Central Europe

Major geographic features of central Europe

Central Europe according to The World Factbook Central Europe (archaically “Middle Europe”) is a re- (2009),[19] Encyclopædia Britannica, and Brockhaus gion lying between the variously defined areas of the Enzyklopädie (1998) Eastern and Western parts of the European continent. The term and widespread interest in the region itself came back after the end of the Cold War, which used to divide Europe politically into East and West, splitting Central Europe in half.[1][2] It was followed by the EU accession of the Visegrád Group member states.[3] The concept of Central Europe, and that of a common cultural identity, is somewhat elusive.[4][5][6] However, scholars assert that a distinct “Central European culture, as controversial and debated the notion may be, exists”.[7][8] It is based on “similarities emanating from historical, social and cultural characteristics",[7][9] and it is identified as having been “one of the world’s richest sources of creative talent” between the 17th and 20th centuries.[10] Cross Currents: A Yearbook of Central Eu- ropean Culture characterizes Central Europe “as an aban- doned West or a place where East and West collide”.[11] Germany’s Constant Committee for Geographical Names Central Europe according to P. Jones (Leibniz Institute defines Central Europe both as a distinct cultural area for Regional Geography). Many Central European and a political region.[12][13] George Schöpflin and oth- countries and regions were parts of the German and ers argue that Central Europe is defined by being “a part the Austro-Hungarian empires, or the Polish-Lithuanian of Western Christianity",[14] while Samuel P. Huntington Commonwealth; thus they also have historical and places the region firmly within Western culture.[15] cultural connections. From the 2000s on, Central Europe has been going through a phase of “strategic awakening”,[16] with ini- tiatives like the CEI, Centrope or V4. While the region’s economy shows high disparities with regard to income,[17] all Central European countries are listed by the Human Development Index as “very high development” countries.[18]

1 2 1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

In 1335 under the rule of the King Charles I of Hungary, the castle of Visegrád, the seat of the Hungarian monar- chs was the scene of the royal summit of the Kings of Poland, Bohemia and Hungary.[26] They agreed to coop- erate closely in the ﬁeld of politics and commerce, in- spiring their late successors to launch a successful Central European initiative.[26] In the Middle Ages, countries in Central Europe adopted Magdeburg rights.

1.2 Before World War I

Central Europe according to Lonnie Johnson, Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends [20]

1 Historical perspective

1.1 Middle Ages

Elements of unity for Western and Central Europe were A view of Central Europe dating from the time before the First [27] Roman Catholicism and Latin. Eastern Europe, which World War (1902): remained Eastern Orthodox Christian, was the area of Central European countries and regions: Germany and Austria- Byzantine cultural influence; after the schism (1054), it Hungary (without Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia) Regions located at the transition between Central Europe and will develop cultural unity and resistance to the Western Southern Europe: Romania world (Catholic and Protestant) within the framework of Slavonic language and the Cyrillic alphabet.[21][22][23][24] Before 1870, the industrialization that had developed in • Certain and disputed borders of Great Moravia un- Western and Central Europe and the United States did der Svatopluk I (AD 870–894) not extend in any significant way to the rest of the world. Even in Eastern Europe, industrialization lagged far be- • Holy Roman Empire in 1400 hind. Russia, for example, remained largely rural and agricultural, and its autocratic rulers kept the peasants in • Kingdom of Poland in late 12th-13th centuries. serfdom.[28] The concept of Central Europe was already [29] • Bohemia in 1273 known at the beginning of the 19th century, but its real life began in the 20th century and immediately be- • Kingdom of Hungary in 1190 came an object of intensive interest. However, the very first concept mixed science, politics and economy – it According to Hungarian historian Jenő Szűcs, founda- was strictly connected with intensively growing German tions of Central European history at the first millen- economy and its aspirations to dominate a part of Eu- nium were in close connection with Western European ropean continent called Mitteleuropa. The German term development. He explained that between the 11th and denoting Central Europe was so fashionable that other 15th centuries not only Christianization and its cultural languages started referring to it when indicating territories from Rhine to Vistula, or even Dnieper, and from the consequences were implemented, but well-defined social [30] features emerged in Central Europe based on Western Baltic Sea to the Balkans. An example of that-time vision of Central Europe may be seen in J. Partsch’s book characteristics. The keyword of Western social devel- [31] opment after millennium was the spread of liberties and of 1903. autonomies in Western Europe. These phenomena ap- On 21 January 1904 – Mitteleuropäischer peared in the middle of the 13th century in Central Eu- Wirtschaftsverein (Central European Economic As- ropean countries. There were self-governments of towns, sociation) was established in Berlin with economic counties and parliaments.[25] integration of Germany and Austria–Hungary (with 1.4 Mitteleuropa 3 eventual extension to Switzerland, Belgium and the mostly outside Central Europe. The author use both Hu- Netherlands) as its main aim. Another time, the term man and Physical Geographical features to define Central Central Europe became connected to the German plans Europe.[36] of political, economic and cultural domination. The The interwar period (1918–1939) brought new geopo- “bible” of the concept was Friedrich Naumann’s book [32] litical system and economic and political problems, and Mitteleuropa in which he called for an economic fed- the concept of Central Europe took a different charac- eration to be established after the war. Naumann’s idea ter. The centre of interest was moved to its eastern part was that the federation would have at its center Germany – the countries that have (re)appeared on the map of Eu- and the Austro-Hungarian Empire but would also include rope: Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland. Central Eu- all European nations outside the Anglo-French alliance, rope ceased to be the area of German aspiration to lead on one side, and Russia, on the other.[33] The concept or dominate and became a territory of various integra- failed after the German defeat in World War I and the tion movements aiming at resolving political, economic dissolution of Austria–Hungary. The revival of the idea and national problems of “new” states, being a way to may be observed during the Hitler era. face German and Soviet pressures. However, the con- flict of interests was too big and neither Little Entente nor Intermarium (Międzymorze) ideas succeeded. 1.3 Interwar period The interwar period brought new elements to the concept of Central Europe. Before World War I, it embraced mainly German states (Germany, Austria), non-German territories being an area of intended German penetration and domination – German leadership position was to be the natural result of economic dominance.[29] After the war, the Eastern part of Central Europe was placed at the centre of the concept. At that time the scientists took interest in the idea: the International Historical Congress in Brussels in 1923 was committed to Central Europe, and Interwar Central Europe according to Emmanuel de the 1933 Congress continued the discussions.[37] Martonne (1927) Hungarian scholar Magda Adam wrote in her study Ver- sailles System and Central Europe (2006): “Today we know that the bane of Central Europe was the Little Entente, military alliance of Czechoslovakia, Romania and Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yu- goslavia), created in 1921 not for Central Europe’s cooperation nor to fight German expansion, but in a wrong per- ceived notion that a completely powerless Hungary must be kept down”.[37] The avant-garde movements of Central Europe were an essential part of modernism’s evolution, reaching its Little Entente, Central European defense union of peak throughout the continent during the 1920s. The [34] Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia Sourcebook of Central European avantgards (Los Angeles County Museum of Art) contains primary documents of the avant-gardes in Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Yugoslavia from 1910 to 1930.[35] The manifestos and magazines of Western European radical art circles are well known to Western scholars and are being taught at primary universities of their kind in the western world.

