Solutions Disperse Systems, Protective Colloids, Molar and Equivalent Concentrations, Percentage Solutions. Disperse System • The term "Disperse System" refers to a system in which one substance (the dispersed phase) is distributed, in discrete units, throughout a second substance (the continuous phase or vehicle).

• There are 3 types of disperse system depending on the size of disperse phase particles. ▫ True Solutions ▫ Collaidal Solutions/Dispersion ▫ Suspensions/Dispersion Disperse Systems True Solution Colloidal Solution Suspensions It has particles It has particles It has particles <1 nm. between 1 and 100 nm. >100 nm . Homogeneous mixture. Heterogeneous mixture. Heterogeneous mixture. Behaves like a third unit other than soluble and solvent. Low viscosity. Viscosity is high. Viscosity is veryhigh. Osmotic pressure is high. Osmotic pressure is low. Does not show osmotic pressure. When the light passes, the definition of When light passes, it gets foggy. This is the light is illuminated called tyndall effect. Particles can not be seen even with the Particles can be seen with an electron Particles can be seen with light most powerful optical and electronic microscope. microscopy or even with the eye. systems Slow Brownian motion is seen in the Particles make molecular movements. Brownian motion is seen in particles. particles. The particles are separated by filtration Filtering the particles through the filter The particles is separated by filtration through filter paper, separated by paper is not possible by dialysis. through filter paper or by dialysis. dialysis. Brownian Motion Tyndall Effect Disperse Systems Important terms of the colloidal state Colloidal solution is given to the particles of solute in the Disperse Phase solution.

Dispersion Medium The solvent in the colloidal solution is given to the liquid.

Colloid particles do not have affinity to the molecules of solvent Suspensoid (Lyophobic system) Mostly complexes of inorganic particles which do not have affinity to the solvent. In the case of Suspension, the dispersion medium is called Hydrophobic hydrophobic.

a mixture of two or more immiscible liquids, one liquid (the Emulsoid (Lyophilic System) dispersed phase) is dispersed in the other (the continuous phase).

If the dispersion medium is water in emulsified , such system is Hydrophilic called hydrophilic. Disperse Systems Viscosity states of emulsions SOL GEL The viscosity is low, Viscosity increased, Close to the true solution, Taking a jellylike shape, is called a colloidal system that It is called colloids which must can flow from one vessel to be pressurized to provide another. fluidity. Protective Colloids • Emulsoids are much more durable than suspensoids.

• If a small amount of an emulsoid is added to the suspension, the suspension is more stable.

• The emulsoid forms a protective layer around the suspended particles and gives the emulsoid most of its own strength. The emulsions used in this way are called protective colloids. Protective Colloids • Except for globulins, various proteins have protective effect. • Many water-insoluble substances in blood plasma can be transported without collapse by the protective colloids in the plasma. • Lipids dissolve as colloids under the influence of proteins. Protective Colloids • Insoluble substances, such as calcium phosphate and uric acid, are brought to the extraction door by the action of protective colloids in the urine without causing undue and oversaturated solubilizing. • It has been reported that the reduction of the protective colloids contained in the urine may make urinary stones possible. Mole Unit • Mole = 6,02 x 1023  Avogadro number (Amedeo AVOGADRO)

• 1 mole = 6.02 x 1023 = grams (atomic mass) • 1 mole = 6.02 x 1023 = grams (molecular mass)

• 56Fe, 27Al 1 mole 0.5 mole 3 moles

5 moles Mole Unit

1. How much grams should we weigh to prepare 2 moles of NaOH? ( Na=23 g/mol, O=16 g/mol, H=1 g/mol)

2. How many moles KCl in 7.45 g? (K=39.0 g/mol; Cl=35.5 g/mol)

3. What is the mole number of 19.6 g H2SO4? (H=1 g/mol, S=32 g/mol, O=16 g/mol)

4. How many moles of Sn atom that contains 3.01x1023 particles? Molar Concentration • The most common measure of concentration in the laboratory is molarity - the number of moles of solute per liter of solution. • Symbol = M or mol/L

• Preparing Molar Concentration from solid chemicals. ▫ NaOH MW= 40 g

• Preparing Molar Concentration from acids.

