buddha answering Ananda's question after he perceived the Buddha's extreme delight, "Why did the World Honored One present this august radiance?" Then Śākyamuni Buddha told Ananda the story of the Bodhisattva Dharmakara.

According to the story, the Bodhisattva Dharmakara, from his great compassion, vowed to establish a land of bliss where all sentient beings could be born, away from all kinds of afflictions, and finally attain Buddhahood in one lifetime. In the story, the Bodhisattva Dharmakara, after eons of practice and efforts, realized enlightenment and established a pure land based on his vow-power. The Sūtra describes the characteristics of Amitābha Buddha, such as his infinite life and radiant light, and the splendor of his land, the Land of Bliss, where all beings are born in lotus flowers and the trees, the water, and the music preach the Dharma to help the inhabitants attain enlightenment. The Sūtra also teaches that there are three types of practitioners who desire to be reborn in the Pure Land: persons of superior faith, of middle faith, and of inferior faith. No matter what level of faith they have, they will resolve to attain unsurpassable awakening (bodhicitta), and exclusively bring to mind the Buddha of Measureless Life.

The forty-eight vows of Amitābha Buddha can be seen as the core of the Sūtra. Without these vows, Dharmakara could not create the Pure Land. In addition, these vows have become the basis for the later development of Pure Land Buddhism. "Particularly those Vows which declared the nature of the Buddha, the way of salvation, and the future destiny of believers become of paramount importance in the doctrinal systems of later teachers.21

21 Wei, Tao, Pure Mind, Pure Land: A Brief Study of Modern Chinese Pure Land Thought and Movements, Quebec, Canada: McGill University, 2007, p. 9. 35

For example, in the eighteenth vow, the Bodhisattva Dharmākara says:

“May I not gain possession of perfect awakening if, once I have attained Buddhahood, any among the throng of living beings in the ten regions of the universe should single-mindedly desire to be reborn in my land with joy, with confidence, and gladness, and if they should bring to mind this aspiration for even ten moments of though and yet not gain rebirth there. This excludes only those who have committed the five heinous sins and those who have reviled the True Dharma.”22

It can be said that this is the best vow of the Bodhisattva Dharmākara. It means that those who belive in Amitābha and sincerely wish to be born in his Pure Land need to repeat the name of Amitābha, or think of him only ten times and they will be reborn there – provided they have not committed any of the five great crimes of murdering father or mother, or an Arahan, harming a Buddha, or causing schism in the Saṅgha, or have slandered the Dharma. Furthermore, there are the list of forty eight great vows of Bodhisattva Dharm ākara such as at the time of death Amitābha Buddha will appear, together with a heavenly host, to save his followers, who have awakened Bodhicitta and practised merit, and who is wishing to be reborn in the Pure Land, Sukhā vatī (vow 19th); or all those who hear the name of Amitābha Buddha and sincerely wish to be reborn in the Pure Land, directing their merits towards such a birth, will indeed be reborn there (vow 20th), etc. Moreover, if Bodhisattvas from elsewhere wish to be reborn in Sukhāvatī they thus enter the state of “one more birth”, which is to say that they require only one more rebirth, apparently the birth into Sukhāvatī, before attaining enlightenment. In other words, they will attain enlightenment in that Pure Land – always supporting, the sūtra adds, that such is what they want. If they desire, out of

22 Luis O. Gōmez, Op.cit., p. 167. 36

compassion, to be continually reborn in order to help other sentient beings in such a manner, then they can continue to do so.

The second Pure Land Sūtra is the The Smaller Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra. The Smaller Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra was first translated into Chinese by Kumā rajiva in about 402 CE. This text is known as the “Amita Sūtra” (Amituo-jing in Chinese) or simply “The Small Sūtra” (Xiaojing).23 Its brevity and the elegance of its prose have made this text a much-loved classic, widely used for devotional purposes. Even now one can hear daily recitations of the whole text in many temples in China, Taiwan, Korea, Vietnam, Japan, and North and South America. Actually, Western scholars generally accept the Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha as the older of the two Sūtras, although a case can be made for the greater antiquity of the Smaller Sukhāvatīvyūha. In Japan it is indeed held that the Smaller Sukhāvatīvyūha is the older of the two Sūtras, and it has even been suggested that the original form of this sūtra may be as old as the first century BCE. This would identify some form of Pure Land teaching with one of the earliest recognizable streams of Sūtras Buddhism.