CE countries, Sourcebook of Central European Avant- 1.4 Mitteleuropa Gardes 1910–1930 (L.A. County Museum of Art)[35] The German term Mitteleuropa (or alternatively its literal According to Emmanuel de Martonne, in 1927 the Cen- translation into English, Middle Europe[38]) is an ambigu- tral European countries included: Austria, Czechoslo- ous German concept.[38] It is sometimes used in English vakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Switzer- to refer to an area somewhat larger than most concep- land. Italy and Yugoslavia are not considered by the au- tions of 'Central Europe'; it refers to territories under Ger- thor to be Central European because they are located manic cultural hegemony until World War I (encompass- 4 1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Main european regions destroyed this kind of culture instead.[38][42][43] However, following actual state borders following cultural proximities the term “Mitteleuropa” is now widely used again in Ger- man education and media without negative meaning, es- Iceland pecially since the end of communism. In fact, many peo- Northern Europe

Sweden Finland ple from the New states of Germany do not identify them-

B.-H. Bosnia and Herzegovina selves as being part of Western Europe and therefore pre- K. Kosovo Russia L. Liechtenstein Norway M. Montenegro Estonia Mac. Macedonia fer the term “Mitteleuropa”. S. Slovenia Eastern Europe S.M. San Marino Latvia

Lithuania Denmark Baltic Sea North Sea Ireland Belarus United 1.5 Central Europe behind the Iron Cur- Kingdom Netherlands Poland Germany Ukraine Belgium Central Europe tain Czech Republic Moldova Western Slovakia Europe L. Hungary Romania France Switzerland S. Black Sea

Serbia Croatia B.-H. Bulgaria S.M. Southeastern Monaco M. K. Italy Europe Andorra Mac. Albania Turkey Spain Portugal Southern Europe Greece

Mediterranean Sea Cyprus Map based on documents of the institute Ständigen Ausschuss für geographische Namen (StAGN) Malta

The Mitteleuropa: AT, CRO, CZ, GER, HUN, POL, SVK, SLO, EST/LAT/LTV, large parts of ROM, minor parts of FRA, ITA, RUS, SRB, UA

ing Austria–Hungary and Germany in their pre-war for- mations but usually excluding the Baltic countries north of East Prussia). According to Fritz Fischer Mitteleu- ropa was a scheme in the era of the Reich of 1871–1918 by which the old imperial elites had allegedly sought to build a system of German economic, military and political domination from the northern seas to the Near East and from the Low Countries through the steppes of Rus- sia to the Caucasus.[39] Later on, professor Fritz Epstein Politically independent CE states during Cold war: Finland, argued the threat of a Slavic “Drang nach Westen” (West- Austria, Yugoslavia[44] ern expansion) had been a major factor in the emergence of a Mitteleuropa ideology before the Reich of 1871 ever came into being.[40] Following World War II, large parts of Europe that were In Germany the connotation was also sometimes linked culturally and historically Western became part of the to the pre-war German provinces east of the Oder-Neisse Eastern bloc. Czech author Milan Kundera (emigrant to France) thus wrote in 1984 about the “Tragedy of Cen- line which were lost as the result of World War II, an- [45] nexed by People’s Republic of Poland and the Soviet tral Europe” in the New York Review of Books. Con- Union, and ethnically cleansed of Germans by commu- sequently, the English term Central Europe was increas- nist authorities and forces (see expulsion of Germans after ingly applied only to the westernmost former Warsaw World War II) due to Yalta Conference and Potsdam Con- Pact countries (East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary) to specify them as communist states that were ference decisions. In this view Bohemia and Moravia, [46] with its dual Western Slavic and Germanic heritage, com- culturally tied to Western Europe. This usage contin- bined with the historic element of the "Sudetenland", is a ued after the end of the Warsaw Pact when these coun- core region illustrating the problems and features of the tries started to undergo transition. entire Central European region. The post-World War II period brought blocking of the re- The term Mitteleuropa conjures up negative historical as- search on Central Europe in the Eastern Bloc countries, sociations among some elder people, although the Ger- as its every result proved the dissimilarity of Central Eu- mans have not played an exclusively negative role in rope, which was inconsistent with the Stalinist doctrine. the region.[41] Most Central European Jews embraced On the other hand, the topic became popular in Western the enlightened German humanistic culture of the 19th Europe and the United States, much of the research be- century.[42] German-speaking Jews from turn of the 20th ing carried out by immigrants from Central Europe.[47] century Vienna, Budapest and Prague became represen- At the end of the communism, publicists and historians tatives of what many consider to be Central European cul- in Central Europe, especially anti-communist opposition, ture at its best, though the Nazi version of “Mitteleuropa” came back to their research.[48] 1.6 Current views 5

According to Karl A. Sinnhuber (Central Europe: Mit- teleuropa: Europe Centrale: An Analysis of a Geographi- cal Term)[44] most Central European states were unable to preserve their political independence and became Soviet Satellite Europe. Besides Austria, only marginal Central European states of Finland and Yugoslavia did preserve their political sovereignty to a certain degree, being left out from any military alliances in Europe. According to Meyers Enzyklopädisches Lexikon,[49] Cen- tral Europe is a part of Europe composed by the sur- face of the Austria, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Romania Habsburg-ruled lands and Switzerland, and northern marginal regions of Italy and Yugoslavia (northern states - Croatia and Slovenia), • A concept underlining the links connecting Belarus as well as northeastern France. and Ukraine with Russia and treating the Russian Empire together with the whole Slavic Orthodox population as one entity – this position is taken by 1.6 Current views the Russian historiography.