▫ H2SO4 MW= 98 g Density= 1.84 g/ml % 98 Molecular Weight (g) x wanted M x Desired Volume (mL)) M = Density x Percentage x 1000 Molal Solutions (Molality)

• A molal solution is a solution that contains 1 molecular weight (mole number) of solute in a kilogram of solvent. A solution of concentration 1 mol/kg is also sometimes denoted as 1 molal.

• Symbol= m veya mol/kg

• Preparing Molal Concentration from solid chemicals. ▫ What is the molality of a solution of 10 g NaOH in 500 g water? (MW= 40 g/mol) mole (solute) Molarity = L (solution)

! mole (solute) Molality = Kg (solvent) Molarity & Molality Problems • We prepared a 500 ml of solution with using 23.4 g NaCl. So, What is the molarity of the solution? (NaCl MW=58.5 g/mol)

• Prepare 0.5 M 400 mL HCl solution (MW=36.5 g/mol - Density=1.2 g/mL - 36.5%).

• 32.5 g of NaF is dissolved in 425g of water. Calculate the molality of the solution (NaF MW=42 g/mol).

• 30.8 g of KOH is dissolved in 1100 g of water. Calculate the molality of the solution (KOH MW=56 g/mol). Molarity & Molality Problems

• How many grams of KNO3 should be added to 250 g water to prepare a 0.200 m KNO3 solution? (KNO3: 101.1 g / mol)

• How many mL of HNO3 solution should be used to prepare an 100 mL of 100 mmol/L HNO3? (MW = 63.01 g / mol - Density = 1.51 g / ml - 70%)

• How many grams of CaCO3 is required to prepare a 500 g of 0.5 mol/kg CaCO3 solution? (CaCO3: 100.08 g / mol)

• A solution of 74.5 g of CaCl2 in 560 g of water was prepared. The density of the solution is 1.15 g/mL. Calculate the molality and molarity of this solution? (CaCl2 MW = 110.98 g/mol) Osmole Unit • Osmole = Molecular Mass: Osmotically active particle number

• NaCl dissociates to Na and Cl ions in aqueous solution. Since each molecule forms two osmotically active particles, 1 osmole grams of NaCl 58.5/2 = 29.25 grams. So, to prepare 1 osmolar solution of NaCl, we should weigh 29.25 g NaCl.

• 1 osmolar glucose is 180 grams. Because glucose is dissolved in the molecular state and 1 active particles.

• Ionic - Nonionic compound difference is important. Osmolar Solutions (Osmolarity-Osmotic Concentration) • It is the measure of solute concentration, defined as the number of osmoles (Osm) of solute per litre (L) of solution.

• Symbol= Osm, Osm/L veya osmol/L

• Osmolarity can be used to predict whether water will pass from one side of a semipermeable membrane to the other (also referred to as water retention).

• How much grams should we weigh to prepare 2 Osm of 4 L NaCl? (NaCl MW=58 g/mol)

• Plazma Osmolarity (Osm) = 2 Na + Glucose + Ure (all in mmol/L) Osmolality Solutions (Osmolality) • Osmolality is the number of osmoles of solute in a kilogram of solvent.

• Symbol= Osmol/kg osmole (solute) Osmolarity = L (Solution)

! osmole (solute) Osmolality = Kg (Solvent) Equivalent Concentration (Normality) • Normality is another way of expressing the concentration of a solution. It is based on an alternate chemical unit of mass called the equivalent weight.

• The normality of a solution is the concentration expressed as the number of equivalent weights (equivalents) of solute per liter of solution. ▫ The equivalent concentration or normality of a solution is defined as the molar concentration divided by an equivalence factor. • Equilibrated grams are found by dividing the molecular weight of the substance to be prepared by the solubility value by the valency of the substance to be prepared. Equivalent Concentration (Normality) • A normal solution contains one equivalent of solute per liter of solution.

• For acid-base reactions, an equivalent is the amount of a reactant that can produce or consume one mole of hydrogen ions (using the Brønsted-Lowry definition).

