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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION I.1. INTRODUCTION AND JUSTIFICATION OF THE TOPIC After the Buddha's Maha-parinibbāna, Buddhism was divided into different schools of which the most popular ones which have remained up to now in many Asian countries are Theravāda and Mahāyāna. The Theravāda school, corresponding exactly to the Sanskrit Sthaviravāda, was founded by those senior monks who wanted to preserve the early practices in accordance with the original doctrines of the Buddha. The Mahāyāna, founded on the basis of the early Mahāyāna Sūtras compiled in the first century B.C.E, was advocated by those Buddhists who elaborated Buddhist teachings and practices with a new perspective suitable to the need of societies in various ages. The Mahāyāna school was further divided into many sub-sects; the Sukhāvatī (Pure Land) school is one of the most popular traditions among them. While the Theravāda tradition believes in the possibility of emancipation through one’s own intellectual power of cultivation, the Pure Land holds that it is possible for one to get salvation through Amitābha Buddha's power. In other words, the former maintains that we must rely on our own powers to attain the final liberation, whereas the later advocates that in order to get rebirth in Pure Land realm practitioners have to depend on the power of salvation of the Buddha Amitābha. The Theravā da was a distinctive group within the Indian Saṇgha community at the time of King Ashoka. They preserved the teachings of the Buddha in Pāli through their oral tradition, and they held their own position of specific points of doctrine and practice. They also made a significant contribution to the Buddhist propagation in Indian subcontinents as well as abroad. According to Theravāda school, the main practice leading to enlightenment is meditation. Of different techniques of meditation, Ānāpānasati and Vipassanā are the most popular ones. Vipassanā meditation is a method of self observation. In Pāli, Passanā means to look, to see with the open eyes in an ordinary way. But Vipassanā is to observe things as they really are, not merely as they seem to be. Apparent truth has to be penetrated until one reaches the ultimate truth of the entire mental and physical perspective. It is a logical process of mental purification leading towards full enlightenment gradually. It is a straightforward, practical way to achieve peace of mind and to live a happy, useful life. The Buddha declares in Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta: "Here, a monk, a monk dwells ardent with awareness and constant thorough understanding of impermanence, observing body in body, having removed craving and aversion towards the words [of mind and matter], he dwells ardent with awareness and constant thorough understanding impermanence, observing sensations in sensations, having removed craving and aversion towards the world [of mind and matter]; he dwells ardent with awareness and constant removed craving and aversion towards the world [of mind and matter]; he dwells ardent with awareness and constant thorough understanding of impermanence, observing mental contents in mental contents, having removed craving and aversion towards the world [of mind and matter]."1 The teachings of Pure Land School were preserved in Sanskrit literature, whereas the Theravāda teachings were well preserved in Pāli literature. “Pure Land Buddhism” refers to a set of beliefs and practices that espouses for its aspirants the realization of the stage of non-retrogression 1 Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta, Maharashtra: Vipassana Research Institute, 2006, p.3. 2 either in the present life or through rebirth in a Buddha land or realm called “Sukhāvatī (Land of Bliss). According to the Pure Land Sūtras, Sukhāvatī exists billions of Buddha lands away, in the western direction, from the Saha world-realm, the world that we live in. The Buddha Amitāyus (Immeasurable Life) or Buddha Amitābha (Immeasurable Light) is the 'transcendent' Buddha who presides over the Sukhāvatī world-realm. The tenet of Pure Land School was mainly depicted in The Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtras and The Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra. These Sutras exhort both monks and laities alike, who aspire for rebirth in Amitabha’s Sukhāvatī to get engaged in a broad range of practices that include: meditation, observances of precepts, virtuous acts, building of stūpas (relic monument), reciting the Amitābha Buddha's name and contemplating the Amitābha Buddha and His Sukhāvatī (Pure Land). Those who are reborn in Sukhāvatī will abide in an ideal environment which enhances their spiritual practices. Such rebirth guarantees the practitioners to attain the stage of non- retrogression and eventually to realize the Mahāyāna goal of perfect enlightenment (samyaksambodhi). Upon attainment of enlightenment, some will return to this Saha world-realm to carry out the Bodhisattva task of leading others to Pure Land rebirth and ultimately to Buddhahood. According to the Pure Land teachings, Amitābha presides over the Western Paradise, which he has created out of his boundless love for all sentient beings, and he vows that anyone who has absolute faith in him and his Pure Land will be reborn at his place. In Pure Land, Amitābha has Avalokiteśvara as his chief minister, the always compassionate Boddhisattva who is ready to go anywhere to lead the faithful to the Land of purity and bliss. All that is necessary to attain rebirth is to have faith and devotion as indicated by the repeated recital of the formula namo Amitābha or “reverence be to Amitabha". The Śakyamuni Buddha teaches the same thing in The Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra: 3 "Whatever son or daughter of a family shall hear the name of the blessed Amitāyus, the Tathāgata, and having heard it, shall keep it in mind for one, two, three, four, five, six or seven nights, - when that son or daughter