Pakistan As a Nation State and Flag Bearer of Islam

CEU eTD Collection Pakistan as a NationState andFlagBearer of In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Department of International Relations and European Studies International Relations and European Studies European and Relations International Supervisor: Dr. Matteo Fumagalli Dr.Matteo Supervisor: Central European University European Central Budapest, Hungary Raghav Sharma Raghav Submitted to Submitted Word Count Islam 16,866 2008 By 1 CEU eTD Collection source of support and encouragement throughout of year. andencouragementthis very source throughout support academic challenging aconstant been have who my parents, especially family, my finally, And Afghanistan. and in Pakistan border the across friends and my colleagues with debates and arguments the ideas and questions that I have been able to frame in this thesis are also aproduct of my and difficult questions as also for indulging me with their warmth and hospitality. Many of Democratic Freedom Party and Dr. Irshad Ahmad Shah for their time, helping me frame new members of the Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front (J.K.L.F), Jammu and Kashmir this thesis toaddress. attempts LordProfessor Bhikhu Parekh, Nazir Lord Ahmed, all the interaction both inside and outside the classroom got me thinking on some of the questions Anshu Malhotra, at the Department of History, University of Delhi, with whom my I would alsolike to express my deep sense of gratitude to Dr. Prathama Banerjee and Dr. seem trip effortless. theresearch in involved arranging Iren Varga and Richard Kartosonto for all their time, help and smiles made the technicalities interviewsconducting this research and thesis impoverished. been have would academically European Studiesvery that generously funded mytravel Unitedto the Kingdom for readable piece of work. Without support from the Department of International Relations and whoseBellers immense patiencehave andsupport helpedmake this morea far coherent and first began work on to this idea as a term paper. My academic Robininstructor writing always there to find fault with and support my work and also Dr. Irina Papkova with whom I I would first and foremost like to thank my thesis supervisor Dr. Matteo Fumagalli, who was Acknowledgements i CEU eTD Collection South Asia and subsequently the world’s defining experience with ‘Islamic terror’. Pakistan’slucidly illustrate promoting commitment to Pan-Islamism andalsoconstitute that Islam political radical global for definitive becoming into Kashmir and Afghanistan This serves as a crucial variableexplanatory in my answering secondof question what made matrix. historical particular this from stems Islam of for of much discourse positioningitself quest Pakistan’s region.the of Thus, asachampion acrucialfor point vantage makingconstitute much senseof of contemporary political the thus of 1947 and inpartition thebloody culminated nineteenth eventually century late the religion. by defined often identities of crystallization the in role of colonial knowledge formation coupled with the advent of mass politics that played a key Islam emerged as the primary trope for Pakistan’s worldview. This entails looking at process question concerns possibility indicating the crucialhistorical from elements of the whence opens upan unusual of enquiry.window address questions: Specifically, I two the first which 1920’s, in the Subcontinent Indian the of matrix political-historical in the it locating examine the of role inIslam the contoursof shaping foreign Pakistan’s by policy discourse jihad Afghanistan Kashmir. andhaveBoth playeda role seminal indefiningof thecontours global Islam and its rise to global significance has perhaps to begin with two intricately linked cases: radical to make of Any sense attempt discourse. political contemporary of the centre into the Islam radical sucked have to appear sudden a of all eleventh September of events tragic The and also one’s in which Pakistan has been a central actor. This thesis sets out to out sets This thesis actor. acentral been has Pakistan in which one’s also and Abstract ii These process at work since work at These process CEU eTD Collection ILORPY...... 60 BIBLIOGRAPHY CONCLUSION...... 57 3. KASHMIR: THE FIRST THEATRE OFGLOBAL FIRSTTHEATRE THE KASHMIR: 3. 2. THE AFGHAN THE 2. 1. THE CALL ...... 8 OF PAST INTRODUCTION...... 1 III TABLE ...... OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT...... II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... I 3.4 3.3 3.2 3.1 2.4 2.3 2.1 1.5 1.4 2.2 1.3 N P LAY BETWEEN THE BETWEEN LAY ATION 2.2.2 Islamabad’s Policy...... 24 2.2.1 United States and ...... 21 its Allies T T F J I T B A ‘P S T MPLICATIONS OF THE SUPPORT FOR JIHAD FOR SUPPORT MPLICATIONSTHE OF AMMU AND AMMU ORGING OF AN OURCES FOR SUPPORT THE OF HE HE HE HE ACKGROUND LLAHAND THE ARTITION ALL OVER F F E I S DEA OF ALLOUT ERMENT TATES AND TATES CONOMICS OF K P JIHAD ...... 51 ASHMIR ...... 19 AKISTAN W I A C SLAMIC ITHIN R ONSTITUTIONAL RMY ELIGION AS ELIGION A A ...... 18 MERICAN : A ...... 44 A ...... 15 ...... 13 GAIN K B ASHMIR ACKGROUND ’...... 14 A P FGHAN M OLICY , ...... 35 ARKER OF I Table of contents of Table NSTITUTIONAL AND ...... 28 J ...... 34 IHAD ...... 30 I ...... 21 DENTITY iii JIHAD ...... 11 C OMMUNAL ...... 32 ...... 9 CEU eTD Collection historical impulses in late nineteenth-early twentieth century: namely, objectification- namely, century: twentieth nineteenth-early in late impulses historical long-term shifts anddirection concerning of from discourses sifting academic-literary theoretical entails And that developments. historical certain to vitality enduring imparts what whence Islamfrom elements historical crucial emerged the indicating of possibility the concerns question first The as the primary trope for Pakistan’s worldview, and to clarifyformation. Specifically, Ishall seek to address two questions.as to window toexamine the vital ingredients of global Islamic inSubcontinent believe, 1920’s.Such the Ilike investigation, an to open would an unusual Indian the of matrix political-historical in the locus peculiar its to in reference grasped foreign but discourse, also thatit’spolicy to argue meaningbe implications and are to My attemptin the thesis wouldbe not only identifyto the play of Islam in shaping Pakistan’s and very self-consciously Modern West, in the rise of extremistforces within Islam. role But thewell by deepandirony concerns secularthe distressing thought-out the played jigsaw of a globalised radical Islam, in which Pakistan has been something of a key player. played a seminal role in defining the contours of contours global seminal roleplayed indefining the a cases the Both Kashmir. and intricatelylinked cases:Afghanistan begin two perhaps to with currency.Any to make of attempt sense Islam itsradical toglobal rise and has significance imminent andcivilizations’ was hasacquiredrenewedvigour and popular unavoidable of ‘clash a that pronouncement grim Huntington’s Samuel Eleven. Nine of events horrific the of shadow in the significance compelling assumed has Islam radical of question The Introduction 1 jihad jihad in the early moments of their of moments early the in . They are part of the larger CEU eTD Collection partition primarily in terms of a new constitutional- political arrangement. Varshney’s arrangement. political constitutional- a new of interms primarily partition looks at the instance Esposito For political. of anarrative the confined to narrow, somewhat - Oliver Roy political Islam? The primary focus internationalof relations discourse on partition memory - question:made What Afghanistan and Kashmir becominginto definitive for global radical my second addressing for variable explanatory crucial a furnishes question first The and politics ofidentities,mimicking it as were sub-continentthe of 1920’s.the ‘memory understand point asthevantage to partition’ of contemporary discourse political the posit Bhutalia and Pandey partition. and freedom of midst in the hope and suffering isits of afirsthandtestimony meaning. Kidwai’s accessto provideaccount asensitive November1991. 7 Oliver Roy- 6 India (1947). Works of Works of India Urvashi Bhutalia(1947). inculminated tomakeforce. It a galvanising into worked bloody partition of the religion issue the representation communal of inaround debate-mobilization (1930’s), subsequent the duringmovement the Non-cooperation-Khilafat (1920’s) and duringcampaigns electoral 5 University Press, United Kingdom, 2001. 4 1998 3 1989. 2 Orientalism and the Post-Colonial Predicament 1 by Arjun Appadurai care scholarly such with examined census Colonial the by motion in set identities of fixation Aushotosh Varshney- India, Pakistan and Kashmir: Antinomies of Nationalism, Oliver Roy-Islam andt he resistance in Afghanistan,Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986. Begum Anis Kidwai- Gyanendra Pandey- Remembering Partition: Violence, Nationalism and History in India, Cambridge Urvashi Bhutalia- The Other Side of Silence: Voices from the Partition of India, Penguin Books, New Delhi, Bernard S. Cohn- An Anthropologist among the Historians and Other Essays, Oxford University Press, Delhi, Arjun Appadurai-Number inColonial Imagination in Globalised Islam: SearchThe for anew Ummah, Hurst and Company,London, 2004. 6 , Aushotosh , Aushotosh Varshney Azadi Ki Chhaoon Mein 1 and Cohn Bernard 7 and John Esposito John and . , University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994. 2 . Mass by mobilization Indian CongressNational the 3 , Gyanendra Pandey Carol A. Breckenridge and Peter Van der Veer (ed.)- 2 8 to name a few – has tended to be 4 and Anis Begum Kidwai Asian Survey , Vol. 31, No.11, 5 CEU eTD Collection Invasion toSeptember10,2001, Penguin Books, London, 2004. 11 by played role the of details variedput together the to testimonies court has used reportage, mediadeclassifiedintelligence and in of to work who Andrewthe addition Hartman, been inA notableregardhas attention. this ofserious exception academic worthy considered conflict. Afghan the of experience personal author’s the interviews, and reports, intelligence classified of collation analytical this genre: Steve Coll’s representsperhapsreportage. work themost detailed andmeticulous exercise in journalistic comprises largely evidence Such Islam. of radical in West emergence the the of role the to pertaining evidence collate to is intent my details, empirical plain of level the At community. looks history at Kashmiri from vantage of the intimidated-marginalized politically the Pundit Secessionist Movement in Kashmir, 10 Delhi, 2004. 