• So, for example, a mole of HCl or NaOH is one equivalent, but a mole of H₂SO₄ or Ca(OH)₂ is two equivalent. Equivalent Concentration (Normality)

Equivalent grams of the solute Normality = L (Solution) Equivalent Concentration (Normality)

• Symbol= N/eq/L/Val/L

• Preparing normal solution from solid chemicals. ▫ NaOH MW= 40 g

• Preparing normal solutions from acids

▫ H2SO4 MW= 98 g Dansite= 1.84 g/ml % 98

Molecular Weight (g) x Desired M x Desired Volume (mL) N = Density x Percentage x Equivalence Factor x 1000 Normal Solutions (Normality)

• A 250 ml of solution was prepared with using 18.5 g Ca(OH)2. What is the normality of the solution? [Ca(OH)2: 74 g mol)]

• How many grams of NaOH is required to prepare a 250 mL of 0,2 N NaOH solution? (NaOH= 40 g/mol)

• A 0.1 L solution of 4.9 g of H2SO4 was prepared. Calculate the Normality of this solution? (H2SO4 MW=98 g/mol) Percentage Solutions • A percentage solution is an amount or volume of chemical or compound per 100 mL of a solution. It is a relative expression of solute to solvent: X amount/100 ml = X%. • Weight/Volume ▫ 250 ml % 10 NaOH Preparation • Volume/Volume ▫ Preparation of 100 ml of ethyl alcohol of 40% by using 96% ethyl alcohol • Weight/Weight ▫ % 5 NaOH Preparation Dilution

• Dilution is the process of decreasing the concentration of a solute in a solution, usually simply by mixing with more solvent like adding more water to a solution.

• To dilute a solution means to add more solvent without the addition of more solute. It is usually prepared from stock solutions of known concentration.

• n1v1=n2v2 / m1v1=m2v2 / c1v1=c2v2 Dilution

• What is the normality when 400 mL of water is added to 100 mL

of 0.5 N H2SO4 solution?

• How to prepare 50 ml of a 0.1 M HCl solution from a 15 M stock HCl solution?

• How to prepare 400 mL of 40% C2H6O from 96% C2H6O? PPM and PPB • ppm= parts per million ▫ One ppm is equivalent to 1 milligram of something per liter of water (mg/l) or 1 milligram of something per kilogram soil (mg/kg).

• ppb= parts per billion ▫ Parts per billion (ppb) is the number of units of mass of a contaminant per 1000 million units of total mass. Also µg/L or µg/kg.

• ppt= parts per trillion ▫ ng/L

• ppq= parts per quadrillion ▫ pg/L Solutions according to physical form of components

• Solvent/Solute ▫ Solid-liquid solutions: Saltwater ▫ Solid-solid solutions: They are alloys. Steel, C and Fe mixture ▫ Solid-gas solutions : Iodine steam and air mixture ▫ Liquid-liquid solutions : Vinegar, acetic acid and salt mixture ▫ Liquid-solid solutions : Amalgam; Mercury and silver mixture ▫ Liquid-gas solutions : Water vapor and air mixture ▫ Gas-Gas solutions : Air ▫ Gas-liquid solutions : Soda; CO2 and water mixture ▫ Gas-solid: Mixture of hydrogen and palladium Solutions according to dissolved amount • Diluted/Dilute solution ▫ Contains a small amount of solute per litre of solution.

• Concentrated solution ▫ Contains a a large amount of solute per litre of solution. Solutions according to the resolution of solute • Unsaturated solution: An unsaturated solution is a chemical solution in which the solute concentration is lower than its equilibrium solubility. • Saturated solution:A saturated solution is a chemical solution containing the maximum concentration of a solute dissolved in the solvent. • Supersaturated solution: A supersaturated solution is a solution with more dissolved solute than the solvent would normally dissolve in its current conditions. Supersaturation is achieved by dissolving a solute in one set of conditions, then transferring it to other conditions without triggering any release of the solute. Supersaturated solutions are extremely unstable Unsaturated Saturated Supersaturated Precipitate solution Solution solution Solutions according to electrical conductivity