Rather than a physical entity, Central Europe is a con- • A concept putting an accent on the links with the cept of shared history which contrasts with that of the West, especially from the 19th century and the surrounding regions. The issue of how to name and de- grand period of liberation and formation of Nation- fine the Central European region is subject to debates. states – this idea is represented by in the South- Very often, the definition depends on the nationality and Eastern states, which prefer the enlarged concept historical perspective of its author. of the “East Centre” expressing their links with the Western culture. Main propositions, gathered by Jerzy Kłoczowski, include:[50] According to Ronald Tiersky, the 1991 summit held in Visegrád, Hungary and attended by the Polish, Hungarian • West-Central and East-Central Europe – this con- and Czechoslovak presidents was hailed at the time ception, presented in 1950,[51] distinguishes two as a major breakthrough in Central European cooper- regions in Central Europe: German West-Centre, ation, but the Visegrád Group became a vehicle for with imperial tradition of the Reich, and the coordinating Central Europe’s road to the European East-Centre covered by variety of nations from Union, while development of closer ties within the region Finland to Greece, placed between great empires of languished.[52] Scandinavia, Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union. Peter J. Katzenstein described Central Europe as a way station in a Europeanization process that marks the trans- • Central Europe as the area of cultural heritage of formation process of the Visegrád Group countries in dif- the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth – Ukrainian, ferent, though comparable ways.[53] According to him, in Belarusian and Lithuanian historians, in cooperation Germany’s contemporary public discourse “Central Eu- (since 1990) with Polish historians, insist on the im- ropean identity” refers to the civilizational divide between portance of the concept. Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.[53] He says there’s no precise, uncontestable way to decide whether • Central Europe as a region connected to the Western the Baltic states, Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Romania, and civilisation for a very long time, including coun- Bulgaria are parts of Central Europe or not.[54] tries like the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Kingdom of Croatia, Holy Roman Empire, later Lonnie R. Johnson points out criteria to distinguish Cen- German Empire and the Habsburg Monarchy, the tral Europe from Western, Eastern and Southeast Eu- Kingdom of Hungary and the Crown of Bohemia. rope:[55] Central Europe understood in this way borders on Russia and South-Eastern Europe, but the exact • One criterion for defining Central Europe is the frontier of the region is difficult to determine. frontiers of medieval empires and kingdoms that largely correspond to the religious frontiers be- • Central Europe as the area of cultural heritage of the tween the Roman Catholic West and the Orthodox Habsburg Empire (later Austria-Hungary) – a con- East.[56] The pagans of Central Europe were concept which is popular in regions along the Danube verted to Roman Catholicism while in Southeastern River. and Eastern Europe they were brought into the fold of the Eastern Orthodox Church.[56] 6 2 STATES

• Multinational empires were a characteristic of Cen- tral Europe.[57] Hungary and Poland, small and medium-size states today, were empires during their early histories.[57] The historical Kingdom of Hun- gary was until 1918 three times larger than Hungary is today,[57] while Poland was the largest state in Eu- rope in the 16th century.[57] Both these kingdoms housed a wide variety of diﬀerent peoples.[57] The Pannonian Plain, between the Alps (west), the Carpathians (north and east), and the Sava/Danube (south)

He also thinks that Central Europe is a dynamical historical concept, not a static spatial one. For example, Lithuania, a fair share of Belarus and western Ukraine are in Eastern Europe today, but 250 years ago they were in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[57] Johnson’s study on Central Europe received acclaim and positive reviews[58][59] in the scientific community. How- ever, according to Romanian researcher Maria Bucur this very ambitious project suffers from the weaknesses im- Carpathian countries (north-west to south-east): CZ, [60] posed by its scope (almost 1600 years of history). AT, PL, SK, HU, UA, RO, SRB The Columbia Encyclopedia defines Central Europe as: Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary.[61] The World Factbook[19] Encyclopædia Britannica and 2 States Brockhaus Enzyklopädie use the same definition adding Slovenia too. Encarta Encyclopedia does not clearly de- The comprehension of the concept of Central Europe is fine the region, but places the same countries into Cen- an ongoing source of controversy,[63] though the Visegrád tral Europe in its individual articles on countries, adding Group constituents are almost always included as de facto [62] Slovenia in “south central Europe”. C.E. countries.[64] Although views on which countries be- The German Encyclopaedia Meyers Grosses Taschen- long to Central Europe are vastly varied, according to lexikon (English: Meyers Big Pocket Encyclopedia), 1999, many sources (see section Current views on Central Eu- defines Central Europe as the central part of Europe rope) the region includes the states listed in the sections with no precise borders to the East and West. The below. term is mostly used to denominate the territory between the Schelde to Vistula and from the Danube to the • Austria Moravian Gate. Usually the countries considered to be • Czech Republic Central European are Austria, Croatia, the Czech Re- public, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, • Germany Switzerland; in the broader sense Romania too, occasionally also Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. • Hungary • Poland • Slovakia • Slovenia[65] (sometimes placed in Southeastern Europe)[66]

Depending on context, Central European countries are sometimes grouped as Eastern, Western European countries, collectively or individually[67][68][69][70] but some place them in Eastern Europe instead:,[67][68][69] for in- stance Austria can be referred to as Central European, as The European ﬂoristic regions well as Eastern European[71][72] or Western European.[73] 7

2.1 Other countries and regions Alps in the northwest down to the Šar-Korab massif, north-south. According to the Freie Universitaet Berlin, Some sources also add neighbouring countries for histor- this mountain chain is classiﬁed as South Central Euro- ical (the former Austro-Hungarian and German Empires, pean.[89] and modern Baltic states), based on geographical and/or cultural reasons:

• Croatia[20][74][75][76][77] (alternatively placed in Southeastern Europe)[78][79]

• Romania (Transylvania[80] and Bukovina[81])[82][83][84]

The Baltic states, geographically located in Northern Eu- Danubian Central Europe rope, have been considered part of Central Europe in the German tradition of the term, Mittleuropa. Benelux The Central European ﬂora region stretches from Cen- countries are generally considered a part of Western Eu- tral France (the Massif Central) to Central Romania rope, rather than Central Europe. Nevertheless, they are (Carpathians) and Southern Scandinavia.[90] occasionally mentioned in the Central European context due to cultural, historical and linguistic ties. At times, the term “Central Europe” denotes a geographic deﬁnition as the Danube region in the heart of the conti- Smaller parts of the following states may sometimes be nent, including the language and culture areas which are included in Central Europe: today included in the states of Croatia, the Czech Re- public, Hungary, Poland, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and • Italy (South Tyrol, Trentino, Trieste and usually also Austria and Germany, but never Russia and Gorizia, Friuli, occasionally all of Northern Italy) other countries of the former Soviet Union towards the Ural mountains.[91] • Liechtenstein • Switzerland 4 Statistics • Ukraine (Transcarpathia,[85] Galicia and [81] Northern Bukovina ) 4.1 Data