9 8 been systematically cleansed. In this context the work of Reeta C. Tremblay has valley in the presence ancient whose minority small very a community; Pundit Kashmiri of the at counter-discourse look the to interventions academic other most like however economic benefitsMridu Rai -- byThe question why as to strugglepolitical inKashmir acquired an Islamic edge is addressed by its Hindu Raja. Rai’s intervention,failsKashmir, toclarify towhy as political assertion acquired adefinitive religious edge. pointed lucidargument though far and sound so asit political-military concerns the inquagmire and relevant, fails Mridu Rai- Hindu Rulers, Muslim Subjects: Islam, Rights and the History of Kashmir, John Orient L. Esposito- Longman, Islam New and Politics, Syracuse University Press, 3rd edition, 1991. Steve Coll- Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the C.I.A, Afghanistan and Bin Laden, From the Soviet Reeta Chowdhari Tremblay- Nation, Identity and the Intervening Role of the State: A Study of the 9 in terms of a ‘century of misrule’ – virtual exclusion of Muslims from political- from Muslims of exclusion virtual – misrule’ of a ‘century of interms Pacific Affairs, Vol. 69, No.4,1996-1997. 11 3 Surprisingly this kind of hasnotbeen Surprisingly enquiry of kind this 10 stands out. She CEU eTD Collection subsequent wave of subsequentwave in of ‘Islamic terrorism’ (beginning Kashmir 1989,peakingmid 1990’s) as war inAfghanistan for global(1979-1989) asthelaunch-site Islamic the One, my paper. of focus the be shall Islam radical in shaping frames time seminal Two Asia. in Central Muslims to bridgehead a and India strategic Hindu depthagainst itwould with provide Pakistan certainty that was Pushtun ethnic-nationalist dreams independenceof andmerger with Afghanistan. only inbut Islamicworld, strategic securePakistan’s win sympathy backyard against the also not would this that was calculation The Kabul. in regime client Islamist an install to be able Strategists in Islamabad were confident that by riding on the Pan-Islamic wave, they would 13 Vol. 23, No.3, 2002, Page 480. from ruleof from oppressive the the moment was opportune to launch what it saw as a struggle to liberate Muslims in Kashmir Soviet Union money,and with flush munitionsmen and tokill trained and die,decided that 12 Radicalism. Islamic in fostering U.S the Pakistan, buoyed by the heady triumph of the of triumph heady the by buoyed Pakistan, of generation entire of its total ideological Afghanistanof (1979) was.Unqualified supportandmoral of -- aspartendorsement West the war againstinvasion Soviet the was fundamentalism Islamic of the trajectory the for point turning evilA decisive Soviet Empire -- enabled Pakistan to groom an andin general, Kashmir particular. Asia in South for Islam radical of its deeperimplications to attend adequately however Rubin R. Barnett- Afghanistan Under the Taliban, the Under Afghanistan R. Barnett- Rubin Andrew Hartman- ‘The Red Template’: U.S Policy in Soviet Occupied Afghanistan, Occupied Soviet in Policy U.S RedTemplate’: ‘The Hartman- Andrew jihadi fighters willing to kill and die for the cause of radical Islam. radical of cause the for die and kill to willing fighters kafir Hindus; avengeand thus its humiliating defeatin 1971. 12 Hartman’s insightful, unusual not work and does Current History Current 4 mujahidin , February 1999, Page 84. (1989)againstmight the of the Third World World Quarterly Third jihad 13 . The grand Two, the Two, , CEU eTD Collection mod=a 2000,http://www.ipcs.org/Kashmir_articles2.jsp?action=showView&kValue=880&issue=1012&status=article& alliesJournalisticis including over. China silently andhuman rights dispatches passed its and America of role the forces Islamists nurturing in role Pakistan’s on details intricate providing while instance, for Hence Islam. radical irredentist of rise in the involvement deep CIA’s given circumspection be great usedwith have to they that acutely aware I alsomake useinintelligence Iam alimited C.I.A senseof reports. declassified certain life. day subaltern of banalandevery the seemingly to ignore choiceno but has work academic that notion the away whittle to also as arguments and nuance and qualify That commonIdothinkthe discourses. ineveryday help senseunderscored would popular to materialsource havecombine academic used enablemeI would andcontrast against to rigor of range varied the believe to like I milieu. ideological polarised intensely an in and ‘West’ of the isvantage the from entire reportage of the execution and conception the factthat the inviewof circumspection with Afghanistan sources on use two these one hasto However, Amnesty International theonlyreportageon comprise situation. humanthe available rights dispatches, reports of human rights organisations. For Afghanistan, Helsinki Watch and andjournal tojournalistic (books ranging from articles) academic works published seek to materials questionsthe To address I above, a variety drawing outlined upon of source advocated independence advocated ‘Islamic’other Liberation causesagainst Jammuand Front(J.K.L.F) Kashmir which endorsement by Pakistan of Hizb-ul-Mujahidin and its advocacy of merger with Pakistan and 14 Islamic global for moment defining the SubaChandran -The HizbulMujahideen, 14 . Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies jihad . The definitive detail in this context is the fierce is the context this in detail definitive The . 5 , New Delhi, 14 August, CEU eTD Collection historical matrix amidst which identities in the sub-continent came to be forged and the basic the and forged be to came sub-continent in the identities which amidst matrix historical sections. broad three comprises dissertation The everyday living. discussion emerged duringinteraction and exchange with inpeople Imet businessthe of discourses of this dissertation. Many ideas and impulses that have led me tothe subject under Afghanistan. me For thatexperience remainsan towardsissues window unusual and My intentis also toutilize my experience of working on certain related issues in Pakistan and the rathertext, than putting them indown standardquestion the format.and answer my fromliberty Ihavenuanceinto argument. of weaving excerpts to taken interviewsthe the a certain and impart depth thereby drawoncounter-discourses me wouldvoices to allow and inreportage political believe butrarely find I rhetoric discourse. place academic these Both constituencies are Nazir Ahmed. Lord Liberation (J.K.L.F) such as Front and pro-Pakistan activists political difficult to interact and Jammu Kashmir and groups: Kashmiri separatist with inBradford andconducted London engage with. Their voicesI hopetoaddress thisways. in inincorporate problem One, interviews my I that two research are often part of nature of makesimplicated this every it exercise bitof suspect. are intelligence range cast, within highlysensitivethe which declassified and reports material Available move from like Apart isto that. source scarce. towards limitedthe primary voidlargelythe butinitsinto senselargerimplications. getting adescriptive without Iwould seeks Academic furnish in tofill resource. discourse reportage arareandvaluable this regard 6 The first section sets out the larger the out sets CEU eTD Collection the defining historical moment of global Islamic global of moment historical defining the contentious issueKashmir of 1989 tomid (primarily 1990’s)soastobringintosharpfocus of pursuita Pan-Islamic agenda. tothe committed ‘nation-state’ a as Pakistani the of emergence for the shape took tone between regional and larger international power centres. power international larger and regional between inescapable play andthe Islamic pursuits clarifybetween Pakistan’s order to relationship the The secondsection 7 Jihad focuses onAfghanistan in(1979-1989) . The third section dwells onthe CEU eTD Collection perceptions of identitiesperceptions by of nurtured them. naturethe andmeaning divides,making of as forcontemporary political also of self- sense for isseek toargue 1920to1947furnishes thatperiod the critical the for understandingkey 1947, the presence meaning elements.and of Thebasicsuch formative proposition I would from period 1920to historical andcultural of discourses the accounts little byteasingout inenduring My historical thiselements. cultural would fill attempt be chapter gapa this to such overlook entirely to part most the for tends relations international on discourse The anddisrupt brutalize life. shape behave, organize, or theway entities that andnurture largesocial-political complex identity inculture elements conceal and ofcertain discourses to tend happens, prevalence the precise a seemingly in giving important though Statistics Pritam. death,from brutally done are to a poem penned Punjabipoetess Amrita bytherenowned Page 26. 12million migrate, and amillion rendered homeless million forced nearly to 15 were The above lines suffused with the 16 15 Radha Kumar- The Troubled History Partition, of History Troubled The Kumar- Radha Shah Warris Ode To Pritam- Amrita So please do speak…” do please So Shah Warris to up look and weep daughters million a Today A daughter of Punjab had wept once and he wrote a million dirges (pages). And open a fresh a new page from the book of love. grave the from out speak to today, Shah Warris to out call “I 1. The Call of Past 15 sorrow and pain of partition of India(1947) partition of and of pain sorrow Foreign Affairs 8 , Volume 76, No.1, January/Feburary1997, sense of for whatever of scale sense in which in 16 were CEU eTD Collection religion based electorates for Muslims; thereby helping crystallization of issues around issues of crystallization helping thereby Muslims; for electorates based religion India. of Muslims the for subservience permanent of a position meant that And majority. Hindu the by outnumbered Muslim argumentLeague’s was Muslimsthat being a minority would always remain bridge between andMuslims. failed rupture the to for all,Hindus guarantees of equal rights firm providing state a secular of andestablishment electorates communal of abolition seeking acommittee (1928), address andits issuethrough andsensitive charged this Nehru Report of the Theattempt electorates. based communal religion separate Muslims through for representation secure enhanced its Hence campaign to vote. one one-person of principle the of fairness and relevance the challenged interests, Muslim protect of basedreligion communal representation. MuslimLeague, an organization established to in became forceReligion a debate andmobilization the issue crucial the around galvanizing (gymnasiums). different kind of cultural milieu: religious schools and temple-shrines sponsored Saraswati and Rahul emerged.They Sankritiyan a invoked religious idiom and camefrom a Anew leadership developments. stream RaghavDas,Swami of comprising Baba Sahajanand 1930’s.Organizationally, Congressduring the had thisperiod tocopewith new kindof movements in during and electoral early the in campaigns 1920’s, the mass mobilisation by National Indian the Congress during theand Non-Cooperation Khilafat inshaping identity sub-continent; politicsthe of the Indian in of particular useof techniques Certain unfold that began developments in political be the 1920’scome to definitive to in Play between theConstitutional, Institutional and Communal The British cleverly played upon this sentiment and granted separate granted and sentiment this upon played cleverly British The 9 Indian National Congress to akharas CEU eTD Collection 18 University Press, Delhi, 1999, Page 260. 