• Electrolyte solution: An electrolyte solution is a solution that generally contains ions, atoms or molecules that have lost or gained electrons, and is electrically conductive. For this reason they are often called ionic solutions, however there are some cases where the electrolytes are not ions (for example Salt- NaCl). • Non-electrolyte solution: Nonelectrolytes are compounds that do not ionize at all in solution. As a result, solutions containing nonelectrolytes will not conduct electricity (A common example

of a nonelectrolyte is glucose, or C6H12O6. Glucose-sugar readily dissolves in water). Source: PhilSchatz

Non-electrolyte Strong Weak solution Electrolyte solution Electrolyte solution Ethanol / Distile Water Acetic acid solution KCl Solutions according to the electrical conductivity • For the transmission of electricity from a matter; i. There must be electrons in the free state. ii. Anion (-) and cation (+) must be found in the structure. iii. The compounds do not conduct electricity in solid state. In liquid form and in solution state, the ionic compounds conduct electrical current. iv. As the number of ions in a solution increases, or as the temperature increases, the conductivity of the solution increases (at endothermic solubility). v. The electrical conductivity of the metals is due to the electron flow (translational motion), the event is physical. vi. The electrical conductivity of aqueous solutions of the compounds is by chemical means. vii.Solvents in water-soluble (water-insulated) materials do not transmit electrical current. pH, Amphoterism, Buffers Kaynak: Learner Hydrogen Ion Concentration • Acid-Base balance are provided with a highly compatible operation by liver, lung and kidneys. ▫ It must be balanced by the excretion of [H+] produced in the living being. ▫ pH= It is the negative logarithm of the concentration of [H+] ions present in a solution (pH=-log [H+]). ▫ If the pH of a solution is less than 7, it is an acid. If it is greater than 7, it is a base, if it is 7, it is a neutral solution. ▫ Plasma [H +] is kept in fairly narrow limits with no abnormality. Hydrogen Ion Concentration

Body Fluids pH Values Plasma 7,38 – 7,44 Pancreatic liquid 7.5 – 8.00 Saliva 6.35 – 6.85 Gastric juice 0.9 – 1.6 Milk 6.6 – 6.9 Urine 4.8 – 7.5 Hydrogen Ion Concentration • Although intensified at plasma pH, the viability of the cell at the intracellular pH is critical for normal enzyme function and other metabolic processes (mean 7.0).

• Cells have defensive mechanisms against pH changes in the extracellular environment.

• Marginal pH changes in the extracellular environment may severely degrade metabolism by affecting the integrity of the intracellular environment and may even cause cell death. Hydrogen Ion Concentration • [H+] balance, in other words acid-base balance; ▫ The amount of H+ taken in the diet + endogenous metabolism is preserved as a result of mutual balancing of the amount obtained and the amount taken from the body. ▫ Thus, the balance of the extracellular fluid (ECF) is kept within the physiological limits and viability is maintained. ▫ To ensure equilibrium;

 Volatile acids are removed by respiration (such as CO2) + -  H and HCO3 are removed or retained by the kidneys.  It forms complex with non-volatile H+ chemical buffers and is discarded. Hydrogen Ion Concentration • Volatile acid production ▫ Mitochondrial.

▫ Produced by the oxidation of carbohydrates (CO2 + H2O) and the β-oxidation of fatty acids (CO2 + H2O).

• Non-volatile acid production ▫ Produced by the oxidation of carbohydrates (lactic acid), the β-oxidation of fatty acids (ketone bodies), the oxidation of

amino acids (urea, HCl, H3PO4) and the oxidation of nucleic acids (H3PO4). Hydrogen Ion Concentration • High acid load is seen in animals grown in grasslands with high sulphate and phosphate residues or fed with high amount of grain feed.

• However, normal endogenous acid production may increase in some pathological conditions. The best example of this is the increase in ketone body synthesis seen in Diabetes mellitus.

• Organic acid formation may also increase due to toxins or drugs. ▫ For example; Formic acid from methanol, glycolic and oxalic acid from ethylene glycol, salicylic acid from aspirin. Hydrogen Ion Concentration

• The fruits are an alkali source. ▫ Contains Na+ and K+ salts of weak organic acids. Their dissociated anions become H+ acceptors before metabolism.