The priciple concern of the Smaller Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra is to describe the Pure Land of Sukhāvatī (a description which does not tally completely with that of the Lager Sūtra) and give further elucidation of the means to attain such a favourable rebirth. In that Pure land all is contingent upon the need for spiritual growth. The birds of Sukhāvatī, the result of Amitābha Buddha’s great power, all proclaim the Dharma, as do the trees when gently stirred in the soft breeze. The particular instrument of rebirth in Sukhāvatī is said by Śākyamuni Buddha as follows:

23 Luis O. Gōmez, ibid., p.126. 37

"No, whatever son or daughter of a family shall hear the name of the blessed Amitāyus, the Tathāgata, and having heard it, shall keep it in mind for one, two, three, four, five, six or seven nights, - when that son or daughte of a family comes to die, when that Amitāyus, the Tathāgata, surrounded by an assembly of disciples and followed by a host of Bodhisattvas, will stand before them at their hour of death, and they will depart this life with tranquil minds. After their death they will be born in the world of Sukhāvatī, in the Buddha country of the same Amitāyus, the Tathāgata. Therefore, then, O Sāriputra, having perceived this cause and effect, I wish reverence say thus, every son and every daughter of a family ought with their whole mind to make fervent prayer for that Buddha country."24

It means that any good human being who believes in Amitābha Buddha and Sukhāvatī, should be holding in mind the name of Amitābha Buddha with undistracted thought for a day, or up to seven days. Thereupon Amitābha Buddha will appear at the time of death, and the practitioner will get to Sukhāvatī.

The third Pure Land Sūtra is The Amitāyurdhyāna-sūtra. The Amitāyurdhyāna-sūtra is one of the most cherished scriptures of the Pure Land Buddhism. This sūtra has been known in the West for approximately one-hundred years under the title “The Meditation Sūtra” – more recently as “The Visualization Sūtra”. An unanimous tradition holds that the this sūtra was translated into Chinese by a monk from the western regions named Kalayashas, between 424 and 442 C.E,25 it was called The Kuan-Wu-Liang-

24 F Max Muller, Op.Cit., p.99. 25 Julian Pas, Visions of Shukhāvatī, Shan-dao Commentary on The Kuan Wu-Liang-Shou-Fo-Ching, State University of New York Press, United States of America, 1995, p. 36. 38

Shou-Fo-Ching or Kuan-Ching in Chinese. The Amitāyurdhyāna-sūtra is one of a series of Sūtras concerned with the visualization of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas which were translated into Chinese about the same time, and were probably composed during the preceding century.26 Although there is the total lack of any Sanskrit manuscript and the absence of a Tibetan version, scholars are now inclined to see the Amitāyurdhyāna sūtra as a text from either Central Asia or from China itself. Other scholars, on the other hand, has pointed out that almost all the translators of these visualization sūtras have some connection with the area around Kashmir, and it is possible that the Sū tras themselves were composed in that area, or nearby region of Central Asia.27 Against the theory that the Amitāyurdhyāna sūtra was composed in either Central Asia or China, it is asserted that the contemplation on the place acquired by the merits of pure act derived from the traditional attitude of contemplation in India.28

As a text The Amitāyurdhyāna-sūtra concentrates less on rebirth in the Pure Land than on buddhānusmṛti (recite) or practices of visualizing Amitā bha Buddha and His Pure Land. It is a teaching given by Sākyamuni Buddha to Queen Vaidehī, who had been imprisoned by her wicked son Ajātasatru. The dramatic situation arises out of the sufferings of Queen Vaidehī: "My only wish is for the World Honored One to extensively describe for me a place where I might be reborn, that is without distress…".29 The Buddha, with full of compassion, explained that Amitābha Buddha is not very far away, and

26 Paul Williams, Op.Cit., p. 255. 27 Ibid, p.255. 28 Hajime Nakamura, Op.Cit., p. 208. 29 The Visualization of the Buddha of Infinite Life Span Sūtra, (T365.12.340c-346b), Tr.Charles Patton, 1999, p.8. 39

taught her a series of sixteen processes of visualizations in order to be reborn in the Sukhāvatī. While meditating, one has to visualize things as follows:

1. The setting sun 9. The body of Amit ā bha Buddha 2. Water 10. The Land 3. The jewel trees 11. The Bodies of Water 4. Sukhāvatī’s trees, land, and lakes 12. The lotus seat 5. The three sages 13. Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara 6. Bodhisattva Mahāsthāmaprāpta 14. The Amit ā bha Buddha's world of Sukhāvatī 7. The three sages of the world of Sukhāvatī 15. The superior rank of those who are reborn 8. The average rank of those who are reborn 16. The inferior rank of those who are reborn.

The text also continues with even the lowest person can attain rebirth in Sukhāvatī. Even someone who has committed the five worst deeds may just before death meet a “good dharma friend” who will teach of the Buddha. Even if the miscreant cannnot think of Amitābha Buddha, he or she may call on his name ten times; this will eradicate immense misdeeds, and he will be reborn inside a lotus in Sukhāvatī, staying there for twelve aeons. The lotus will then open, our reformed miscreant will behold Avalokitesvara and Mahā sthānaprāpta, and they will teach him the doctrine, then he will consequently develop bodhicitta. Only by listening to the names of Amitābha Buddha and his two Bodhisattvas, can one eradicate many misdeeds, let alone remembering and reciting their names.