17 some create innumerical was through aggregation to and classification of order semblance way only the And unstable. inherently and chaotic, diverse, as India represent to instrument as ajustificatory framework to discipline andmanipulate. Numbers wereused as an scheme of things a complex role, they served to according Numbers, imagination. Colonial the simultaneously to exoticise the ColonisedHe begins by formulating the basic themeaningconcerning crucial question numbersof in and intervention. insightful an context in this signifies enumeration on work Appadurai’s Arjun essential basis society. of and of Indian as the caste religion acceptance unqualified the and also hence and social facts measurable practices certain of seen as a collection-collation and thuscametoberepresented culture’ ‘Indian and harden boundaries. discourses social toobjectify social-cultural alsoworked classification-enumeration modern of categories new census of ingraftingsocial colonial- thatthe operations structure India. Cohn opines focus on the process of censusitsforinstructive is mostinto BernardCohn’sstudy comprehensive people neatcategories. taking and the ways inand ArjunAppadurai have meticulously identities by demonstrated, quantifying-categorizing which that shaped identities project of consolidating instrumental useful tosolidify,knowledge worked as Bernard Chin and the larger Colonial of the aspart instance, Censusoperations the For the situation. complicate modernCertain of introduced by modes furtherclassification Colonial served to rule Congress. National Indian diffusereligion asameans to formidable by contain nationalist and the the challenge posed Supra David Page- Prelude to Partition- The Indian Muslims and Imperialthe System of Control 1920-1932, Oxford Note 2, Page 248-250. 17 10 Appadurai, toplay in came the Colonial 18 CEU eTD Collection rule, Colonial reordering, ‘Hindu’ and ‘Muslim’began tobe equated with India andPakistan respectively. terms the Invariably, thepartition. of aftermath inthe categories communal internalisation deep subtle and the they demonstrate approach, methodand of striking differences Urvashi Bhutalia takesanimpassioned atthehistory look gendered of Despite Partition. school history,of provides ascholarly analysispartition of remembrance.its and The work of subaltern the to belongs who Pandey, Gayanendra partition. of account firsthand moving a provides book Kidwai’s Anis Begum traditions. different distinctly from arise significantly, experience. partition (1947). India of in the culminated eventually mobilization political polarised and sentiment Communal Nation StatesandReligion asaMarker Identity of in opposition, some ‘other’ basicsense,to the 20 19 way the concerns mass mobilisation inthe1920’s.One commenced that shift critical largeand all entailed that identitiesprocess and in alongingredient linesof caste religion: the crucial politicsthe of in the forging ‘other’, the to in contradistinction oneself imagining for ground the became politicalnumbers asThus, institutionalised representation. separate opposition, subsequently irreconcilable as difference Hindu-Muslim the in essentializing scholarship Orientalist terms. Supra Ibid , Page 327-332 jati 19 Note 1, Page 319 and 335. Perhaps his mostfundamental proposition in this context concerns the role of connections were shaken loose and recast as pan-Indian identities, often in often identities, pan-Indian as recast and loose shaken were connections Three works stand out in this context as deeply instructive. All three, instructive. as deeply in context this out stand works Three jati jati (caste) was firmly entrenched in local society and economy. Under Colonial Under economy. and society local in entrenched firmly was For millions, particularly women, partition was a most traumatic connections henceforth came to be reoriented. Prior to the to Prior reoriented. be to came henceforth connections 20 11 CEU eTD Collection in this context is that abducted women were not given the right to choose andisto in womenwerenotgiven thatabducted decide.Their context right the this fact significant most the Bhutalia, For tinge. religious by astrong coloured was also recovery of process ofThe and India. Pakistan states by women the abducted undertaken recovery of grappleBhutalia seeksto with bylooking question this atall happenedthat the during history. unwanted memory --within calls question Gayanendra vexed Pandey the of what and of innocents, in children families separated, of particularraped andabducted, of women place memories of one instance:Howdoes people’s – suffering understanding.partition For society. on Indian lasting impact little exercised that arrangement political-constitutional certain of interms merely partition treated time long a for has out, he points which, literature, historical of castigation severe Pandey’s languageidentity. and definitive the underreligion weresubsumed overarchingas Hence lines in like justaffiliation relationbut occupation, thecaste, ‘deviousall other other’, of to a result of partition religious identity -- Sikh, Muslim or Hindu – came to be redefinednot continent, and the newly acquired centrality of religion. Hemakes the significant point that as Gayanendra Pandey restates this point in terms of the larger political as Delhi) responsibility Pakistani the Fort, treated of were government. discourse in the sub- 23 22 21 reports Muslimthat migrating refugees toPakistan housed in and camps at Anis Kidwai,in herironically titled Supra Ibid Supra Note 4, Page 16. Note 5 23 Azadi KiChaoonMein 22 The questions he raises are crucial for historical 12 (In the Shadow of Freedom), 21 Purana Qila (Old CEU eTD Collection 24 upon based be Pakistan of state the that demand vociferously to began Jamat-i-Islami the as such groups Islamic hard-line Nonetheless, Pakistan. of years early in the around not simply was ittoday asweknow Islam Radical necessary. seem clarifications certain point Atthis camefirst fore in the to 1920’s. that andsensibility discourse political of a certain andrestatement continuation marks the Onebe could an declaration say thisformal itselfRepublic (1956). proclaimed to Islamic formally Pakistan framework. constitutional-political and within secular ademocratic state Pakistan chose to embark on two Amidst trauma the of andhorror veryviolencedisruption and unleashedby partition,Indiaand the different ways of life. India chose to build1.3 TheIdeaof Pakistan a nation memory. partition of matrix the within anchored firmly is discourse policy foreign Pakistan’s which in way intricate the to access us gives it Specifically, sub-continent. in the developments critical certain understanding for vantage meaningful the works referred above. from memory by I seektoformulate proceeds The argument of sketched ground the partition My attempt is to show that the ‘memory’ of partition provides a affiliation. religious on basisthe their made choice, behalf on the their denied the right to choose their country of residence; the nation states of India and Pakistan women becould only India,for andMuslim Thus,women, Pakistan. abductedwomen were Sikh and Hindu for home rightful the that out points She matter. not did simply opinion Supra Note 3, Page 179. 13 24 CEU eTD Collection 27 26 Middle East Studies believers 25 countries based onIslamic unity among relations fraternal strengthen and preserve to endeavour shall state “The article constitution: the 40of According to foreign of policy. Pakistan’s became the bedrock limitsthe prescribed byHimis trust.” asacred within itsbeingexercised for people of through tothestate Pakistan, hewhich hasdelegated authority the and alone, Almighty God the to belongs universe entire the over “Sovereignty basis: its theological declares day, untothus this State Pakistani identity the of the by Resolution of 1949 adopted Assembly. Constitutional the preamble, The which defines Objective the instance for Consider realm. political in the felt impact their make to able boundariescreation thatwould divide of the permit not did ideologues, Jama’at the to according Quran, antithetical. as wereseen Islam and nationalism because Pakistan of creation the to opposition vehement Jama’at’s of view the commenced a steady shift towards radical pan-Islamic agendas. Nasir Islam’s work offers in offers work Islam’s Nasir agendas. radical pan-Islamic towards asteady shiftcommenced Thus of engineer destruction Pakistan. the lethalfrom India to determined the ‘Hindu’ threat In itPakistan was just seen not asashiftin equations, geo-political butalso as evidence of ‘twothe nation basedtheory’ on beliefthe religionfurnishedthat enduringthe basis of unity. sensitivities. innermost inevitably raw Pakistan’ Manyintouched saw India it as negation of The crucial in point inturning happened Pakistani politics however, 1971. The ‘loss of East 1.4 ‘Partition all over Again’ Foreign Office Yearbook 2004-05, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Pakistan, Page 8. Page Pakistan, Affairs, Foreign of Ministry 2004-05, Yearbook Office Foreign Stephen Phillip Cohen- IdeaThe of Pakistan, Vanguard Publications, 2005, Lahore, Pakistan, Page 168. Nasir Islam - Islam and National Identity: The Case of Pakistan and Bangladesh, Shariat 25 . Long before Pakistan adopted its first constitution in were1956, Islamist groups and serve the cause of Islam. This detail acquires a telling ironic dimension in acquires atelling dimension Islam.This detail ironic causeof the and serve , Vol.13, No.1, February 1981, Page 59. .” 