• Alkalosis appears to be due to the abundance of NaHCO3 or other alkali salts in animals, but it is more likely due to acid loss. ▫ For example, loss of gastric acid (HCl) because of vomiting. Hydrogen Ion Concentration • For non-volatile acids; ▫ Body hydrogen input sources  Diet, Metabolism, Fecal Base Loss ▫ Body hydrogen output source  Urine

• In a dog; ▫ Average H+ input amount is 1.0 mmol/day/kg LW (Live weight), while the corresponding amount is excreted from the kidneys. - ▫ Average 10 mmol/day/kg LW HCO3 and base equivalents excreted in the body (mainly by feces), while the corresponding H+ amount is retained in the ECF. Hydrogen Ion Concentration

• The techniques used in pH measurement are examined in two groups.

▫ Electrometric Methods: It is based on the fact that the potential difference between the two electrodes is measured by a galvanometer. ▫ Colorimetric Methods: It is based on the principle of color change at certain pH values of some dyes. The substances whose color changes according to the H ion concentration of the medium are called indicators (pH indicator). Hydrogen Ion Concentration

• An Indicator is a; ▫ Halochromic chemical compound added in small amounts to a solution so the pH (acidity or basicity) of the solution can be determined visually.  Such solutions are used to determine the end point of the titration.  We can separate indicators as acid base, redox and precipitation indicators.

 The point where the indicator changes color is called the turning point.  Indicators are usually weak acids and bases.  They do not give a definite result, they give approximate results. Hydrogen Ion Concentration Indicator Name pH limit Color Change Thymol blue 1.2 – 2.8 Red→Yellow Bromophenol blue 3.0 – 4.6 Yellow→Blue Methyl red 4.4 – 6.0 Red→Yellow

Bromocresol purple 5.8 – 6.8 Yellow→Purple

Phenol red 6.8 – 8.0 Yellow→Red

Methyl orange 2.9 – 4.0 Red→Yellow Phenolphthalein 8.3 – 10.0 Colorless→Pink Litmus 7.0 Red→Blue Hydrogen Ion Concentration The Importance of pH Value in Health • Acidosis is an increased acidity in the blood and other body tissue (i.e. an increased hydrogen ion concentration. • Alkalosis is the result of a process reducing hydrogen ion concentration of arterial blood plasma (alkalemia). In contrast to acidemia, alkalemia occurs when the serum pH is higher than normal. • A number of functions in the body are affected by the pH value. ▫ The ability of hemoglobin to bind oxygen, ▫ Hydrogen bridges between protein charges and protein molecules, ▫ Bone making and destruction. Amphoterism (Amphoteric Electrolytes) • The ability of some chemicals to act either as an acid or a base is called amphoterism. Whether an amphoteric chemical acts as an acid or a base depends on what other chemicals happen to be around.

• Specifications; 1. They form cations in acidic medium and anions in alkaline environment. 2. An ampholyte carries the same number of negative and positive charges at a given pH. This pH is called ampholytic isoelectric point.  The isoelectric point (pI, pH(I), IEP), is the pH at which a particular molecule carries no net electrical charge in the statistical mean. 3. An ampholyte moves to cathode in acid reaction; move to anode in alkaline reaction; does not move at isoelectic point. Amphoterics (Amphoteric Electrolites) 4. Ampholytes may bind both H+ ions and OH- ions according to the pH of the medium. Because of this, ampholytes act as buffers against acids or against bases. 5. The point where the concentrations of H+ + OH- ions are equal to each other is called the neutral point. 6. The concentrations of H+ + OH- ions are inversely proportional to each other. Equals the molar concentration of H+ and OH- in pure water at 25º C and the solution is neutral. Buffers • A buffer is a solution whose pH changes very little when acid or base is added. Most buffers are solutions composed of approximately equal amounts of a weak acid and the salt of its conjugate base.

• Buffers are aqueous systems that tend to resist pH changes when small amounts of acid (H+) or base (OH-) are added. Biological Buffers • All organism reactions occur within certain pH limits.

• PH changes prevent reaction formation.