To sump up, the three Pure Land Sūtras constitutes the teachings of Mahāyāna Buddhism. They are considered to be sacred revelations and words of the ŚākyamuniBuddha. They were committed to memory by the disciple of the ŚākyamuniBuddha, Ānanda. The Pure Land sūtras tell about the Jātaka 40

stories of Amitābha Buddha. To mention one the stories from them is that the Dharmākara Bodhisattva had 48 vows to save all human beings. The Pure Land sūtras also describe the Land of Bliss, where the inhabitants do not even know the words “evil” and “suffering”, where they can also upgrade their bodhicittas and become Buddhas. Particularly, the Pure Land sūtras also teach human beings the ways to practice in order to be saved by Amitābha Buddha at the time of death as well as to be reborn in His Sukhāvatī after their death, and the ways that are suitable to practice for everyone, from the wickedest sinner to a moral follower. If we have the faith in Amitābha Buddha and Sukhāvatī as well, at the time of death, we can recite His name even only ten times with undistracted mind, and that can suffice our getting rebirh in Sukhāvatī by the compassion of Amitābha Buddha. Especially, one of the most important natures in Pure Land Buddhism is the deep faith of the followers in Amitābha Buddha and His teachings, we can keep practicing his name, and as a consequence of which, we will have the pure and tranquil state of mind, the most important thing emphasized in Pure Land sūtras.

II.2.3. Nagārjuna's and Vasubandhu's View of Pure Land

II.2.3.1. Nagārjuna's View Of Pure Land

Nāgārjuna was considered as the founder of the Mādhyamika school. Nāgārjuna (c.150-250), respected to be the greatest Mahāyāna master, was also considered as a Pure Land patriarch. Having been born in a Brahmin family, Nāgārjuna became well-versed in the four Vedas and mastered other scriptures. Having been ordained as a monk, he learnt Theravāda teachings, and later studied Mahāyāna scriptures. Under the royal patronage of the Sātav āhana dynasty in Southern India, he extensively propagated Mahāyāna. 41

Nāgārjuna left many works, including commentaries on the Prajñāpā ramitā Sūtra and Daśabhūmika Sūtra. His most celebrated work, Verses on the Middle (Mādhyamika-kārikā), became the fundamental text of the school of the Middle Path (Mādhyamika). According to him, all things are produced by causes and conditions and so are devoid of substantiality, that is, void. He negated all possible propositions regarding existence and non-existence and established that the ultimate truth lies in the Middle.

It is important to note that Nāgārjuna was not a mere Mahāyāna logician or philosopher but was, first and foremost, a serious practitioner of the Mahāyāna Path. In the "Discourse on the Ten Stages", Nagārjuna often refers to the Pratyutpanna-Samādhi Sūtra and urges the practice of this Samā dhi. Here we also know that the essential part of the method of attaining this Samādhi is to call Amitābha Buddha's name, as mentioned in this discourse:

"If this person practises meditation while being mindful of Amitābha Buddha's name, he will perceive his forms. When he perceives the Buddha's forms in meditation, he will have extraordinary pleasure in his body. It should be known that he attains the Pratyutpanna Samādhi. Because he attains it, he will visualize all Buddhas."30

The Pratyutpanna-Samādhi Sūtra explains that calling the Buddha's name, being mindful of him, observing the five precepts, walking round (the Buddha's statue) without rest for three months, constructing Buddha's statue etc., are the effective methods of attaining the Pratyutpanna Samādhi. Here we find a close connection between this Samādhi practice and stūpas. We can imagine practioners walking round the Buddha's statue in a stūpa while being mindful of the Buddha and calling his name. In China, Master Hui-Yuan

30 Hisao Inagaki, Op.Cit., p. 51. 42

formed an association to practice the Pratyutpanna Samādhi on Mt. Lu and Master T'ien-T'ai or Chih-I (538-597) systematized it as one of the four Samā dhis, called "Constant Walking Samādhi". Master Shan-dao (613- 681) composed "Verses in Praise of the Pratyutpanna Samādhi" and wrote Method of Meditation on Amitābha Buddha based on this Sūtra. In India this Samādhi seems to have been practised extensively. When Nāgārjuna encouraged this Samādhi practice, he emphasized that it would bring about the reward of attaining the Stage of Non-retrogression which is the first major step towards realizing enlightenment.