27 [Emphasis added]. 14 26 Ummah Not surprisingly Not therefore, Islam also , the indivisible community of community indivisible , the International Journal of Muslim CEU eTD Collection 30 29 28 Islamization of process the zeal unparalleled with intensified gallows, the to Minster Prime the elected Bhutto, (1977)andsent seized power who army obscure the general Zia-ul-Haq, 1.5 Allah andthe Army country. divided linguistically and regionally ethnically, an in legitimacy establish to instrument trained, whisky drinking” (O.I.C). Conference Islamic non-Muslim sect and projecting Pakistan as the foremost promoter of the Organization of prohibiting alcohol, Friday declaring the as weekly holiday,be a the Ahmadi’sto declaring histo Islam:undertook arange of measures demonstrate commitment to Bhutto adventure Islamist his of part As Zia-ul-Haq. General by unleashed subsequently Islamization rabid for set stage the that perhaps, India. Unwittingly to Army’s surrender Pakistan of aftermath the in Socialism Islamic of banner the under Islam and socialism between alliance an by inspired political instrument. Bhutto’s Pakistan People’s Party rode to power on a potent wavevery be a of populismcould Islam’ ‘political that he realized But life. personal his in liberal a much Ironically the shift towards hard line radical Islam Islamists. began hard-line the of favour in establishment with the rise of Z.A Bhutto, withinin the of power balance the altered wardramatically defeat the1971 Bangladesh and very of ‘loss’ the that out points He observation. sound empirically and historically a regard this Supra Supra Supra Note 14. Note Note 27, Page 170. Note 25, Page 59. 30 29 generals by Islamic enthusiasts. Islam became the supreme the became Islam enthusiasts. Islamic by generals These developments mark the replacement of the “Sandhurst the of replacement the mark developments These 15 28 CEU eTD Collection Sustainable Development Policy Institute, Islamabad, Page 37. 32 31 firmnew forged on of bedrock kind the of citizen National Zia's speech Islam.to the General a create policy to of state instruments mostserve as vital of one the to came Thus, education December causing 1971,thus break-up of the East andWest Pakistan.” EastPakistanin among aboutWest andfinally attacked spreading Pakistan the Bengalis hate in of the faithswith and succeeded atherfeet...Indiaother Bengal conspired Hindus Muslims forget freedom to and please Hindus to Kali their by innocentslaughtering people of bother have to Muslims;always been never pity “Hehad on ‘presumably taught a Hindu’. Indian a captured The–is textbooks. sponsored story Pilot” pilot, about – “The Enemy This is of kind disposition starklyexpressedin thestory pilotinof Indian the published state Pakistan-Islam. Hindu against conspiracy trope of religion and inevitability of religious conflict: Bangladesh as the triumph of Indian- andits emergence as Bangladesh was thus internalised in pervasive and deep ways within the India as the clever conspirator bent on memory lingering destroying was reinforced andpartition of todemonisethus as it were, redirected Pakistan.The policy. state of The instrument an breakaway as Islam political wield to determination of Pakistan’s East Pakistan Afghanistanlater inKashmir against Sovietsand starklyagainst India, underlines the in first involvement, Pakistan’s consolidation. andleadera pan-Islamic of nervethe centre make agrand wasinformed by vision strategic Pakistan to Zia’sIslamic enterprise General life. of collective personal and all for arigidaspects worldview Islamic consolidated Heforgedbegun by Bhutto. an thealliance right with wing Jama’at-i-Islami A.H Nayyar and Ahmad Salim (ed.) - The Subtle Subversion: The State Of Textbooks in Pakistan, 2002, Ibid. 16 32 31 and CEU eTD Collection 34 33 gains” strategic and political religious, “convergence of perfect Pashtun Akhtar General Abdur havefirmlyRehman Khanisbelieved to convinced Zia of the in the Muslim world and gain thereby political,moral and strategic advantage over India. The momentopportune launch to its strategy grand positioningof itself as flagthe bearerof Islam itas an Pakistan grasped in theatre, Afghan the an conflict into armed As theColdwarturned only Muslims,to reared upon the ‘right’ kind of Islamic values. Islam." of principles lofty the imbibe must childrenensure thatour up educatedas brought good Pakistanis are Muslims. and good They meritsConference onEducation in reading: (1977) close this mustcontext "Our curriculum was theideal ground. testing world and settling inits favourthe ‘unfinished agenda’ forof which Afghanistanpartition Islamic the of leadership of dream grand its fulfil to chance arare as it upon seized simply religious fanaticism so long asitserved tobleed and destroy Sovietthe Union. Pakistan were quickofferAmericain saw to services. financingand wrong their nothing promoting Pakistan of establishment Army the and Zia General Afghanistan, in Soviets the defeating assigned West to the high significance strategic Astutely the aware of Bhutto. of execution Zia’s military regime in isolated feltacutely midstthe of resentmentaroused by popular the invasion AfghanistanSoviet of of came assomethinga divine totheinvasion, Prior reprieve. the Zia General For Afghanistan. in Communists atheistic the fight and Islam of mantle Angelo Rasanayagam- Afghanistan: A ModernHistory, I.B Taurius, London, 2005,Page 102. Ibid , Page 19. 33 17 It underscores the idea of theunderscores idea confined of citizenship It 34 if Pakistan were to don the CEU eTD Collection money could be harnessed to the cause of causeof Islam. tothe beharnessed money could might and American happy that lives. Pakistan was loss American without the of be fought of banner the could Soviets under againstthe adecisivebattle that immensely pleased were TheAmericans Islam. mobilisation emotional-ideological requisite the and fighters territory, would providemoney arms, training, and diplomatic cover.Pakistan would provide the andAmerica its allies wastruly incredible. perspectives from very different clever calculation of Islam; a positionbearer asitself flag establish the use itas an to opportunity to to keen Vietnam.was Pakistan that wouldin its for level scores defeat and punish Soviets the in to opening itsaw a rare United States give it decided made thispossible. in factors Afghanistan. Several during in conflict any the past the time advantage of ona was sown overPan-Islamic radicalism nurtured scale and andintensity at unimaginable India. Theagainst thecongruence Soviet occupation of Afghanistan. The proposition I seek to argue is thatof the seed 2003, Page 322. 35 response to it of the West.Afghan political-social fabric set in motion by the ThisSoviet invasion and the somewhat perverse in the chapter changes drastic the of a reminder also are They in March. setsNajibullah Dr. Afghanistan out to explore the natureThe above of quoted poignant and propheticAfghanistan willdrugs. be turnednarcotic into for a centre smuggling for terrorism.”world of centre a lines into turn will for Afghanistan continue will years. war many the are Afghanistan, to comes fundamentalism fromIf fundamentalism. against struggle a speech of“We have a commonthe task -- Afghanistan, the U.S.A thenand the civilised world -- to launch a jointPresident of Victoria Schofield- AfghanFrontier: Feuding and Fighting in Central Asia, Taurisparke Paperbacks, London, 2. TheAfghan 35 18 Jihad jihad (holy war) (holy CEU eTD Collection 36 Dec.1979) Carter’sfightingregime pro-Soviet the of Nur MuhammadTaraki.inducedin That words the of Nationalpolitics. DirectUS involvementin beganAfghanistan support as covert tothe Islamic Radicalism as we see it today could be said to be an illegitimateSecurity offspring of cold war 2.1 Background Advisor Brezenskientirely unintended, seems to be the creation of a new lethal brand of violent radicals. ‘adetermined tokill and die in the name of Islam. The lastingSoviet result of American success, albeit groups fundamentalist-extremist of host a and enemy: lethal less no and new a by replaced Militaryexistence erased without loss of American lives. But the fear of the evil empire has been its very has been Union Sovietthe defeated, endure andstay.True, hascome to calculus intervention’what At questionreportage. the of one thisshould asto askoriginal the perhaps point addition to a small body of academic writing, primarily on journalistic and human rights (25th in Irely huge temptations and calculation fusion of clever extraordinary the To demarcate part of the Islamic renaissance which, you will see, willto theSoviet which,will Islamicrenaissance extenditself part ofthe yousee, someday influence andAfghan claims on our own territory. towards us... we will notpermit a return to the pre-war situation markedby Indian and Soviet isfriendly which Kabul]a power have [in to right have the earned “We Zia’s proclaimed: Islam. position of thecustodian to Islamabad destiny of as momentof as the it seized Pakistan Supra Note12, Page 470. 36 and that opened the way for the rise of radical pan-Islamism. General Zia-ul-Haq 19 The newpower will reallybe a Islamic, mujahidin CEU eTD Collection Books, 2002,New PageDelhi, 183. 40 39 York, 2000, Page 195. 