Central Europe Major geographic features of central Europe Central Europe according to The World Factbook Central Europe (archaically “Middle Europe”) is a re- (2009),[19] Encyclopædia Britannica, and Brockhaus gion lying between the variously defined areas of the Enzyklopädie (1998) Eastern and Western parts of the European continent. The term and widespread interest in the region itself came back after the end of the Cold War, which used to divide Europe politically into East and West, splitting Central Europe in half.[1][2] It was followed by the EU accession of the Visegrád Group member states.[3] The concept of Central Europe, and that of a common cultural identity, is somewhat elusive.[4][5][6] However, scholars assert that a distinct “Central European cul- ture, as controversial and debated the notion may be, exists”.[7][8] It is based on “similarities emanating from historical, social and cultural characteristics",[7][9] and it is identified as having been “one of the world’s richest sources of creative talent” between the 17th and 20th centuries.[10] Cross Currents: A Yearbook of Central Eu- ropean Culture characterizes Central Europe “as an aban- doned West or a place where East and West collide”.[11] Germany’s Constant Committee for Geographical Names Central Europe according to P. Jones (Leibniz Institute defines Central Europe both as a distinct cultural area for Regional Geography). Many Central European and a political region.[12][13] George Schöpflin and oth- countries and regions were parts of the German and ers argue that Central Europe is defined by being “a part the Austro-Hungarian empires, or the Polish-Lithuanian of Western Christianity",[14] while Samuel P. Huntington Commonwealth; thus they also have historical and places the region firmly within Western culture.[15] cultural connections. From the 2000s on, Central Europe has been going through a phase of “strategic awakening”,[16] with ini- tiatives like the CEI, Centrope or V4. While the re- gion’s economy shows high disparities with regard to income,[17] all Central European countries are listed by the Human Development Index as “very high develop- ment” countries.[18] 1 2 1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE In 1335 under the rule of the King Charles I of Hungary, the castle of Visegrád, the seat of the Hungarian monar- chs was the scene of the royal summit of the Kings of Poland, Bohemia and Hungary.[26] They agreed to coop- erate closely in the field of politics and commerce, in- spiring their late successors to launch a successful Central European initiative.[26] In the Middle Ages, countries in Central Europe adopted Magdeburg rights. 1.2 Before World War I Central Europe according to Lonnie Johnson, Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends [20] 1 Historical perspective 1.1 Middle Ages Elements of unity for Western and Central Europe were A view of Central Europe dating from the time before the First [27] Roman Catholicism and Latin. Eastern Europe, which World War (1902): remained Eastern Orthodox Christian, was the area of Central European countries and regions: Germany and Austria- Byzantine cultural influence; after the schism (1054), it Hungary (without Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia) Regions located at the transition between Central Europe and will develop cultural unity and resistance to the Western Southern Europe: Romania world (Catholic and Protestant) within the framework of Slavonic language and the Cyrillic alphabet.[21][22][23][24] Before 1870, the industrialization that had developed in • Certain and disputed borders of Great Moravia un- Western and Central Europe and the United States did der Svatopluk I (AD 870–894) not extend in any significant way to the rest of the world. Even in Eastern Europe, industrialization lagged far be- • Holy Roman Empire in 1400 hind. Russia, for example, remained largely rural and agricultural, and its autocratic rulers kept the peasants in • Kingdom of Poland in late 12th-13th centuries. serfdom.[28] The concept of Central Europe was already [29] • Bohemia in 1273 known at the beginning of the 19th century, but its real life began in the 20th century and immediately be- • Kingdom of Hungary in 1190 came an object of intensive interest. However, the very first concept mixed science, politics and economy – it According to Hungarian historian Jenő Szűcs, founda- was strictly connected with intensively growing German tions of Central European history at the first millen- economy and its aspirations to dominate a part of Eu- nium were in close connection with Western European ropean continent called Mitteleuropa. The German term development. He explained that between the 11th and denoting Central Europe was so fashionable that other 15th centuries not only Christianization and its cultural languages started referring to it when indicating territo- ries from Rhine to Vistula, or even Dnieper, and from the consequences were implemented, but well-defined social [30] features emerged in Central Europe based on Western Baltic Sea to the Balkans. An example of that-time vi- sion of Central Europe may be seen in J. Partsch’s book characteristics. The keyword of Western social devel- [31] opment after millennium was the spread of liberties and of 1903. autonomies in Western Europe. These phenomena ap- On 21 January 1904 – Mitteleuropäischer peared in the middle of the 13th century in Central Eu- Wirtschaftsverein (Central European Economic As- ropean countries. There were self-governments of towns, sociation) was established in Berlin with economic counties and parliaments.