Furthermore, the chapter nine of the Discourse on the Ten Stages presents an easy way of attaining the Sage of Non-retrogression. Nāgārjuna first distinguishes two ways of reaching this stage: one is the conventional Bodhisattva Path in which one must perform many difficult practices for a long time over many lives and the other is the Path of Easy Practice which consists in chanting the names of Buddhas and Great Bodhisattvas with deep faith. The former is not only difficult but also accompanied by the danger of falling into the stages of ś r ā vakas and pratyekabuddhas. Chanting the Buddha's names was part of the practices leading to the Pratyutpanna Samā dhi; now it is amplified and treated as the cause of reaching the Stage of Non- retrogression. In this chapter, Nāgārjuna especially quotes Amitābha's Vow: "If anyone contemplates me, recites my name, and takes refuge in me, he will instantly enter the Stage of Assurance and subsequently attain the highest, perfect Bodhi."

Though there is no exactly corresponding vow in the extant versions of the Larger Sūtra, it is clear that the contents of this quotation comes from the Larger Sūtra. Immediately after this quotation, Nāgārjuna praises Amitābha's virtues and professes his sincere devotion to him. From this fact alone, we can 43

call him a Pure Land Master, but since he is the founder of the Mādhyamika school and often refers to the voidness theory in the Discourse on the Ten Stages, we may well call him "a Mādhyamika- Pure Land master".

II.2.3.2. Vasubandhu's View Of The Pure Land

Vasubandhu (c. 320-400) was born in Puruṣapura in Northern India as the second son of a Kauśika Brahmin family. His brother Asaṅga was one of the founders of Yogācāra school. Vasubandhu was first ordained as a monk of the Sarv ā stiv ā da school, and became well-versed in the Abhidharma metaphysics. He composed the Abhidharma-ko ś a (Discourse on the Repository of Abhidharma Discussions), thereby systematizing the Abhidharma doctrine. Later, after he was converted to Mahāyāna through Asaṅga's guidance, he became a great Yogācāra master. His Thrity Verses on the concept of consciousness was the basic text that became very popular in India and China.

Vasubandhu's Discourse on the Pure Land on which T'an-luan later wrote a commentary is the first systematic presentation of the Pure Land teachings in India. This work centres on contemplation of Amitābha Buddha and His Pure Land. This text was translated by Bodhiruci in 529 or 531. The text that was translated in Chinese is: Verses of Aspiration for Birth: an Upadeśa on the Amitāyus Sūtras. The first part of the text contents twenty four stanzas and the second part contents their exposition.

The Amitāyus Sūtras in the title refer to the Larger Sūtra (Larger Sukhā vatīvyūha Sūtra) and the Smaller Sūtra (Smaller Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra), but no passage is quoted from these Sūtras. However, from the fact that these are

the only Sūtras which fully depict glorious features of the Pure Land and Amit ābha's virtues, we can conclude that Vasubandhu was primarily based on these two Sūtras. When he visualized the Pure Land and Amit ābha, he perceived Amitābha's Vow Power and in the explanatory section, he notes that all the manifestations of the Pure Land, etc, are adorned with Amitābha's Vow-Mind. The idea behind this clearly comes from the Larger Sūtra.

In his Yagācāra works Vasubandhu presented elaborate theories concerning the analysis of reality, the structure of universal manifestations from the Ā laya consciousness, and so on. As we can see from his Abhidharma-kośa and Thirty Verses on Consciousness-Only, the objects of contemplation and analysis in Vasubandhu's teachings were "dharmas" (elements). By intensive concentration (samatha) and observation (vipassanā), the practitioner cultivates wisdom and merits until his discriminating consciousness is overtuned to pure wisdom of insight. Vasubandhu's Discourse on the Pure Land is different. What distinguishes this from other discourses is, firstly, that he has shifted the objects of samatha and vipassanā to Amitābha Buddha and His Pure Land. Secondly, as the result of visualizing them, and so a feeling of sincere devotion to Amitābha Buddha arose in him. Thirdly, a new system of practice centering on visualization of Amitābha Buddha and the Pure Land, called Five Mindful Practices, is not divergent, from the Bodhisattva Path, but a quick way of reaching the highest, perfect Enlightenment, which is the final goal of all Bodhisattvas .

The Five Mindful Practices are the unique system of Yogācāra-Pure Land practices which Vasubandhu developed. The following chart shows the correspondence between the five practices which function as the cause and the five resultant states to be attained as the effect.

Five Mindful Practices and their results

1. Gate of worship…………. Gate of approach

2. Gate of praise…………… Gate of great assemblage

3. Gate of aspiration……… Gate of residence

4. Gate of contemplation… Gate of chamber

5. Gate of merit transference.. Gate of playing ground.31

From the first to the fourth gates are the process of advancement toward perfection of one's own benefit and the last is the saving activity, i.e. perfection of the benefit for others. By accomplishing all the five gates of practice, Bodhisattwas can realize Enlightenment.

(1) Gate of worship: At the beginning of the Verses Vasubandhu professes his devotion to Amitābha, saying "I take refuge in the Tathāgata of Unhindered Light". To take refuge is the act of worship. This is the initial bodily act to be done when one takes the Pure Land Path.