38 37 policies. reform social Daoud’s with unhappy Islamists, wing right among from recruited Afghans5000 about up totrain set were camps military in Kabul. Secret regime nationalist Pakistanandbreakaway toplay Hedecided East of Daoud’s(1971). Islamic againstthe card stewardshipmodernist-liberal of in Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, of shadow the humiliatingthe defeat the under began Islam political fundamentalist towards drift Pakistan’s Ironically, nothing short of a nightmare for the Pakistani establishment. being inby hedged hostile India by and Afghanistan supported military might,Soviet caused with Afghanistan independence Pushtun mergernationalist backyard or of dreams against strategic Pakistan’s Islamicworld, fivethe Asian tothe insulate secureabridge Republics, ‘Muslim’ Central to install a client regime in Kabul. The calculation was grand and sweeping: win sympathy of manage wavethey would Pan-Islamic riding the that in wereconfident Islamabad Strategists resource for a new kind of warfare tobe conducted by unaccountable non-state actors. Islamabad.And became thus the Pakistan principal instrumentand political-ideological provide 3.2billion dollars, and arms cover diplomatic for the Afghan war, channelled through to more than the‘redpleased thespreadwas peril’ concerning of andtemptations anxieties infidel Hindustan’. andan heretic) Iran Russia,Shiabetween thus aChristian space (and tempting creating a‘sacredSunni dreamof Muslims. Dr. Rifaat Hussain- Pakistan’s Afghan Policy in Ahmed Rashid- Taliban: Islam, Oil and the New Great Game in Central Asia, I.B Taurius&Co. Ltd, New Supra Supra Note 13,Page 84. Note 11,Page 175. ” 37 [Emphasis added]. Ahmad Rashid’s observation is apposite. Zia upthe is whipped [Emphasis AhmadRashid’s apposite. observation added]. 39 , andabove India. The prospect of strategic all provideelse against depth 38 President Reagan, driven by very different kind of kind different very by driven Reagan, President The Anatomy of aConflict: Afghanistan and 9/11 20 40 , Roli CEU eTD Collection 44 43 Press, London, 1984, Page 98. Afghan Resistance: The Politics of Survival, Westview SpecialStudies in International Relations 42 41 mid-1975.around They were firstthe tobe sentinto action carryto out armed incursions in eastern Afghanistan “buying bullets from shoot“buyingbullets from theRussians?” Chineseto the Shola-e-Javed camps.” at arrived arms and in the insurgents ammunition Afghanistan...scores of haveto Chinese instructors invasion Soviet the week after step by opening consultations political with US on Afghanistan in summer of the 1978. A joined the US in support of radical Islamists to defeat the Soviets. In fact they took the first some ideological across The Afghan peculiar produced Chinaavidly divides. alliances war 2.2.1 United States and its Allies 2.2 Sources ofsupport for the Afghan Jihad effectiveness.” ‘free thesupreme “needis forthan world’ maximizinggreater ever Mujahideen the for that argument Merriam’s G. in John recorded lucidly is undertaking American Soviet upextremistpropped Islamists on an unprecedented logic scale.The ferocious of anti the that clerics fundamentalist its and Arabia Saudi rich oil of support fervent the with invasion Islamistsmobilisation provided aconvenientsetting for forging apowerful nexus.anti-Soviet Supra Raja Anwar- The Tragedy of Afghanistan: A first Hand Account,Vesro, London, 1988,Page 233-234. John G. Merriam- Arms Shipments to the Afghan Resistance, in Ibid , Page 185 Note 12,Page 66. 42 41 However it was the American covert operations against the Soviet the against operations covert American the itwas However Daily Telegraph 43 Around the same time a C.I.A functionary exulted: 21 reported: reported: “China is flying large supplies of Grant M. Farr and John G. Merriam (ed.) - 44 The Sino-Soviet rift coupled and , Westview , CEU eTD Collection a fact publicly acknowledged by President Anwar Sadat, eager raisehis inAnwar Sadat, to by the standing President a factpublicly acknowledged which Egypt, hadbuiltup sizeable of becameweapons, Soviet reserves avital source; supply mujahidin constructingKhost tunnelfor themedical arms complex storage, and for refuge the training transferring fundswas through Swissdedicated bankthrough accounts minor Pushtun clan hugely favoured byand the Pakistani ISI but for avery different reason. Hekmatyarwas belonged toa therefore seen as easier to control headed by the Pakistani banker Aga Hassan Abedi bankerAgaheaded bythe Hassan Pakistani battlefield. the on punishment maximum Soviets the on inflicting for C.I.A 50 instant delivery of cashto individuals miles away. 49 48 47 notorious tothe was allocated military By1987 annualU.S tothe assistance the assassinations and (U.S) andthe blowpipe highlysophisticated stinger missiles. (U.K) out carry to rifles sniper missiles, anti-tank guided wire explosives, plastic C-4 quality: the to given technology and Arms Pakistan. of region Frontier Western in weapons camps North training aid, humanitarian generous and comprehensive: 46 office in Islamabad functionedterrorists after nine eleven --by I.S.I (Inter Services Intelligence) ofthe Pakistani army. Its as the largest C.I.A outpost. Support for the 45 the to disbursed wereregularly Funds training. andarms patronage C.I.A (Central charge Agency)Intelligence by totake quick was financial extending Hawala is an informal banking system functioning primarily in the Middle East, Asia and Supra Africa that allows Supra Supra Ibid Ibid , Page. , Page 119-120. Note 34, Page 142. Note 38,Page 132. Note 38,Page 476-479. . 50 Hizb-i-Islami hawala 49 . C.I.A . C.I.A also provided fundsOsama to Bin Ladenfor 47 : Bank of Credit and Commerce International : BankandCommerce of Credit headed by headed Gulbuddin hailed Hekmatyar, bythe 22 mujahidin 48 . Another favoured. Another channelof soared $700 million, to mostit of mujahidin 46 . Funds were channelled mujahidin was of edge cutting 45 mujahidin –branded as Hewasalso was CEU eTD Collection 53 fighters. 52 an Islamic cause. Underjustinqualifyrecruiting not for Afghanistan, thewar grounds whatever butfor as seemedto Saudi patronage theby the run in campsPeshawar Refugee North-Western Frontier Province (NWFP) of in West. liberal the elicit press censure of the boys youngindoctrinated-mobilised asnineas yearsold.failed fact frightful that Even to and Soviets the both werethat inreports press detail reported ground Books New 1986 December –for example, such notice instance of rare exceedingly Andinthe fanaticism. religious tone to critical any near of and absence tone righteous 51 Herald Tribune liberal with paper The press. great reported prideBritish inthe American and Lebanon. providing Sovietweaponry in captured sixthe days war with Syria and in Palestinians Afghan rebels” the for Egypt from arms buying been has States United the months one twenty last the “for Islamic world. interview In an toanAmerican television channel proclaimed:(1981) Sadat The role of American and Pakistani government agencies inandEgypt China. promoting the Iran, Arabia, Saudi NATO Pakistan, European allies, of states: conglomeration strangest Who Speaks for the Afghans- International Herald Tribune, 20 Tribune, Herald International Afghans- the for Speaks Who Supra Supra - itismisadventure. - positedentirely the of Butthedistressing Soviet as consequence Note 34,Page 105. Note 43,Page 235. 53 52 The striking fact about American press coverage of Americanis of coverage its Afghan war fact about the unfailing The press striking Thus the American covert operation in Afghanistan came to be supported by by the be supported to came Afghanistan in operation covert American the Thus , proposed that Afghanistan’s U.N seatbe awarded to the 51 . The incredible. The detail is thatevenIsrael as served a channel supply of Jami’at-ul-Ulema-e-Islam 23 th November, 1986. November, functioned as popular mujahidin York Review YorkReview of mujahidin International mujahidin resistance was CEU eTD Collection 56 foreign policy. leverage over position him considerable gave that a Assembly, National the of Committee Standing Affairs Foreign Chairman, appointed was leader J.U.I Maulana FazlurRehman;the for setupbytheJ.U.I. Taliban nursery the were 55 ‘byextension’ inwould Taliban being‘anti-secular’ was thatthe establishment convinced Pakistani the RifaatHussain of words the Taliban. In the to assistance coordinate Afghan cell an up set radicalism, Islamic off undera victim became who Benazir, that is irony instructive her The ‘favourite grand uncle’, the Pushtun General Naseerullahregime. Babar,family,Bhutto especiallyBenazir’s brotherin MurtazaBhutto their struggle againstZia’s to the personalhelp to hadrenderedgenerous acruel Najibullah paradox. detail underscores from the Middle East. the most vocal supporters of the Taliban cause in Western capitals and a facilitator of funds e-Islam (J.U.I). Many Ulema- Jamat hard-line the with in alliance (P.P.P) Party People’s Pakistan Bhutto’s Benazir followingThe foreign 1993election Islamist strength edgeinPakistan’s policy of the gained 2.2.2 Islamabad’s Policy andhospitality. skills military-technical andPakistani benevolence, diplomatic and arms American money, oil Saudi on reared were Omar Mullah leader its and Taliban revivedin fervour with great nineteenth the by century Deobandthe to 54 25,000 over becamehomePakistan to Supra Supra Supra Wahabism Note 42,Page 267. Note 38,Page 144. Note 39,Page 90. 56 ; purist radical Islam named after Abdul Arabia namedAbdul Wahhab radicalSaudi purist and Islam after (1703-92)of 55 madarsas Benazir’s regime set the ball rolling for rabid Islamists in Kabul. This that came to dot North Western Frontier’s landscape as a landscape as Western Frontier’s dot North came to that madarssahas 24 (Muslim religious seminaries) committed seminaries) religious (Muslim 54 Rehman soon emerged as madarsa in India. in CEU eTD Collection regimes. Nawaz Sharif’s government extended diplomatic recognition to the Taliban (25th Taliban the to recognition diplomatic extended government Sharif’s regimes. Nawaz civilian undersuccessive links werecemented isPakistan’s Taliban that truth The perverse fundamentalist. fanatic rhetoric and ever more and became linkages wereconsolidated thejustificatory trans-national scale; a global to transformed was Pakistan and India between struggle regional bombings, patronsin theirPakistani Islamabadwereenraged. Harkat-ul-Ansar ‘Hinduthe dominated’ army.Indian in tosecureaccesstrainingOfficers with the Bin Laden to for camps order Intelligence Pakistani level Colonel of liaison indicate 1998 of reports C.I.A Classified true somethat Afghans are fighting against Indian occupation forces in Kashmir”. in Kashmir. fight Wahhabi enlist the puritanical to with Arabs Afghans and encouraged 61 Kashmiri the for camps training 60 59 “welcome development”. 