of a family comes to die, when that Amitāyus, the Tathāgata, surrounded by an assembly of disciples and followed by a host of Bodhisattvas, will stand before them at their hour of death, and they will depart this life with tranquil minds. After their death they will be born in the world of Sukhāvatī, in the Buddha country of the same Amitāyus, the Tathāgata. Therefore, then, O Sāriputra, having perceived this cause and effect, I wish reverence say thus, every son and every daughter of a family ought with their whole mind to make fervent prayer for that Buddha country."2 Moreover, in understanding the Sukhāvatī (Pure Land) of Amitābha Buddha, there are two ways, theoritical and practical. From the theoritical point of view, based on the Pure Land Sūtras, Sukhāvatī is considered to be an independent realm outside existing of mind. In other words, theoritically, people understand that there exists a realm called Sukhāvat ī billions of Buddha lands away to the west. It denotes a specific location in the universe where practitioners actually go to be reborn upon death. Sukhāvatī is just one of the billions of such lands that fill the universe in the ten directions, among which are included other Buddha lands such as Buddha Aksobhya's Abhirati and Buddha Bhaisajyaguru's Vaidūryanirbhāsa. Practically, Pure Land is regarded as an analogical expression of the purified or enlightened mind of the Bodhisattvas and the idea that Pure Land 2 F. Max Muller (tr.), Sacred Books of The East, Buddhist Mahāyāna Texts, Vol. 49, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publisher Private Limited, 1997, p.99. 4 has an independent existence outside the mind is rejected. Vietnamese Master Tố Liên explaions it and says: "If we are discussing the different manifestions of the universe, the Pure Land of Amitābha Buddha is indeed ten billion Buddha-lands away. However, if we are speaking of the Pure Land of the Mind, then the ten billion Buddha-lands are not outside the narrow confines of our own minds. If we recite the Buddha name singlemindedly, the Pure Land can be found in every recitation - the Pure Land is here and now."3 So from the practical point of view, all of space in the Ten Directions and all the worlds countless as atoms are originally things created by this Mind of ours and this is what Pure Land is meant for. However, deluded and confused we may be in our lives, if even for a single moment we return to this Mind, the Land of Ultimate Bliss, originally inherent in our own mind, we cannot be troubled any longer by any worry or doubt. Therefore a hundred billion worlds are not beyond one moment of thought, since fundamentally there is nothing outside the True Mind; whenever our mind is fully aware, free from worries and disturbances, it is the Pure Land itself. Especially, this practical point of view of Pure Land tradition is similar to the view of meditation in Theravāda tradition. Because when we practice meditation, our mind becomes calm, concentrated, and when we reach samādhi, our mind is clear and clean, and thus we can reach Pure Land wherever we are in this universe. 3 J.C.Cleary, Mind-seal of the Buddhas, Taiwan: The Corporate Body of the Buddha Education Foundation, p.58. 5 Therefore, in order to understand the Buddhist practices and philosophies in both Theravāda and Pure Land traditions, we have chosen the topic: "The spiritual practices in Theravāda and Sukhāvatī tradition: A comparative study". This research aims at bringing a comprehensive understanding of the similarities and differences in the spiritual practices in the Theravāda and Pure Land traditions; and it tries to help the Buddhist followers to choose the suitable methods in practicing Buddhism so that they can have a better life in this society. I.2. THE SURVEY OF THE WORKS DONE The Therav ā da Buddhism and the Pure Land Buddhism are two important Schools. While the first one has been very popular in some countries such as: India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia… The second one has been famous in China, Korea, Japan, Taiwan, and Vietnam..
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  • The Indian Roots of Pure Land Buddhism: Insights from the Oldest Chinese Versions of the Larger Sukhåvat∆Vy¥Ha

    The Indian Roots of Pure Land Buddhism: Insights from the Oldest Chinese Versions of the Larger Sukhåvat∆Vy¥Ha

    The Indian Roots of Pure Land Buddhism: Insights from the Oldest Chinese Versions of the Larger Sukhåvat∆vy¥ha Jan Nattier Indiana University MASATOSHI NAGATOMI WAS a panoramic thinker. Raised in a Jødo Shinsh¥ family, he chose the distant world of Indian Buddhism as his research field. Educated at Kyoto University, he went on to complete his doctorate at Harvard University, spending time studying in India as well. When thinking about Indian Buddhist literature he could call upon analo- gies from East Asia; when discussing Buddhist rituals in China he could draw upon his knowledge of Tibet. In sum, for him Buddhism was not a regional or sectarian entity but a worldwide and multi-faceted tradi- tion, and no student of his could fail to be impressed by the broad range of his perspective. Most students of Pure Land Buddhism, by contrast, have approached their topic within a far narrower frame. Generally this form of Buddhism has been treated as an East Asian phenomenon, and indeed it is often studied (with, one should recognize, many valuable results) within the parameters of a single school or sect. This paper, however, is intended as a small attempt to emulate Professor Nagatomi’s sweeping cross-cultural vision of Buddhist history by examining the evidence for Pure Land Buddhism not in East Asia, but in India. To understand how Amitåbha was viewed by Indian Buddhists, however, requires beginning with a sketch of the circumstances within which scriptures devoted to this figure emerged. I will begin, therefore, with a brief overview of some of the key developments that preceded— and indeed, may have elicited—the composition of scriptures devoted to Amitåbha.