(2) Gate of praise: Amitābha is here glorified as "the Tathāgata of Unhindered Light Shining throughout the Ten Directions". This word of adoration most appropriately describes Amit ā bha's essential nature and activity. To call him by this name is the verbal act of glorifying his virtues as they are.

(3) Gate of aspiration: Vasubandhu next expresses his desire to be born in Amitābha's Pure Land, saying "aspire to be born in the Land of Peace and

31 Hisao Inagaki, Op.Cit., p. 60. 46

Bliss". His singleminded aspiration for rebirth there in the Pure Land corresponds to the Yogācāra practice of samatha - intensive meditation and concentration through which one controls passions and attains tranquility of mind.

(4) Gate of contemplation: Attainment of samatha leads one to contemplation of Amitābha and the Pure Land, which corresponds to vipassan ā. Vasubandhu distinguishes the objects of contemplation into three namely: the Pure Land, Amitābha and Bodhisattvas in the Pure Land, and he further divides them into twenty nine.

(5) Gate of merit-transference: By performing the above four practices, one can develop wisdom and accumulate merits, which are now turned over to other sentient beings to save them from Samsara. So this phase of practice coresponds to great compassion. When wisdom and compassion are fully realized, one reaches Enlightenment.

Above we have discussed Nāgārjuna's and Vasubandhu's view of Pure Land. Nāgārjuna, the founder of the Mādhyamika, the school of the Middle Path, professed in the Daśabhumika-vibhāsā, his devotion to Amitābha Buddha and recommended recitation of the names of Amitābha and other Buddhas and those of great Bodhisattvas as the easy and effective way of reaching the Stage of Non-retrogression. While encouraging the ordinary Bodhisattva practices, he often referred to the Pratyutpanna Samādhi as a link to the Pure Land. This way is also amply displayed in his Great Perfection of Wisdom Discourse. His contribution as an exponent of the doctrine of voidness is inestimably great, and his clarification of the presence of innumerable transcendent Buddhas, Amit ā bha in particular, has had the

greatest influence on the later development of Buddhism in India, China and Japan.

Meanwhile Vasubandhu, a great Yogācāra master, is well-known as the one who systematized the Consciousness-Only doctrine. He clarified the concept of Pure Land in a different way. In Buddhism, in general, and in Yogācāra, the samatha and vipassanā practices are usually applied to the investigation of dharmas for the realization of higher reality. Whereas Vasubandhu applied them to the contemplation of Amitābha and his Pure Land, that is the ultimate reality. In his Discourse on the Pure Land he presented the Five Mindful Practices for Bodhisattvas to follow, so that they could quickly attain rebirth in the Pure Land and eventually realize Enlightenment. Thus Nāgārjuna and Vasubandhu are considered to be the first and the second Pure Land patriarches of Pure Land Buddhism in India.

II.2.4. Amitābha Buddha And His Pure Land

II.2.4.1. Amitābha Buddha

Amita is the negative form of mita, it is derived from the root √mā which means to measure. Thus mita comes to mean measured. Amita therefore means "unmeasured, boundless, infinite". 32 So Amitāyus means Immeasurable Life (sometimes translated as Eternal Life), that is, Amitāyus Buddha enlightens all beings at all times; Amitābha means Immeasurable Light (sometimes translated as Eternal Light), that is, Amitābha Buddha enlightens all beings of all quaters. Eternal Life signifies compassion (karuṇā); Eternal Light signifies wisdom (prajñā). So karuṇā and prajñā is the essential nature of Amitāyus or Amitābha Buddha. The names reveal the two attributes

32 M. Monier Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass Publisher Ltd, 2002, p. 81c. 48

of the same Buddha expressed in his vow to enlighten all beings of all quarters at all time.

According to the Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha sūtra, Buddha is called "Amitā bha" - Infinite Light - because his light is immeasurable, illuminating myriads of Buddha fields in every direction with its radiance. Later Pure Land exegesis state that his Infinite Light is, in fact, a reference to his infinite wisdom, his all-illuminating and infinite omniscience. He is called "Amitā yus" - Infinite Life - because his life is immeasurable, lasting for innumerable aeons. He remains for the benefit of sentient beings, constanly helping them in many different ways. Thus, corresponding to his infinite light as wisdom, Pure Land scholars refer to Amitābha’s infinite life as an expression of his boundless compassion.

The Larger Sukhāvatīvyuha Sūtra tells of the Bodhisattva Dharmākara that he was a king, who in the presence of a previous Buddha, Lokeśvarāja, conceived and set his mind on a most marvellous Buddha Field, embodying all the virtues of myriads of other Buddha Fields, and exceeding them all. Dharmākara then made a series of vows that Bodhisattvas were wont to do in such circumtances.