58 57 Kabul by the of of the capture characterisation in Bhutto’s recorded Benazir starkly is triumph of sense unabashed Islamabad’s Kashmir. in Muslims the liberate to India training for sanctuary a secure help thus and ‘anti-Indian’ be also Ibid. Supra Supra Supra Supra Note 39,Page 196. Note 12,Page 440. Note 43,Page 137 and 186. Note 11,Page 192. militants in camps in Khost as punishment for American Embassy American for punishment as in Khost in camps militants 58 Mullah Omar confirmed (1998):“We support 57 Infact the Jalalabad mujahidin 60 Hence when the American cruise missiles killed missiles cruise American Hence when the , Bin laden sponsored similar camps at Khost and Khost camps at similar sponsored laden , Bin 25 Shura was regularly paid by Pakistan to host to by Pakistan paid wasregularly 61 Thus, what was till now a jihad Mujahidin in Kashmir. It is also It inKashmir. Harkat-ul-Ansar mujahidin fighters against fighters mujahidin 59 fighting as a and CEU eTD Collection Afghanistan speaks being by of ‘struck their hostility’ physically)(sometimes towards in fighters Arab with encounters personal extensive his of basis the on Roy true. holds flocked intobecome Afghanistan not did anti-western 1991, they after had always been so” fronts, communist or western oppression.” western or communist fronts, 66 65 jihad justhappen. waiting to for instance Consider in Laden’s Bin comment midstthe Afghan of moorings Washington chose topatronize, of theeventual againstgroups was West’ ‘the turn 64 to Islamists wereseen as not being in rooted milieu Afghan the cultural andslavishlybeholden 63 parties such as Islamists, sidelining inthe many Afghan process traditional whoclerics based preferred tribal was blindIt this American drove foster anti-communism that andhelped policy radical matter ifyouwere fromBosniaor you wereBahrain, welcome. waswelcomewithyou werejihad, everyone anarmedanti-communistitdidn’t openarms.If in Pakistan: diplomat American an of words in the captured best is level official general supervision of ISIArabia.An 35,000men from many estimated as forty as weremobilisedcountries the under of Pakistan and CIA of America. The prevalent sentiment at the colossal covert operations of Afghan the of operations covert colossal policies were popular and helped pander the Islamist constituency within Pakistan. The 62 May 1997) anddoled out30million tothedollars Taliban inKabul. Oliver Roy- Globalised Islam: The Search for aNew Ummah, Hurst and Company, London, 2002 , Page 293. Supra Supra Supra Ibid Jamat-i-Islami : , Page 182. “I discovered it was not enough to fight in Afghanistan, but that we had to fight on all on fight to had we that but in Afghanistan, fight to enough not was it discovered “I Note 9, Page 132. Note 7, Page 84-86. Note 43,Page 480. Harakat Inqalabi-Islami. of Pakistan and the Muslim brotherhood of Egypt. of brotherhood Muslim the and Pakistan of It is indeed significant that in their perception radical perception in their that significant indeed is It Jihad 65 Oliver Roy’s remark that “the that remark Roy’s Oliver 26 were fundedwere primarilyby USandthe Saudi ” 63 [Emphasis added]. 64 Given the ideological 62 Domestically such jihadis “ during the during who had who 66 CEU eTD Collection completely stop supply of arms to the various them. 71 1995, London, Page 20. 70 69 68 67 providing the to arms by catastrophe rights ahuman precipitating for allies NATO European and U.S.A Pakistan, Union,Arabia, indicted the Saudi Soviet (former) Amnesty 1995report International’s costing between $80,000-150,000. missile each with bazaar arms attractive and vast a thereby creating missiles, Stinger 2,500 backbuy roughly to Clinton H.WBush Bill and George by sanctioned operation as secret the Islamic of making in the involvement NATO and US the of proof as conclusive more operations, afactduly byrifle manufacturer. concerned the confirmed Kenya inminute confirmed detail shipment by US the of sniper rifles for BinLaden’s 1989 bombings inin instance, the American accused the Embassy For incredible reading. make radicalism Islamic fostering the in contribution America’s concerning details complex The of nexus’ ‘holy the in consolidating West the by played role the of indictment stunning westerners. Review of Books, Economist, Books, of Review – including others among media coverage interviews, personal reports, intelligence basis the on of Hartman declassified policy. American blinded cost no virtually at Vietnam of humiliation the avenge and Union Soviet the punish Ibid Amnesty International- Afghanistan: International Responsibility forHuman Rights Disaster, NovemberIbid Supra Ibid. . , Page 11. 70 In September 1992 the Americans and the Russians signed an agreement to anagreement signed Russians and the Americans the 1992 September In Note 12,Page 480. 67 Short-sightedness combined obsessive temptation with the beingof able to mujahidin International Herald Tribune International Herald YorkPhiladelphia Inquirer, New and despite being fully aware of the gross excesses committed by 69 WeekendGuardian 27 mujahidin -- and court testimonies --andcourt upa draws factionsby January 1992, 68 Perhaps nothing is Jihad. 71 Jihad but CEU eTD Collection economic breakdown of capitalist economies abjectly dependent on secure supply of cheap of secure supply on dependent abjectly economies capitalist of breakdown economic them in arousing striking distanceof oil the fearsrich Middle East, acute disruption of and brought Afghanistan of agenda.Sovietoccupation in American important role setting the Afghanistan invasion unleashed playedalso bythe economic an of dynamics Soviet Apart from the2.3 TheEconomics of American Policy general anti-Soviettowards folk and Sufi Islamic traditions in Afghanistan as also in the Kashmir valley. passionidentity seems to havesoinvitingmeant unpleasantness and hostility. IndeedPakistan’s faith in its Sunni Muslim become characteristic so firm and answerPakistan, To orPakistan?’ from youHindustan blind Kabul‘Are was: of streets on the that occasions its innumerable on encountered leadershipinvariably I questions first the of One citizens. its and chose Pakistan of ofstudied government the between distinction no made Kabul of American streets the on hostilityinstance for many that so intense causingembitterment for local andcustoms, hadscant regard traditions policy, inboth Afghanistan and Kashmir. Inboth casesit extremist supported Islamist outfits which the similarity tolightifcomes looks at one kindsthe of groups Islamabadthat chosetopatronize for and patronage protection, most the radical like of groups extremist the Taliban. Astriking and created of firmlysought-out flag bearer itsIslam, establish to asthe credentials Pakistan ground. Keen different on asomewhat werepremised temptations and calculations Pakistan’s Islamic Afghanistan during July-August,2007. 72 majorfinancial drug trade, also for the a resource totheone Americansthing attitude has neverflourish failed that to inAfghanistan: opium like ostrich the concerns consequence some of detail Another faithfully. it implemented never Based on theeveryday discourses thatI encountered andengaged with during one month of my stay in jihad as the gift, albeit unintended, of American foreign policy. 28 mujahidin . Thus, one could speak of global 72 CEU eTD Collection 76 75 74 groups opposed Taliban, in tothe military of financial patronage the to especially region and 73 Afghanistan. through pipeline the build to proposal a Alliance Northern the and Taliban the both with negotiating an withwas Rashid recounts Chairman encounter Bridas unusual who the Bulgheroni Carlos idea.Ahmad pipeline the stealing of Corporation Unocal accusing legal Bridas with tangle, in in the region pursuitlockedpipeline dreams,of and Unocal Bridas that ina got difficult invest inAfghanistan soas tobypass Iran. owned Unocal Corporation,companies such as: BridasCorporation based in theBritish virgin Atlantic islands, American Delta Oil Alavi’sof argument findsSaudi detailed corroboration in reports and plansArabia. of somePakistan. major and oil Afghanistan gasvia Sea Arabian the to Asia Central from pipelines Theyoil-gas were all firmingprop upaclientto Sunni inKabul, wouldregime which help bewilling to build andsecure up plans to politicalalso soughtWashington has beenbuilt. United LikePakistan, calculus of the States sweeping the which upon resource economic critical the as oil identifies Alavi Hamza of 11. bytheSeptember events dramatized fact tragically a consideration, secondary a always remained American people of the security Hartman the to According (1989) wasalso seen interests of as ensuring the vital Capital and Economy West. the of Islamic in Revolution Iran Hence (1979). the defeat of eventual Sovietsthe in Afghanistan Khomeini’s Ayatollah triumph of the after fever pitch of a something fears reached oil. These ChristopherBellamy- Afghans may find peace in the Pipeline, Hamza Alavi - Pakistan between Afghanistan and India, and Afghanistan between - Pakistan Alavi Hamza Supra Supra Note 38,Page 6. Note 12,Page 469. 76 Iran responded by its sectarian using and financial andclout extended 75 Sointense wasthe acquirestruggle to afoothold 29 Middle East Report The Independent , No.222,, spring 2002, Page 25. , 14 th March, 1997. 73 74 CEU eTD Collection of any serious awareness concerning its long-term implications. The impact of impact great of The wars and implications. its long-term concerning of serious awareness any protectingmaterial interests certainly in1989.Butclearly triumphed policy that was devoid Thus, could one byblind arguethatapolicy sentimentdriven for anti-Soviet and concern 2.4 Implications of the support for andits allies. United States Arabia, to political prominence and power;supported by financialthe and muscle military of Saudi push instance chose notably to –most for --Pakistan Consider kindof Taliban the groups the foreign policy. Nonetheless, the significance of ideology remains crucial in certain contexts. in factor American hasbeen of and economics shaping the apowerful True, remains Gaddis. 