• Area: 1.036.370 km2 (2012) 3 Geography • Population: (calculated data) 163.518.571 (July 2012) Geography defines Central Europe’s natural borders with the neighbouring regions to the North across the Baltic • Population density: (calculated data) 157.78/km2 Sea namely the Northern Europe (or Scandinavia), and (2012) to the South across the Alps, the Apennine peninsula (or Italy), and the Balkan peninsula[86] across the Soča-Krka- • GDP (PPP) per capita: USD $34.444 (2012) Sava-Danube line. The borders to Western Europe and • Life expectancy: (calculated data) 78.32-year Eastern Europe are geographically less defined and for (2012) this reason the cultural and historical boundaries migrate more easily West-East than South-North. The Rhine river • Unemployment rate: 8.2% (2012) which runs South-North through Western Germany is an exception. • Fertility rate: 1.41 births/woman (2012) Southwards, the Pannonian Plain is bounded by the rivers • Human Development Index: 0.874 (2012) (very Sava and Danube- and their respective floodplains.[87] high) The Pannonian Plain stretches over the following coun- • [92] tries: Austria, Croatia, Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Globalization Index (regional): 80.09 (2013) Slovakia and Slovenia, and touches borders of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Republika Srpska) and Ukraine (“peri- 4.2 Demography Pannonian states”). As southeastern division of the Eastern Alps,[88] the Central Europe is one of continent’s most populous re- Dinaric Alps extend for 650 kilometres along the coast gions. It includes countries of varied sizes, ranging of the Adriatic Sea (northwest-southeast), from the Julian from tiny Liechtenstein to Germany, the largest European 8 5 ECONOMY country by population (that is entirely placed in Europe). Demographic figures for countries entirely located within notion of Central Europe (“the core countries”) number around 165 million people, out of which around 82 million are residents of Germany.[93] Other populations include: Poland with around 38.5 million residents,[94] Czech Republic at 10.5 million,[95] Hungary at 10 million,[96] Austria with 8.5 million, Switzerland with its 8 million inhabitants,[97] Slovakia at 5.4 million,[98] World map by quartiles of Human Development Index in 2013. Croatia with its 4.3 million[99] residents, Slovenia at 2 million (2014 estimate)[100] and Liechtenstein at a bit less [101] than 40,000. • Slovenia: 0.874 (ranked 25)

• Liechtenstein: 0.889 (ranked 18)

0–10 10–25 25–50 50–75 75–100 100–150 • 150–300 Czech Republic: 0.861 (ranked 28) 300–1000 1000+ • Poland: 0.834 (ranked 35)

• Slovakia: 0.830 (ranked 37)

• Hungary: 0.818 (ranked 43) 2 Population density (people per km ) by country, 2006 • Croatia: 0.812 (ranked 47)

If the countries which are occasionally included in Cen- • Romania: 0.785 (ranked 54) tral Europe were counted in, partially or in whole – Lithuania (3.5 million), Latvia (2.5 million), Estonia (1.5 million) – it would contribute to the rise of between 20– 5.3 Globalisation 37.5 million, depending on whether regional or integral approach was used.[93] If smaller, western and eastern historical parts of Central Europe would be included in the demographic corpus, further 20 million people of diﬀer- ent nationalities would also be added in the overall count, it would surpass the 200 million people ﬁgure.

Colour Score >88.00 80.00-87.99 72.00-79.99 64.00-71.99 56.00-63.99 5 Economy 48.00-55.99 40.00-47.99 32.00-39.99 24.00-31.99 <24.00 no information 5.1 Currencies Map showing the score for the KOF Globalization Index. Currently, the members of the Eurozone include Austria, Germany, Luxembourg, Slovakia, and Slovenia. Croatia, The index of globalization in Central European countries the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Romania use (2014 data):[102] their currencies (Croatian kuna, Czech koruna, Hungar- ian forint, Polish złoty, Romanian leu), but are obliged to • Austria: 90.48 (ranked 4) adopt the Euro. • Hungary: 85.91 (ranked 9)

5.2 Human Development Index • Switzerland: 85.74 (ranked 11)

Countries in descending order of Human Development • Czech Republic: 83.97 (ranked 16) Index (2014 data): • Slovakia: 83.55 (ranked 18) • Switzerland: 0.917 (ranked 3) • Poland: 79.52 (ranked 25)

• Germany: 0.911 (ranked 6) • Germany: 79.47 (ranked 26)

• Austria: 0.881 (ranked 21) • Slovenia: 76.86 (ranked 29) 5.6 Infrastructure 9

• Croatia: 74.92 (ranked 33) • Hungary (ranked 47)

• Romania: 72.24 (ranked 38) • Czech Republic (ranked 53, tied)

• Liechtenstein: 29.23 (ranked 180) • Slovakia (ranked 54)

• Croatia (ranked 61, tied) 5.4 Prosperity Index According to the Bribe Payers Index, released yearly Legatum Prosperity Index demonstrates an average since 1995 by the Berlin-based NGO Transparency Inter- and high level of prosperity in Central Europe (2014 [103] national, Germany and Switzerland, the only two Central data): European countries examined in the study, were respectively ranked 2nd and 4th in 2011.[105] • Switzerland (ranked 2)

• Germany (ranked 14) 5.6 Infrastructure

• Austria (ranked 15) Industrialisation occurred early in Central Europe. That caused construction of rail and other types of infrastruc- • Slovenia (ranked 24) ture. • Czech Republic (ranked 29) 5.6.1 Rail • Poland (ranked 31)

• Slovakia (ranked 35) • Hungary (ranked 39) • Croatia (ranked 50)

• Romania (ranked 60)

5.5 Corruption Rail network density.

Central Europe contains the continent’s earliest railway systems, whose greatest expansion was recorded in Austro-Hungarian and German territories between 1860- 1870s.[106] By the mid-19th century Berlin, Vienna, and Buda/Pest were focal points for network lines connecting