[25] integration of Germany and Austria–Hungary (with 1.4 Mitteleuropa 3 eventual extension to Switzerland, Belgium and the mostly outside Central Europe. The author use both Hu- Netherlands) as its main aim. Another time, the term man and Physical Geographical features to define Central Central Europe became connected to the German plans Europe.[36] of political, economic and cultural domination. The The interwar period (1918–1939) brought new geopo- “bible” of the concept was Friedrich Naumann’s book [32] litical system and economic and political problems, and Mitteleuropa in which he called for an economic fed- the concept of Central Europe took a different charac- eration to be established after the war. Naumann’s idea ter. The centre of interest was moved to its eastern part was that the federation would have at its center Germany – the countries that have (re)appeared on the map of Eu- and the Austro-Hungarian Empire but would also include rope: Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland. Central Eu- all European nations outside the Anglo-French alliance, rope ceased to be the area of German aspiration to lead on one side, and Russia, on the other.[33] The concept or dominate and became a territory of various integra- failed after the German defeat in World War I and the tion movements aiming at resolving political, economic dissolution of Austria–Hungary. The revival of the idea and national problems of “new” states, being a way to may be observed during the Hitler era. face German and Soviet pressures. However, the con- flict of interests was too big and neither Little Entente nor Intermarium (Międzymorze) ideas succeeded. 1.3 Interwar period The interwar period brought new elements to the con- cept of Central Europe. Before World War I, it embraced mainly German states (Germany, Austria), non-German territories being an area of intended German penetration and domination – German leadership position was to be the natural result of economic dominance.[29] After the war, the Eastern part of Central Europe was placed at the centre of the concept. At that time the scientists took in- terest in the idea: the International Historical Congress in Brussels in 1923 was committed to Central Europe, and Interwar Central Europe according to Emmanuel de the 1933 Congress continued the discussions.[37] Martonne (1927) Hungarian scholar Magda Adam wrote in her study Ver- sailles System and Central Europe (2006): “Today we know that the bane of Central Europe was the Little Entente, military alliance of Czechoslovakia, Romania and Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yu- goslavia), created in 1921 not for Central Europe’s coop- eration nor to fight German expansion, but in a wrong per- ceived notion that a completely powerless Hungary must be kept down”.[37] The avant-garde movements of Central Europe were an essential part of modernism’s evolution, reaching its Little Entente, Central European defense union of peak throughout the continent during the 1920s. The [34] Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia Sourcebook of Central European avantgards (Los Angeles County Museum of Art) contains primary documents of the avant-gardes in Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Yugoslavia from 1910 to 1930.[35] The manifestos and magazines of Western European radical art circles are well known to Western scholars and are being taught at primary universities of their kind in the western world. CE countries, Sourcebook of Central European Avant- 1.4 Mitteleuropa Gardes 1910–1930 (L.A. County Museum of Art)[35] The German term Mitteleuropa (or alternatively its literal According to Emmanuel de Martonne, in 1927 the Cen- translation into English, Middle Europe[38]) is an ambigu- tral European countries included: Austria, Czechoslo- ous German concept.[38] It is sometimes used in English vakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Switzer- to refer to an area somewhat larger than most concep- land. Italy and Yugoslavia are not considered by the au- tions of 'Central Europe'; it refers to territories under Ger- thor to be Central European because they are located manic cultural hegemony until World War I (encompass- 4 1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Main european regions destroyed this kind of culture instead.[38][42][43] However, following actual state borders following cultural proximities the term “Mitteleuropa” is now widely used again in Ger- man education and media without negative meaning, es- Iceland pecially since the end of communism.