The number of these vows differs from version to version, with forty- six in the Sanskrit sūtras, and forty-eight in the Saṅghavarman's translation, which forms of the basis of the Pure Land schools. Common to all of these vows, however, is the condition - "if this vow is not fulfilled, then may I not become a Fully Enlightened Buddha". Since the Bodhisattva Dharmākara is now none other than the Buddha Amitābha reigning in his Pure Land of Sukhā vatī in the West, we know that these conditions must indeed have been fulfilled.

Bodhisattva Dharmākara vows that all who are born in his Pure Land will never return to the lower realms. They will all remember their past lives, and have other miraculous abilities. They will firmly be placed in a state set to achieve enlightenment. Those, residing in his land, will have, if they wish, an unlimited lifespan (vow 15). Innumerable Buddhas will glorify the name of Amitābha Buddha and sincerely wish to be reborn in his Pure Land, And they need to repeat the name of Amitābha, or think of him, only ten times and they will be reborn there - provided they have not committed any of the five great crimes such as murdering once parents, or an Arhat, or harming a Buddha, or causing schism in the Saṅgha, or slandering the Dharma. At the time of death, Amitābha Buddha, together with heavenly hosts, will appear to save his followers, who have awakened Bodhicitta and practised merit, wishing to be reborn in the Pure Land, to Sukhāvatī (vow 19). All those who hear the name of Amitābha and sincerely wish to be reborn in the Pure Land, directing their merits towards such a birth, will indeed be reborn there (vow 20). Moreover if Bodhisattvas living eleswhere wish to be reborn in Sukhāvatī, they thus enter the state of "one more birth" which is to say that they require only one more rebirth, apparently the birth into Sukhāvatī, before attaining enlightenment. In other words, the sūtra adds, Bodhisattvas will attain enlightenment in the Pure Land whenever they want. However, because of their compassion, if Bodhisattvas desire, they will continually be reborn in order to help other sentient beings.

II.2.4.2. The Pure Land

The holy land of Amitābha Buddha is Sukhāvatī. Sukhāvatī is derived from sukha and it literally means "pleasure, agreeableness, gentleness, comfort, happiness" and Sukhāvatī means "the paradise or heaven of Amitā

bha" 33. In Chinese it is rendered ching-t'u or chi-lo, meaning Pure Land or extreme bliss (i.e., paradise). In general, Sukhāvatī refers to the Pure Land Paradise of Buddha Amitābha. The Smaller Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra completely describes the Pure Land of Sukhāvatī and give further elucidation of the means to attain such a favourable rebirth.

In the Smaller Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra, Śākyamuni Buddha said:

"Now, what do you think, Shariputra: Why is that world called the 'Land of Blisś? Shariputra, physical and mental pain are unknow to the living beings that inhabit the world called the 'Land of Bliss'; on the contrary, they only experience conditions of boundless happiness. This is why that world is called the 'Land of Bliss".34

The Śākyamuni Buddha continued:

"Furthermore, Shariputra, the world known as the Land of Bliss, is adorned and enclosed on every side by seven railings and seven rows of palm trees, all decked with nets of tinkling bells. It is made colorful and attractive by four precious substances, namely, gold, silver, emerald, and rock-crystal.

This is how that buddha-field is adorned, Shariputra, with such a panopli of the wondrous qualities of buddha-fields."

"Furthermore, Shariputra, in the world known as the Land of Bliss, there are lotus ponds, all made of seven precious substances, namely,

33 Ibid., pp. 1220c, 1221c. 34 Sanskrit and Chinese Versions of the Sukhāvatīvyūha Sutras, trans. Luis O. Gōmez, Delhi: Motilal Manarsidass Publishers Private Limited, 2002, p.16.

gold, silver, emerald, rock crystal, red pearl, sapphire, and mother of pearl as the seventh. These ponds are brimming with water that is cool, clear, sweet, light, soft, free from odor, free from disease, refreshing, and invigorating. In each of these ponds, the bottom slopes gently along the shore, so that the water reaches the right depth in every bathing spot and a crow could drink from the edge of the pond. The bottom of each pond is coverd with golden sand…"

Moreover, the seventeen merits of Buddha-land has been described as follows:

1. In meditating on the marks of that world [i.e., Pure Land], [we realize that] it surpasses the ways [gatis] of the three worlds. 2. Ultimately, it is broad and limitless, just like space. 3. The great compassion Mahā-karuṇā of the right path [i.e., the Pure Land Dharma] arises from wholesome roots [kuśala-mūla] which transcend the world [of saṃsāra]. 4. It is filled with pure light, just as the disc of a mirror or that of the sun and moon [are full of light]. 5. It is furnished with qualities of precious jewels and is all- complete with sublime glories. 6. Its undefiled [āmala or vimala] lights are vigorous and bright, illuminating and purifying the world [of saṃsāra]. 7. The grasses [which possess] the merits of jewel-like quality softly [spread] around us; when touched, they give rise to ecstasy beyond that of touching soft cloth [kācilindika]. 8. The jewel-flowers are of ten million kinds, covering ponds, streams, and springs: when a breeze moves the flowers and leaves, their light interlacing each other dances about. From the towers of the palace 52

[i.e., Pure Land], we can observe all quarter without obstruction: trees emit different lights [e.g., from a yellow flower-tree emits a red light] and jewel-railings surround [these trees]. [The light of] innumerable jewels blends. Indra ‘s net [made up of innumerable jewels] covers the entire sky; bells [hanging from every knot] ring, proclaiming the sound of the True Dharma. 9. It rains flower-robes, [making Pure Land] glorious; [their] innumerable incenses perfume all things.