Corruption Colour Perceptions Index 9 - 10 industrial areas of Saxony, Silesia, Bohemia, Moravia and 8 - 8.9 7 - 7.9 6 - 6.9 5 - 5.9 4 - 4.9 Lower Austria with the Baltic (Kiel, Szczecin) and Adri- 3 - 3.9 2 - 2.9 1 - 1.9 0 - 0.9 [106] no information atic (Rijeka, Trieste). Rail infrastructure in Central Europe remains the densest in the world. Railway den- Overview of the index of perception of corruption, 2013. sity, with total length of lines operated (km) per 1,000 km2, is the highest in the Czech Republic (198.6), Poland Most countries in Central Europe score tend to score (121.0), Slovenia (108.0), Germany (105.5), Hungary above the average in the Corruption Perceptions Index (98.7), Romania (85.9), Slovakia (73.9) and Croatia (2014 data):[104] (72.5).[107][108] when compared with most of Europe and the rest of the world.[109][110] • Switzerland (ranked 5, tied) 5.6.2 River transport and canals • Germany (ranked 12, tied) Before the ﬁrst railroads appeared in the 1840s, river • Austria (ranked 23, tied) transport constituted the main means of communica- [106] • Poland (ranked 35, tied) tion and trade. Earliest canals included Plauen Canal (1745), Finow Canal, and also Bega Canal (1710) which • Slovenia (ranked 39, tied) connected Timisoara to Novi Sad and Belgrade via 10 6 EDUCATION

Danube.[106] The most signiﬁcant achievement in this re- 6.1 Languages gard was the facilitation of navigability on Danube from the Black sea to Ulm in the 19th century. Languages taught as the ﬁrst language in Central Europe are: Croatian, Czech, German, Hungarian, Polish, Slo- vak and Slovenian. The most popular language taught at schools in Central Europe as foreign languages are: En- 5.7 Branches glish, French and German.[116]

Compared to most of Europe, the economies of Aus- tria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hun- gary, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland tend to demonstrate high complexity. Industrialisation has reached Central Europe relatively early: Luxembourg and Germany by 1860, the Czech Republic, Poland, Slo- vakia and Switzerland by 1870, Austria, Croatia Hun- gary, Liechtenstein, Romania and Slovenia by 1880.[111]

5.7.1 Agriculture

Central European countries are some of the most significant food producers in the world. Germany is the world’s largest hops producer with 34.27% share in 2010,[112] third producer of rye and barley, 5th rapeseed producer, sixth largest milk producer, and fifth largest potato Map of the results of the 2014 EF English Proficiency Index producer. Poland is the world’s largest triticale producer, second largest producer of raspberry, currant, third largest of rye, the fifth apple and buckwheat pro-

ducer, and seventh largest producer of potatoes. The 0-49% 50-69% 70-79% Czech Republic is world’s fourth largest hops producer 80-89% 90-94% and 8th producer of triticale. Hungary is world’s ﬁfth 95-100% hops and seventh largest triticale producer. Slovenia is world’s sixth hops producer.

5.7.2 Tourism Global adult literacy.

Central European countries, especially Austria, Croatia, Proﬁciency in English is ranked as high or moderate, ac- Germany and Switzerland are some of the most competi- cording to the EF English Proﬁciency Index:[117] tive tourism destinations.[113] Poland is presently a major destination for outsourcing.[114] • Poland (position 6)

• Austria (position 7) 5.7.3 Outsourcing destination • Germany (position 10)

Kraków, Warsaw, and Wroclaw, Poland; Prague and • Slovenia (position 11) Brno, Czech Republic; Budapest, Hungary; Bucharest, Romania; Bratislava, Slovakia; Ljubljana, Slovenia and • Romania (position 16) Zagreb, Croatia are among the world’s top 100 outsourcing destinations.[115] • Hungary (position 17)

• Switzerland (position 18)

6 Education • Czech Republic (position 19)

• Slovakia (position 22) Central European countries are very literate. All of them have the literacy rate of 96% or over (for both sexes): • Croatia (not ranked) 6.2 Scholastic performance 11

• Liechtenstein (not ranked) • Germany (position 16) – above the OECD average Other languages, also popular (spoken by over 5% as a • second language):[116] Austria (position 18) – above the OECD average • Croatian in Slovenia (61%) • Slovenia (position 21) – above the OECD av- • Czech in Slovakia (82%)[118] erage • French in Romania (17%), Germany (14%) and • Czech Republic (position 24) – similar to the Austria (11%) OECD average

• German in Slovenia (42%), Croatia (34%), Slo- • Slovakia (position 35) – below the OECD av- vakia (22%), Poland (20%), Hungary (18%), the erage Czech Republic (15%), Germany (10%) and Roma- nia (5%) • Hungary (position 39) – below the OECD average • Hungarian in Romania (9%) and Slovakia (12%)[119] • Croatia (position 40) – below the OECD average • Italian in Croatia(14%), Slovenia (12%), Austria (9%) and Romania (7%) • Romania (position 45) – below the OECD average • Russian in Poland (28%), Slovakia (17%), the Czech Republic (13%) and Germany (6%) In the sciences: • Polish in Slovakia (5%) • Slovak in the Czech Republic (16%) • Spanish in Romania (5%)

6.2 Scholastic performance

Colour Score 600+ 575-599 550-574 525-549 500-524 Student performance has varied across Central Europe, 475-499 450-474 425-449 400-424 0-399 according to the Programme for International Student As- no information sessment. In the last study, countries scored medium, below or over the average scores in three ﬁelds studied.[120] The results for the 2012 “Science” section on a world map. In maths: • Poland (position 9) – above the OECD average

• Liechtenstein (position 10) – above the OECD average

• Germany (position 12) – above the OECD average Colour Score 600+ 575-599 550-574 525-549 500-524 475-499 450-474 • 425-449 Switzerland (position 19) – above the OECD av- 400-424 0-399 no information erage

The results for the 2012 “Maths” section on a world map. • Slovenia (position 20) – above the OECD average

• Liechtenstein (position 8) – above the OECD • Czech Republic (position 22) – above the average OECD average

• Switzerland (position 9) – above the OECD av- • Austria (position 23) – similar to the OECD erage average

• Poland (position 14) – above the OECD aver- • Hungary (position 33) – below the OECD av- age erage 12 6 EDUCATION

• Croatia (position 35) – below the OECD average

• Slovakia (position 40) – below the OECD average

In reading:

Colour Score 600+ 575-599 Karolinum of the Charles University in Prague 550-574 525-549 500-524 475-499 450-474 425-449 400-424 0-399 no information The list of Central Europe’s oldest universities in con- The results for the 2012 “Reading” section on a world map. tinuous operation, established by 1500, include (by their dates of foundation):

• Poland (position 10) – above the OECD aver- • Charles University in Prague,[122] Czech Re- age public (1348) • Liechtenstein (position 11) – above the OECD • Jagiellonian University[123] in Kraków, Poland average (1364) • Switzerland (position 17) – above the OECD av- • University of Vienna[124] in Vienna, Austria erage (1365) • Germany (position 19) – above the OECD av- • University of Pécs[125] in Pécs, Hungary (1367) erage • Heidelberg University[126] in Heidelberg, Ger- • Czech Republic (position 26) – similar to the many (1386) OECD average • Cologne University[127] in Cologne, Germany • Austria (position 27) – below the OECD aver- (1388) age • University of Zadar[128] in Zadar, Croatia • Hungary (position 33) – below the OECD av- (1396) erage • University of Leipzig[129] in Leipzig, Germany • Croatia (position 35) – below the OECD aver- (1409) age • University of Rostock[125] in Rostock, Ger- • Slovenia (position 38) – below the OECD av- many (1419) erage • University of Greifswald[130] in Greifswald, • Romania (position 50) – below the OECD av- Germany (1456) erage • University of Freiburg[131] in Freiburg, Ger- many (1457) 6.3 Higher education • University of Basel[132] in Basel, Switzerland 6.3.1 Universities (1460)

The ﬁrst university east of France and north of the Alps • Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich[133] was the Charles University in Prague established in 1347 in Munich, Germany (1472) or 1348 by Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor and mod- eled on the University of Paris, with the full number of • University of Tübingen[134] in Tübingen, Ger- faculties (law, medicine, philosophy and theology).[121] many (1477) 13

6.3.2 Central European University 7 Culture and Society

Research centers of Central European literature include Harvard (Cambridge, MA),[138] Purdue University[139]

7.1 Architecture

Central European architecture has been shaped by major European styles including but not limited to: Brick Gothic, Rococo, Secession (art) and Modern architecture. Four Central European countries are amongst coun- The entrance of the Central European University in Budapest tries with highers number of World Heritage Sites:

The Central European University (CEU) is a graduate- • Germany (position 4th=, 38 sites) level, English-language university promoting a distinc- tively Central European perspective. It was established in • Poland (position 17th=, 15 sites) 1991 by the Hungarian philanthropist George Soros, who has provided an endowment of US$880 million, mak- • Czech Republic (position 19th, 12 sites) ing the university one of the wealthiest in Europe.[135] In the academic year 2013/2014, the CEU had 1,381 stu- • Switzerland (position 20th=, 11 sites) dents from 93 countries and 388 faculty members from 58 countries.[136] 7.2 Beliefs 6.3.3 Regional exchange program

Central European Exchange Program for University Studies (CEEPUS) is an international exchange program for students and teachers teaching or studying in partic- ipating countries. Its current members include (year it joined for the ﬁrst time in brackets):[137]

• Albania (2006)

• Austria (2005) • Bosnia and Herzegovina (2008)

• Bulgaria (2005) • Croatia (2005)

• Czech Republic (2005) • Hungary (2005) Central European major Christian denomination is Catholicism (map) as well as large Protestant populations • Kosovo (2008) • Macedonia (2006) Central European countries are mostly Roman Catholic (Austria, Croatia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Poland, • Moldova (2011) Slovakia, Slovenia) or mixed Catholic and Protestant, (Germany, Hungary and Switzerland). Large Protes- • Montenegro (2006) tant groups include Lutheran and Calvinist. Signiﬁ- • Poland (2005) cant populations of Eastern Catholicism and Old Catholi- cism are also prevalent throughout Central Europe. • Romania (2005) Central Europe has been a centre of Protestantism in the past; however, it has been mostly eradicated by • Serbia (2005) the Counterreformation.[140][141][142] The Czech Repub- lic (Bohemia) was historically the ﬁrst Protestant coun- • Slovakia (2005) try, then violently recatholised, and now overwhelmingly • Slovenia (2005) non-religious with the largest number of religious being 14 7 CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Catholic (10.3%). Romania is mostly Eastern Orthodox 7.4 Human rights with significant Protestant and Catholic minorities. In some of these countries, there is a number of atheists, 7.4.1 History undeclared and non-religious people: the Czech Repub- lic (non-religious 34.2% and undeclared 45.2%), Ger- Human rights have a long tradition in Central Europe. In many (non-religious 38%), Slovenia (atheist 30.2%), 1222 Hungary defined for the first time the rights of the Luxembourg (25% non-religious), Switzerland (20.1%), nobility in its “Golden Bull”. In 1264 the Statute of Kalisz Hungary (27.2% undeclared, 16.7% “non-religious” and and the General Charter of Jewish Liberties introduced 1.5% atheists), Slovakia (atheists and non-religious numerous rights for the Jews in Poland, granting them de 13.4%, “not specified” 10.6%) Austria (19.7% of “other facto autonomy. In 1783 for the first time, Poland forbid or none”), Liechtenstein (10.6% with no religion), Croa- corporal punishment of children in schools. In the same tia (4%) and Poland (3% of non-believers/agnostics and year, a German state of Baden banned slavery. 1% of undeclared). On the other hand, there were also major regressions, such as “Nihil novi” in Poland in 1505 which forbade • St. Vitus Cathedral, Prague (Catholic), Czech Re- peasants from leaving their land without permission from public their feudal lord.