78 77 considerations.” other exclusion of tothe of containment, strategies inshaping considerations “economic to accorded Hence the primacy capital. private protecting imperative of supreme perspective he says driving the that force behindAmerican foreign has beenpolicy the Andrewin Hartman’s argument is Speakingfrom apposite. contextthis Marxian a broadly Pakistan. Indiaand viaAfghanistan to promote apipeline from Turkmenistan to is determined abandonpipelineDelhi, itsfrom toIndia the proposed to In placeAmerica viaPakistan. Iran The hasbeenBush administration putting enormous its newfound on pressure allyNew policy. this of continuation and renewal fervent signal to seem developments recent Certain America 11. September after to inrelation especially mark, the off entirely weren’t Iranians encircle Iran. by to attempt U.S the a covert for theTalibs in effect was Saudi Pakistani support it sinceand was convincedthat Hazarajat, Ibid Supra , Page 85-87. Note 11,Page 474 78 Aview strongly by reiterated Cold eminentthe Warhistorian John Lewis jihad 77 30 CEU eTD Collection my next chapter. my next very basics of the social, political and cultural landscape of the entire region, the subject of emerged asthe new andvery fraught theatre of religious warfare. Andit threatens alterto the hasKashmir them. for scripted Washington inwhattheir Islamabador patrons according to numbers became foot soldiers of the holy war. But at some point they refusedplay to entirely motivated fanatically from point breed oflethallywhence emerged awhole new trained as and armed also in allthis began with down Afghanistan,to day.course It conflictthe crucial of the turning us haunt to continues fallout Its valley. Kashmir administered Indian in the however, seen The earliest and most ferocious manifestation of the Afghan battlefield,this ended up as a fiery radical new radical fundamentalism is to be Russia in Chechnya as part of Russia inChechnyapartof global as Afghan in the volunteer youngest the ul-Khattab, Ibn as such movements, older to twist radical inAlgeria, providedhome anextremist(F.I.S) such IslamicSalvationFront or countries, as 79 Afghan the for mobilized many outthat points any Olivera scalemen the Roy of inthe past. time unthinkable at on radicalism Islamic militant of for anewbreed sanctuary secure most and fertile a prepared clearly conflict Afghan in the involvement American lines. fault new up open does often italsostructures andinterest Inrecastingcan and many in politics directions. and unintended intervention,power coupled religiousmobilisation with large of invariably kind a deep runs Supra Note 66,Page 298. jihad. He is believed to have played a seminal role in triggering the second war with jihadist jihad fighters determined tokill die or until finalthe Large triumph. went on to either establish radical Islamic movements intheir movements Islamic radical establish either to on went jihad , while Abu Hamza al-Masri who was maimed in maimed was who al-Masri Hamza Abu while , 31 imam in a London mosque. 79 CEU eTD Collection designate it the Kashmiri ‘ Kashmiri the it designate The year 1989marks thebeginning ofinsurgency in Kashmir. Pakistan chose to officially avenge its defeat in 1971 and firmly establish its position as a champion of Islam. Muslimliberate infrom brethren Kashmir oppressivethe control of the die, decided that the moment was uniquely money, mightthe kill munitions andflushwith SovietUnion the and mentrained of to and opportune to launch what it saw as a struggle to of Kashmir. of two the decades long insurgency launched by Pakistan upon socialthe and cultural fabric it.fightnow determined1971 seems Also,isagainst it to crucial impact weexaminethat the sudden volte-face fighting Kashmiri,the of who after army in with Indian the 1947,1965and the is attention scant paid been has but out stands that fact extraordinary The state. Pakistani that it doesn’t allow for the slightest expression of political difference in relation to the fact largethe ironical Kashmir). Yet, is its Kashmir ‘AzadKashmir’ (Free control as under in Pakistan Kashmirhas calls conflict struggle’ and namedthepartof the a‘freedom army,is condemned tolive life forever under the shadow of guns, is awful and tragic. Indian the and militants armed between sandwiched Kashmiri, ordinary the of plight The the transformation of the vale of Kashmir, known as ‘paradise on earth’, intoa ‘living hell’. untodeath for Radical Islam. Pakistan, buoyed bythe heady triumph of the The war inAfghanistan anentiregroomed generation of 3. Kashmir: The First Theatre of Global intifada’, or freedom struggle. freedom or 32 jihadi Mujahidin fighters committed to fighting to committed fighters Jihad intervention also marks also intervention kafir mujahidin Hindu; thus against CEU eTD Collection lack of access to voices Iconductedinthat BradfordAnother and stumbling London. block inmy was research the from the Pundit community leastproblem partially,at from byincorporating Kashmir’ voices interviews‘Azad through of the valley. only academic writings butalsoin journalistic reportage. Ishall to endeavour Myovercome this construction of not Kashmir’ in is as‘Azad the proclaimed is what of out absence stands thecomplete aspect that pursue have Another and argumentsurprisingto the somewhatI seekto drawn a blank. subject at hand, efforts to access materials such as intelligence reports, relevant and important the of nature sensitive the Given Kashmir. and India Pakistan, of spectrum geo-political voices from the section of with a cross conducted interviews and subject the on discourses academic upon by drawing raised above answer questions to the attempts This chapter leading scholars Sumit like Ganguly in isolation. It has to be seen in up themomentum and intensity of Thus,events. the situationinbe Kashmir graspeda cannot larger historical context, certainspeed linkedvalley asa polices state to crucial to worked developments trigger Indian which surprisingly the works regional and ideological of mostambitions, notably in Kashmir. Internally, within Kashmirthe with necessarylogistical, its financial, the political,topursue support andmoral grand 81 18/05/2008). International Security 80 jihad Afghan The sub-continent. the of matrix historical 1920’s the in shown, has chapter first etch Pakistan’s identity and claim theflagas bearerof Islam. is This inturn as rooted, the cuts’ and dressed up in the cloak of Islam,has been notmuch more than a expedient to firmly ‘bleed athousand by India to designed Kashmir Pakistan’s policy arguesthat This chapter Supra Sumit Ganguly- Explaining the Kashmir Insurgency: Political Mobilization and Institutional Decay, , dwelt upon in the preceding chapter, was in upon chapter, preceding , dweltthe Note 7. , Vol. 21, No.22, 1996. 80 http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/sumit.htm and Aushotosh Varshney Aushotosh and 33 sponsored by the West andWest by the sponsored 81 fail to do. provided Pakistan provided (Accessed CEU eTD Collection 82 speaking Tibetan Buddhists and Shia Muslims. union The with Pakistan. thirdLadakh constituent regional comprises Balti predominantly dominantly Hindus. inhabitants Dogra Punjabi speaking vehemently Its idea of the reject a of concept of religious expulsion at cut verythe heart of syncreticthe cultural inidealisedrhythm the they behad forced to toflee in a brutal of campaign ethnic cleansing in early 1990’s. Thisact and remained Pundits Kashmiri of minority Hindu ancient asmall valley Kashmir Muslim overwhelmingly the in even Also, traditions. Sufi local of diversity the by coloured intensely ethnic andlinguistic remain affiliations strong and powerful. practicereligious Even is Distinctive homogenous. far from are Muslim inhabitants Its is farmore complex. however, is also the foundational basis of the identity-nationhood of Pakistan. Situation on the ground claim the state as a part of its territory. The claim rests on an exclusive religious basis, to reason sufficientwhich Pakistan forfurnishes Muslim population Kashmir’s predominantly and Afghanistan. Asia inCentral ambitions Russian on serve as acheck buffer to an effective create to need imperative wasthe calculation decisive the British, For the in1846. HinduMaharaja Dogra into a feudalby with the endorsement, kingdom together British territories werepatched Kashmir as the territorial unit we know is a creation of British rule. Diverse populations3.1 Jammu andKashmir: ABackground and haveargumentpursue in I that this soughtto chapter. larger the alter fundamentally not does it work, my of reach the limit extent an to may Punditcommunity’s discourseis basedlargely on secondary sources. I believe thatwhile this Supra Note 9, Page7-9. Kashmiriyat 82 . In contrast to the valley, the region of Jammu comprises pre- 34 CEU eTD Collection Leading Urdupublications in valley the such kahan seaayi” loudspeakers from mosque screaming: pulpits muchlarge over Indiaof North in Many 1920’s. the Kashmiri refugees recall Pundit from 1990 onwards seemed mimicto and magnify communal politics that first began loomto information.com/Miscellaneous/UrduPress.html. (Accessed 16/05/2008). 84 dwindle. to continued have numbers their since ever religious overtone Pundits were systematically a targeted.Around 1990 acquired they stages numbered around 3, 50,000 howeverinitial the in which valley, the gripped that turmoil the Following valley. the in population 83 cause”. same forthe fighting Muslims are Pundits Mujahidin terrorism”. “Islamic radical with experience defining India’s modern signifies Kashmir 3.2 Forging ofanIslamic Kashmir culturally diverse. By no stretch could it be regarded as a homogenous Muslim entity. stridentrhetoric andloud political projection, ethnically,linguistically, religiously and The definitive fact on the ground is that the state of Jammu and Kashmir remains despite The communal rhetoric that began to echo loud in the valleychallenge posed byunder organisations like the Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front (J.K.L.F).the secular-nationalist relatively the eliminate and marginalize to as so Mujahidin Hizbul as the organizations such toextremistextend support Three, unqualified other. absolute symbols and sense of Muslimcoverto and define all of aspects public life. constantly andprivate invoke Two, Islamic hurt and direct that againstvalley through thethree specific strategies. One, whip up communal rhetoric to fever pitch so as Al Umar inAl-Safa, 4 Kashmiri Pundits are Hindu by religion and prior to the arrival of Islam they formed majority of the 83 . This section deals with attempts by Pakistan to Islamize the culture of Kashmir have come to symbolize the brutal face of Islam, particularly for the Kashmiri the for particularly Islam, of face brutal the symbolize to come have (Muslims and Sikhs are like brothers, where did these Hindus comefrom). Hindus did these where like brothers, are andSikhs (Muslims th June, 1991. Available at Available 1991. June, http://www.kashmir 84 35 The Sikhs, feeling vulnerable and small in small and vulnerable feeling Sikhs, The Al-Safa “Mussalman-Sikh bhai-bhai,Hinduquam stridently proclaimed: “Sikhs and Kafir Hindu as the unrelated mujahidin shadow CEU eTD Collection 125. 