10. The wisdom of the Buddha – the illuminating and purifying sun – climinates the world ‘s delusion, darkness, and ignorance. 11. The Sacred words [of this Land] enlighten [men] for they are profound; they are heard at all quarters, though faint and subtle they may be. 12. The supremely enlightened Amitāyus abides [in Pure Land] and [governs] it as the King of the Dharma. 13. The Boddhisattvas, the purifying flowers of the Tathāgata, are born from the [Tathāgata‘s] flower of supreme enlightenment. 14. They enjoy the flavor of the Buddha-dharma and nourish themselves with Dhyāna and Samādhi. 15. Having eternally severed their body and mind from defilements, they enjoy the pleasure [of Pure Land] without intermittence. 16. In the world [made up of] the wholesome roots of Mahāyāna [i.e., Pure Land], all are equal [Here,] objectionable designations do not exist: women and those with defective senses and those belonging to the lineage [gotra] of the two vehicles [of the Ś r ā vakas and Pratyekabuddhas] are not cause.

17. What is wished by men is all fulfilled. I therefore seek to be born in the Land of Amitāyus. 35

II.2.5. The Idea Of The Pure Land Is The Mind Itself

According to the Pure Land sūtras, Sukhāvatī Pure Land is a realm located to the west billions of Buddha lands, established by Amitābha Buddha. This realm is as a result of Amitābha Buddha's compassionate vows to lead all sentient beings to enlightenment. The sūtras depict Sukhāvatī in glorious splendor, describing the bejewelled ground, trees, lakes and palaces, where melodious music is heard, and where the majestic appearances of Amitābha (or Amitāyus) and his attendant Bodhisattvas can be seen. Appealing to both monks and laity alike, the sūtras exhort aspirants for rebirth in the Pure Land to get engaged in a broad range of practices like meditation, contemplation, following precepts, virtuous acts, and building of stūpas. Those who practices these methods will be reborn in the Pure Land. They will not return to lower spiritual levels and will realize the ultimate Mah ā y ā na goal of perfect enlightenment (saṃyaksambodhi).

Moreover, there are two ways, theoritical and practical, to understand of the Pure Land of Amitābha Buddha. From the theoritical point of view, based on the Pure Land Sūtras, Sukhāvatī is considered to be an independent realm outside of the mind. This metaphysical understanding is epitomized by the stock phrase: "There exists a realm called Sukhāvatī billions of Buddha lands to the west." It denotes a specific location in the universe where practitioners actually go to be reborn upon death. Sukhāvatī is just one of the millions of such lands that fill the universe in the ten directions, among which

35 Minoru Kiyota, Mahāyāna Buddhist Meditation: Theory and Practice, Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1991, p. 276. 54

are included other Buddha lands such as Buddha Aksobhya's Abhirati and Buddha Bhaisajyaguru's Vaidūryanirbhāsa.

From the practical point of view, in contrast to its theoritical aspect, Pure Land is regarded as an analogical expression of the purified or enlightened mind of the Bodhisattvas and the idea that Pure Land has an independent existence outside the mind is rejected. It is told the story in the "The Record of Transmission of The Lamp" records that Chan Master Haihui was asked by a student one day: "I hope to be born in the Pure Land, I wonder, is there really a Pure Land?" The Master said: "Scripture says that if you want a Pure Land, you must purify your mind, for as the mind is pure, so is the Buddha land pure. If your mind is clear and clean, wherever you are is a pure land. It's like being born in a royal house, certain to inherit the founding work of the King, if you set your mind on the way of Buddha, this is birth in a pure Buddha land. If your mind is not clean, wherever you live will be a defiled land. Purity and defilement are in the mind, not in the land".

The Platform Sūtra, a major Ch'an text attributed to Hui-neng (638- 713), contains the following dialogue between a Ch'an master and his disciple:

The perfect disciple bowed deeply and asked, "I notice that some monks and laymen always invoke the Buddha Amitābha and desire to be reborn in the West, I beg of you to explain whether one can be born there or not, and thus resolve my doubts."