• Zagreb Cathedral, Zagreb (Catholic), Croatia 7.4.2 Present • St. Mary’s Basilica, Krakow (Catholic), Poland Generally, the countries in the region are progressive on • Jesuit Church, Lucerne (Catholic), Switzerland the issue of human rights: death penalty is illegal in all of them, corporal punishment is outlawed in most of them • Berlin Cathedral (Lutheran), Germany and people of both genders can vote in elections. Never- theless, Central European countries struggle to adopt new • Grossmünster (Calvinist), Switzerland generations of human rights, such as same-sex marriage. Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Poland and Ro- • Metropolitan Cathedral, Iași (Orthodox), Romania mania also have a history of participation in the CIA’s • Abbey of Saint Gall (Catholic), Switzerland extraordinary rendition and detention program, according to the Open Society Foundation.[144][145] • Cologne Cathedral (Catholic), Germany

• Prejmer fortiﬁed church (Lutheran), Romania 7.5 Literature • Cathedral of Hajdúdorog (Eastern Catholic), Regional writing tradition revolves around the tur- Hungary bulent history of the region, as well as its cultural diversity,[146][147] and its existence is sometimes • Vaduz Cathedral (Catholic), Liechtenstein challenged.[148] • St. Elisabeth Cathedral in Košice (Catholic), Speciﬁc courses on Central European literature are taught Slovakia at Stanford University,[149] Harvard University[150] and Jagiellonian University[151] The as well as cultural mag- • Evangelical church in Partizánska Ľupča azines dedicated to regional literature.[152] (Lutheran), Slovakia Angelus Central European Literature Award is an award worth 150,000.00 PLN (about $50,000 or £30,000) for [153] 7.3 Cuisine writers originating from the region.

Central European cuisine has evolved through centuries due to social and political change. Most countries share 7.6 Media many dishes. The most popular dishes typical to Central Europe are sausages and cheeses, where the earliest evi- There is a whole spectrum of media active in the region: dence of cheesemaking in the archaeological record dates newspapers, television and internet channels, radio chan- back to 5,500 BCE (Kujawy, Poland).[143] Other foods nels, internet websites etc. Central European media are widely associated with Central Europe are goulash and regarded as free, according to the Press Freedom Index. Some of the top scoring countries are in Central Europe beer. List of countries by beer consumption per capita [154] is led by the Czech Republic, followed by Germany and include: Austria. Poland comes 5th, Croatia 7th and Slovenia 13th. • Austria (position 7) 15

Germany) hosted UEFA Euro 1988. Recently, 2008 and 2012 UEFA European Championships were held in Aus- tria & Switzerland and Poland & Ukraine respectively. Germany hosted 2 FIFA World Cups (1974 and 2006) and are the current champions (as of 2018).[156][157][158]

8 Politics

Press Freedom Index results. 8.1 Organisations

Central Europe is a birthplace of regional political organ- • Germany (position 12) isations: • Czech Republic (position 13) • Visegrad group • Slovakia (position 14) • Centrope • Poland (position 18) • Central European Initiative • Luxembourg (position 19) • Central European Free Trade Agreement • Switzerland (position 20) • Middleeuropean Initiative • Liechtenstein (position 27) • Central European Initiative • Slovenia (position 35) • Visegrád Group • Romania (position 52) • CEFTA founding states • Croatia (position 58) • CEFTA members in 2003, before joining the EU • Hungary (position 65) • Current CEFTA members • Serbia (position 67) • Central Europe according to Peter J. Katzenstein (1997) 7.7 Sport The Visegrád Group countries are referred to as Central Europe in the book[1] There is a number of Central European Sport events and countries for which there’s no precise, uncontestable leagues. They include: way to decide whether they are parts of Central Europe or not[2] • Central European Tour Miskolc GP (Hungary)* • Central European Tour Budapest GP (Hungary) • According to The Economist and Ronald Tiersky • Central Europe Rally (Romania and Hungary)* a strict deﬁnition of Central Europe means the Visegrád Group[3][4] • Central European Football League (Austria, Croa- • tia, Hungary, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Turkey) Map of Central Europe, according to Lonnie R. Johnson (2011)[5] • Central European International Cup (Austria, Countries usually considered Central European Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Switzer- (citing the World Bank and the OECD) land and Yugoslavia; 1927-1960) Countries considered to be Central European only in the broader sense of the term. • Central Europe Throwdown*[155]

Football is one of the most popular sports. Countries of • Central European countries in Encarta Encyclope- Central Europe had many great national teams through- dia (2009)[6] out history and hosted several major competitions. Yu- Central European countries goslavia hosted UEFA Euro 1976 before the competition Slovenia in “south central Europe” expanded to 8 teams and Germany (at that times as West 16 8 POLITICS

• The Central European Countries according to Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon (1999): Countries usually considered Central European Central European countries in the broader sense of the term Countries occasionally considered to be Central European

• Middle Europe (Brockhaus Enzyklopädie, 1998)) The Economist Intelligence Unit Democracy index map for 2014, with greener colours representing more democratic • Central Europe according to Swansea Univer- countries. sity professors Robert Bideleux and Ian Jeffries Full democracies: (1998)[7] 9.00–10.00 8.00–8.99 • [8] Central Europe, as defined by E. Schenk (1950) Flawed democracies: 7.00–7.99 • Central Europe, according to Alice F. A. Mutton in 6.00–6.99 Central Europe. A Regional and Human Geography Hybrid regimes: (1961) 5.00–5.99 • Central Europe according to Meyers Enzyk- 4.00–4.99 Authoritarian regimes: lopaedisches Lexikon (1980) 3.00–3.99 2.00–2.99 1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Peter_J_p._6 0.00–1.99 was invoked but never defined (see the help page). Insufficient information, no rating: 2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Peter_J_p._4 was invoked but never defined (see the help page). • Switzerland (position 6) 3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Tier- sky.2C_p._472 was invoked but never defined • Luxembourg (position 11) (see the help page). • Germany (position 13) 4. ^ Cite error: The named reference From_Visegrad_to_Mitteleuropa was invoked • Austria (position 14) but never defined (see the help page). • Czech Republic (position 25) 5. ^ Johnson, pp. 16 • Slovenia (position 37) 6. ^ Cite error: The named reference Encarta was invoked but never defined (see the help page). • Poland (position 40)

7. ^ ""Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and • Slovakia (position 45) possibly Poland, Slovenia and Croatia” - Cutare Google”. • Croatia (position 50) 8. ^ Erich Schenk, Mitteleuropa. Düsseldorf, 1950 • Hungary (position 51)

• Romania (position 57) 8.2 Democracy Index • Liechtenstein (not listed) Central Europe is a home to some of world’s oldest democracie. However, most of them have been impacted by totalitarian rule, particularly Nazism (Germany, Aus- 8.3 Global Peace Index tria, other occupied countries) and Communism. Most of Central Europe have been occupied and later allied with In spite of its turbulent history, Central Europe is cur- the USSR, often against their will through forged referen- rently one of world’s safest regions. Most Central Euro- [160] dum (e.g., Polish people’s referendum in 1946) or force pean countries are in top 20%: (northeast Germany, Poland, Hungary et alia). Neverthe- less, these experiences have been dealt in most of them. • Austria (position 3) Most of Central European countries score very highly in the Democracy Index:[159] • Switzerland (position 5) 17