• When the events that cause the change of pH in the organism come into play, the buffer systems/mechanisms that interfere with the pH change, similar to the buffer systems in the same laboratory conditions. Biological Buffers

• The deterioration of the acid-base balance in body fluids manifests itself with three main elements. These are; 1. The pH value of the blood,

2. The partial pressure of H2CO3 (pCO2 mmHg)

3. The blood concentration of HCO3.

- • The plasma pH is correlated with the H2CO3:HCO3 ratio. Biological Buffers • Dilution • Respiration

▫ CO2 excretion • Renal Mechanism ▫ Excess acid or alkaline excreted with the urine, or ammonia is produced to protect the base. Buffer Systems ▫ In blood plasma: Bicarbonate-Carbonic acid, Phosphate-Phosphoric acid, Protein-Proteinate Buffer ▫ In erythrocytes: Hemoglobinate-Hemoglobin, Oxyhemoglobinate- Oxyhemoglobin ▫ Lymph, CSF, transudates: Bicarbonate, phosphate buffers Biological Buffers • Protein Buffer System

▫ COOH or NH2 groups, ▫ The biggest part of the buffers in the body, ▫ Albumin, globulins such as hemoglobin (Hb). - • HCO3 Buffer System ▫ Available in large quantities, ▫ Open system, ▫ The respiratory and kidney systems act on these buffer systems. ▫ The most important buffer of extracellular fluids. Phosphate Buffer System ▫ Low in the extracellular medium, significant (especially muscle tissue) in the intracellular environment, ▫ Best buffer in kidney and bone. Buffer Systems in Blood

Buffer Systems % Buffering Non-bicarbonate Hemoglobin 35 Organic phosphates 3 Inorganic phosphates 2 Plasma proteins 7

Bicarbonate Plasma 35 Erythrocytes 18 Biological Buffers • An ideal buffer must have the following properties; ▫ It must have adequate buffer capacity to the wanted pH limits. ▫ Must be very pure. ▫ It must be resistant to enzymatic and hydrolytic events. ▫ The pH to be formed by the buffer should be affected at the minimum level by the temperature, the ionic content and the concentration of the medium. ▫ It should not carry toxic and inhibitory effects (most enzymes are inhibited by phosphate buffers). ▫ Complexes with cations must be soluble. ▫ Ultraviolet and visible field light should not absorb. Isotopes, Radiation Isotopes • Every atom is composed of a nucleus and one or more electrons bound to the nucleus. The nucleus is made of one or more protons and typically a similar number of neutrons. • Isotopes are variants of a particular chemical element which differ in neutron number. The difference between isotopes comes from neutron numbers. • Radioactive Isotope and Stable Isotope ▫ Stable isotopes are common in nature and do not show fragmentation. ▫ Radioactive isotopes are isotopes that are broken up by emitting a variety of nuclei and are artificially obtained. This is called radioactive decay. Isotopes •The importance of isotopes in biochemistry; ▫ Metabolism monitoring ▫ Thyroid Function Tests RIA (Radioimmunoassay) ▫ Percentage of fat found in meat Radiation (Radiance)

• It is the release of radient energy. • Radioactive materials emit rays like alpha, beta, gamma and X-. • Most affected organs; Lymphocytes, erythrocytes, gastrointestinal tract, eyes, hypophysis anterior lobe, egg follicles, mucous membrane. • Radiation; ▫ Increases the breakdown rate of carbohydrates and lipids. ▫ Breaks bonds in proteins and nucleic acids. ▫ Breaks down chromosomes, stop mitosis. ▫ Reduces absorption in the gut, extends the period of gastric emptying. ▫ Induces bone development disorders and anomalies in teeth. References • Ası T (1999). Tablolarla Biyokimya I, Nobel Tıp Kitapları Dağıtım, Ankara. • Kalaycıoğlu L, Serpek B, Nizamlıoğlu M, Başpınar N,Tiftik A (2000). Biyokimya, Nobel Yayın Dağıtım, Ankara. • Engelking LR (2014). Textbook of Veterinary Physiological Chemistry. 3rd Edition. Academic Press. • Sözbilir Bayşu N, Bayşu N (2008). Biyokimya, Güneş Kitabevi. Question

• Which of the following statements is correct about true solutions? a. Size of particles 1-100 nm b. The osmotic pressure is low.

c. Homogeneous. d. Viscosity is high .

e. When light passes, it gets foggy. This is called tyndall effect . Cevap: c Cevap: Any questions? The next title is; BIOELEMENTS Macro and Microminerals