The Master said: "Perfect, listen and I shall explain things for you. At Sravāstī the World- Honourd One preached of the Western Land in order to convert people, and it is clearly stated in the sūtra, "The Western Land is not far." It was only for the sake of the people of inferior capacity that the Buddha spoke of farness, to speak of nearness 55

is only for those of superior attainments … The deluded person concentrates on Buddha and wishes to be born in the other land; the awakened person makes pure his own mind. Therefore the Buddha said: "In accordance with the purity of the mind is the Buddha land pure."36

Based on the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa-Sūtra, a non-Pure Land but a major Mahāyāna scripture, to be reborn in the Pure Land means to be possessed of all expressions that the enlightened have. This finds a full support in the entire section of the Vimalakīrti-Sūtra, as cited by the Ch'an master thus, "If a Bodhisattva desires to obtain Pure Land, he must purify his mind. In accordance with the purity of the mind, the Buddha Land is Pure." 37 D.T.Suzuki, one of the most famous modern dhyāna interpreter in the West, also says that:

"The Pure Land is not many millions and millions of miles away to the West. According to my explanation, the Pure Land is right here, even in this very hall (New York Buddhist Academy in the Spring of 1958). Amitābha is not presiding over a Pure Land beyond our reach. His Pure Land is this dirty earth itself."38

So all of space in the Ten Directions and all the worlds countless as atoms are originally things created by this Mind of ours. However, deluded and confused we may be in our life, if even for a single momment we return to this mind, we are sure to be born in the Land of Ultimate Bliss, originally inherent in our own mind, and be troubled no more by worry and doubt. Therefore a hundred billion worlds are not beyond one moment of thought,

36 Kennth K.Tanaka, "Where is the Pure Land?: Controversy in Chinese Buddhism on The Nature of Pure Land," Journal of the Institute of Buddhist Studies 3 [Fall 1987]: 37. 37 Ibid., p.37. 38 D. T. Suzuki, Shin Buddhism, London: George Allen & Unwin LTD, 1970, p. 17. 56

since fundamentally there is nothing outside the True Mind; whenever our mind is fully aware, free from worries and disturbances, at that time our Pure Mind is the Pure Land itself.

Furthermore, we can also find that the name of Amitābha Buddha is explained as Amitayus (Infinite Light) or Amitābha (Infinite Life). Infinite Light can be understood as the true nature of mind that is still but always shining with awareness; hence it is a light in itself. The idea conveyed by this statement is that Amitābha Buddha represents the infinite essence of the true nature of mind, so his light is infinite. Meanwhile, the Infinite Life is explained as the true nature of Mind that is shining with awarness, yet at the same time that is still: hence it is the very essence of life. Therefore, Amitā bha Buddha represents the infinite essence of the true nature of Mind, and thus being the case his life span is infinite.

We have discussed above that the Pure Mind is Pure Land, there is only one reality and that is Dharmakaya Buddha, the Buddha-Mind, the Pure Mind itself, the One Mind. Things of this world like waves, ripples, evanescent bubbles, appearing in the ocean of this Mind, the Buddha-Mind is all that exists; we also have Buddha nature, and our own personal little minds are permeated by the Buddha-Mind, even if we do not recognize it. All that ignorance, delusion and bad karma can do is screen us off with an awareness of our True Nature, our Buddha-nature, our essential intergration with the Buddha Mind. All true Buddhist teachings are designed to bring us to the realization of One Mind only.

However, it is very important for us to understand that the Pure Mind is Pure Land, that is to say that whenever our Mind is fully aware of itself, it represents the Bodhi Mind of the Pure Land. However we can also believe in

the existence of the Pure Land of Amittābha Buddha in the Western paradise. If we accept that our Pure Mind represents Pure Land and negate the existence of the Pure Land in the West, we will get attach to only one side of the reality, and thus be a little away from getting enlightenment.

II.3. CONCLUSION

We have discussed Theravāda's View of Pure Land and The Concept of Pure Land in Pure Land Tradition above. We can see that, even in Theravā da tradition, also there are planes of existence depending on the kamma of human beings; or the attainment the sainthoods of meditators depending on their states of Jhāna mentioned there, and a description about their final goal that is getting enlightenment or Nibbāna. Compared with Theravāda tradition, the final goal for Pure Land followers is reborn in the Sukhāvāti (Pure Land) of Amitābha Buddha. With the forty-eight vows of Amitābha Buddha, the Pure Land Realm is addressed with lots of joy and peaceful things for the followers, who have faith in Amitābha Buddha and wish to be reborn in this plane. Besides that with the aspect of meditation, Pure Land Realm is also understood as the "Purity of Mind". When our mind is Pure, we are at Pure Land, and our mind is not different from the Bodhi Mind of the Buddha. So we can see that the final goal for all schools of Buddhism, either Theravāda or Pure Land tradition, is getting enlightenment, liberation from sufferings of our ignorance and be aware of our Buddha-nature, that is the main teaching of Buddhism.