• Hungary (1890)

• Slovakia (1890)

• Czech Republic (1891)

Colour Percentage Top 20% Top 40% Middle 20% Bottom 40% • Bottom 20% Germany (1893) no information

• Austria (1893) Global Peace Index Scores. • Poland (1893[161]) • Czech Republic (position 10) • Slovenia (1893) • Slovenia (position 15) • • Germany (position 16) Switzerland (1894)

• Poland (position 19) • Liechtenstein (1894) • Hungary (position 22) • Slovakia (position 23) 10 In popular culture • Romania (position 26) Central Europe is mentioned in 35th episode of Lovejoy, • Croatia (position 27) entitled “The Prague Sun”, filmed in 1992. While walk- ing over the famous Charles Bridge, the main character, • Liechtenstein (not listed) Lovejoy says: " I've never been to Prague before. Well, it is one of the great unspoiled cities in Central Europe. Notice: I said: “Central”, not “Eastern"! The Czechs are a bit funny about that, they think of Eastern Europeans as turnip heads.”[162] Wes Anderson's Oscar-winning film The Grand Bu- dapest Hotel is regarded as a fictionalised celebration of the 1930s in Central Europe[163] and region’s musical tastes[164]

11 See also

• Central and Eastern Europe

• Central European Initiative

• Central European Time (CET)

• Central European Time Zone (dark red) Central European University

• East-Central Europe

9 Central European Time • Geographical centre of Europe

The time zone used in most parts of the European Union • Life zones of central Europe is a standard time which is 1 hour ahead of Coordinated Universal Time. It is commonly called Central European • Międzymorze (Intermarum) Time because it has been ﬁrst adopted in central Europe (by year): • Mitteleuropa 18 12 REFERENCES

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• Ágh, Attila (1998). The politics of Central Europe. • Halecki, Oscar. “BORDERLANDS OF WEST- SAGE. ISBN 0-7619-5032-X. ERN CIVILIZATION A History of East Central Europe” (PDF). Oscar Halecki. Retrieved 8 August • Hayes, Bascom Barry (1994). Bismarck and Mit- 2010. teleuropa. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. ISBN 978-0-8386-3512-4. • The Centrope region

• Johnson, Lonnie R. (1996). Central Europe: ene- • Map of Europe mies, neighbors, friends. Oxford University Press. • Maps of Europe and European countries ISBN 978-0-19-510071-6. • CENTRAL EUROPE 2020 • Katzenstein, Peter J. (1997). Mitteleuropa: Between Europe and Germany. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978- • Central Europe Economy 1-57181-124-0. • UNHCR Oﬃce for Central Europe • O. Benson, Forgacs (2002). Between Worlds. A Sourcebook of Central European Avant-Gardes, 1910–1930. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-02530- 0.

• Tiersky, Ronald (2004). Europe today. Rowman & Littleﬁeld. ISBN 978-0-7425-2805-5.

• Tötösy de Zepetnek, Steven (2002), Comparative Central European culture, Purdue University Press, ISBN 1-55753-240-0

14 Further reading

• Jacques Rupnik, “In Search of Central Europe: Ten Years Later”, in Gardner, Hall, with Schaeffer, Eli- nore & Kobtzeff, Oleg, (ed.), Central and South- central Europe in Transition, Westport, Connecti- cut: Praeger, 2000 (translated form French by Oleg Kobtzeff)

• Article 'Mapping Central Europe' in hidden europe, 5, pp. 14–15 (November 2005)

• “Journal of East Central Europe": http://www.ece. ceu.hu

• Central European Political Science Association’s journal “Politics in Central Europe": http://www. politicsincentraleurope.eu/

• CEU Political Science Journal (PSJ): http://www. ceu.hu/poliscijournal

• Central European Journal of International and Se- curity Studies: http://www.cejiss.org/

• Central European Political Studies Review: http:// www.cepsr.com/

15 External links

• The dictionary deﬁnition of central europe at Wik- tionary 23

16 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Credits: • File:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ДСТУ 4512:2006 - Державний прапор України. Загальні технічні умови SVG: 2010 Original artist: України • File:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic. svg License: Public domain Contributors: • -xfi-'s file • -xfi-'s code • Zirland’s codes of colors Original artist: (of code): SVG version by cs:-xfi-. • File:Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations. svg License: Public domain Contributors: Flag of the United Nations from the Open Clip Art website. Modifications by Denelson83, Zscout370 and Madden. Official construction sheet here. United Nations (1962) The United Nations flag code and regulations, as amended November 11, 1952, New York OCLC: 7548838. Original artist: Wilfried Huss / Anonymous • File:Floristic_regions_in_Europe_(english).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Floristic_regions_ in_Europe_%28english%29.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Olahus • File:Global_Peace_Index.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Global_Peace_Index.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Globalization_Index.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Globalization_Index.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: File:BlankMap-World-Microstates.svg Original artist: NuclearVacuum, Spesh531 • File:Grossgliederung_Europas-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Grossgliederung_Europas-en. svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: • Grossgliederung_Europas.svg Original artist: Grossgliederung_Europas.svg: NordNordWest • File:Growth_of_Habsburg_territories.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Growth_of_Habsburg_ territories.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: [1] Original artist: Unknown • File:Increase2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Increase2.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sarang • File:Literacy_rate_world.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Literacy_rate_world.svg License: CC- BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Image:Literacy_rate_world.PNG by User:Astrokey44; CIA World Factbook data Original artist: Original image by User:Astrokey44; new SVG version by User:Andrew_pmk • File:Little_Entente.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Little_Entente.png License: Public domain Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: Meneldur • File:LocationAfrica.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/LocationAfrica.png License: Public domain Contributors: map adapted from PDF world map at CIA World Fact Book Original artist: see above • File:LocationAsia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/LocationAsia.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Image:LocationAsia.png Original artist: Kudo-kun • File:LocationEurope.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/LocationEurope.png License: Public domain Contributors: own work - map adapted from PDF world map at CIA World Fact Book Original artist: user:Cumhur • File:LocationNorthAmerica.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/LocationNorthAmerica.png License: Public domain Contributors: own work - map adapted from PDF world map at CIA World Fact Book Original artist: Dado • File:LocationOceania.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/LocationOceania.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? 26 16 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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