87 sharp a about brought briefly Hindu-Sikh communal polarizationquashing not seenbefore. subsequent its and movement The of India. Union the from seceding 86 the Pakistani part knownas West Punjab that is home to some of the holiest Sikhshrines. 85 Muslims in valley and the pockets inminisculeof Westthe Sikh Punjab and Sikhs the between in particular realignments and alignments communal new triggered hostile Extremist from Islamist ‘other’. flagrantly propaganda across promoted border the imagination of communities; shaping infact self-perception largely in opposition to the in Thecrucial process experienceand its left a deepimpress and definitive. self-the Censusclassify sought to neatpeople into categories, andin processnumbersthis became The Colonial chapter. in first the discussed formation, knowledge of Orientalist discourse the The of politics numbersinitscounting form and modern contemporary in by was set motion or ‘people of the book’, like the Muslims. numbers, were willing to abide by the Muslim majority and proclaimed themselves as significant and perverse element that stands out in thishai kind of communal rhetoric is the new “ Or: Allah). than other none Kahnahoga” Allah commitment instance: promotingFor “ to anIslamic agenda. a lucidly for they reading meritdemonstrate close proclamations Certain extremist theextremist to Pakistan this impulse was carefullynurtured through financial and logistical support extended by Navnita Chaddha Behra- Demystifying Kashmir,Brookings InstitutionPress, Washington D.C, 2003, Page Led by SinghJarnail Bhindarwala Khalistanthe movement demanded a separate Sikh statein East Punjab by two, into partitioned was It 1947. in conflagrations communal gruesome most ofthe some witnessed Punjab ” (Arise and awake out Muslims, throw thejihad infidels, is approaching). Khalistan (If you wish continuelivingto inKashmir,you willhave pray to to Allah-o-Akbar, aa bhago,jihad raha Mussalmano jago,kafiro Allah-o-Akbar, 86 movement in East Punjab. in East movement 36 Agar Kashmir meinrahnahoga, Agar 85 . At another level Kitabia 87 The CEU eTD Collection was the message of Kashmir? was themessage of Lion of the Srinagar shouting: “ kilometre funeralof procession,Mujahidin his body draped in the Indian tricolour and the crowds in help from the from help 89 on Available 88 folk-presence andlegitimacy even of efface thesilentlywhip to to passions up religious communal hatreds religious and Islamic rhetoric presenceHabibi AyeshaandBibiFatima and memoryHazrat ofKashmirareKhadija AliandHazratQavar.Andthebravewomen heirsofBibi of other of are heirs SalaleeleWale Walab...they Rasool-Pak heirsof they are Kashmiri’s and of communities fear death not and religions do “Kashmiri’s television: Pakistan on Benazir Bhutto speechof better ahysterical than that illustrates Nothing end. this symbols Islamic deploy and invoke to quick was elite political of Kashmir.in Kashmir. Apart from encouraging aggressive communal rhetoric-mobilisation,The Islamabad’s The establishment in Islamabad was quick to seize the opportunity and play the Islamic card Pakistan. by agenda political intoincorporation aggressive an systematic andits hatred fierce edgeof Benazir’s Propaganda Speech broadcast on state run Pakistan Television inDecember1989/January 1990. Supra Kashmiriyat. Note 7. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eCRFWStxV_4&feature=related intervention brutally shattered the centuries old syncretic religious-cultural fabric religious-cultural syncretic old centuries the shattered brutally intervention mujahidin because theyare Muslims,theblood mujahids andGhazi’sof flows intheveins Its highpoint in recent times is marked by the Sheikh Abdullah’s twelve Abdullah’s Sheikh the by marked is times in recent highpoint Its Sher-e- Kashmir ka kya irshad? Hindu, Muslim, SikhIttehad” Hindu,Muslim, ka kyairshad? Kashmir Sher-e- with Kalashnikovs. .” 88 Rishi-Sufi [Emphasis added]. Friendship between Hindu, Muslim and Sikhs.”) 37 Islambe banishedto was soughtample with Thus, Bhutto consciouslyThus, used Bhutto (Accessed 17/05/2008) (“What 89 CEU eTD Collection insistence upon Brahmanical purity in the face of ridicule and threats of punishment from ofpunishmentface in insistence of ridicule andthreats the purity Brahmanical upon moves and shifts, almost seamlessly, between fond remembrance of desperate stubborn in Punditcommunity the age.Memory-discourse political tothe the salience of response in changeas it were, to say seems italso could One withambiguities. deep through shot and complex intensely is discourse this of texture The insightful. and nuanced is discourse valleythe 1320.Tremblay’swas establishedaround of rendering community Punditthe mujahidin the to prior Tremblay, to According instructive. is particularly Tremblay Chowdhary 90 the that upheaval nature of reflects the social It attention. serious merits valley in theKashmir community Pundit the among and oppression persecution of discourse religious A counter pervasive consolidations. andcreate insurgency,mobilise communal militant the turbulence, suchasduring to in of periods invoked selectively in valley the discourses counter of powerful tradition account into notthe for take militancy.Rai alsodoes insupport decline years, perceptible for the support Indian army support fortill 1971, strong militancy initially,in and recent account in for of shifts andfails Kashmiri populace: the attitude the to important persuasive, religiousHinduRaja. Thus,political tenor. assertion acquired a valley felt excluded misrule.of five percentof She ninety of intheKashmir a century population the arguesthat from the MriduRai explains the thereligious violence edgeto inKashmiritby in placing context the political economy and social prestige under the rule of the Supra Note 9,Page 286 and 294. intervention comprisedPundits 4% of the population. The first Muslim in kingdom mujahidin intervention unleashed. In this context the work Reetaintervention work of the In unleashed. context this 38 90 Rai’s argument though Rai’sargument CEU eTD Collection even when definitive, can never be full and complete. In partition violence the basic the violence partition In complete. and full be never can definitive, when even a break But locales. with causes past, the in and of and specific modulated terms contained was modern part It pattern. of an politicalover-arching be design and couldnot therefore violence firstthe definitive marks shared existential breakfrom space. Partition pre- the situations andlocales. And that alsomeanta quiet butcontinual ofmodulationprocess in a swell not would specificevents, itit to would causes, remain confined a general Therefore, into conflagration. But violence-brutality. trigger would situation or event Some episodic. as mujahidin the distinguishes What question: another add frame narrower in a could one that To violence. mujahidin demarcate elementsthat the the asto question pose pointthis shouldPerhaps at one 1947. in Kashmir1989mimicked the conflagrations thebloody communal during partition of community of all sense of shame entire the rob to was intent The trees. from hung and raped, stripped, were women 1990 wasthe result of men houses murdereda vicious were burnt, campaign: and were years of Islam in Kashmir. The exodus of nearly 250,000 Kashmiri Pundits from the valley in a new kindof was that rupture utterly anythingunlike before in that hundred seven-eightthe The misleading. aretherefore andStraight categorical generalizations 91 ruling andMuslim elites acelebration shared syncreticof culture-values: Supra Mujahidin Note 10, Page 488. violence from violence? partition One could speakof violencepre-modern of kind violence and the deep ruptures it seems to unleash, from certain older forms of intervention, financially supported and by ideologically introduced Islamabad, and honour. The intensity and scale of communal violence communal of scale and intensity The honour. and 39 Kashmiriyat . 91 CEU eTD Collection translated into expulsion non-Muslimof Kashmiris. further New Delhi’s larger strategy and discredit the movementin Kashmir and play to upon the opportunity an as this used cleverly -- contested hotly and be controversial to continues role whose -- Jagmohan Governor then the through state Indian the that convinced seemed national espousedKashmiris by ethos Indian Most the State. J.K.L.F and sympathisers as an extremist Islamist movement sponsored by Islamabad; complete negation of the secular ideologicalThis tar insurgency the the in Indian anlever state provided to Kashmir to purely inKashmir. Pundits the target systematically to began military establishment the closely to like withGroups by the Hizbulsupported gusto elite political the andsome circles religious strategically fully at home with the grand strategic ambitions of the Pakistani state. Afghan in the combat experience Islamic order based on Sharia and a unified Muslim community. The Hizbul had extensiveThe JKLFbe soughtto inclusive andtolerant of faiths.other comprised Mujahidin mujahidin The entire operation was well thought out and rigorously organized. action. of instruments In the early stages the principal its chose ISI Pakistan’s which with care the Hence modern organisation. characteristictime ruthlessness efficient and of injected the sense purpose of grand an 92 and inchoate unstable. mob, the of violence was instrument Supra Note 7, Page 1016 werecontrolled through organizations: JKLF two and hard-line the (Organization of Holy Warriors) affiliated with the Warriors) affiliated of (Organization Holy Islam pasand Islam (lovers of Islam), strong believers committed to creating a pure Jihad and wanted Kashmir’sand merger wanted which with Pakistan, 40 92 Hizbul was thus ideologically and Mujahidin Jama’at-i-Islami Hizbul violence for the first the for violence in sharp contrast sharp in of of Pakistan. Hizbul- CEU eTD Collection Pakistan as an ‘Islamic cause’. In instructive contrast the J.K.L.F continued to speak of to continued J.K.L.F the instructive contrast In ‘Islamiccause’. asan Pakistan clear in its open fervent support of clearinsupport its openfervent The ideological commitment of rulingthe military-political elite in standsPakistan andstark the State and the boundary of personal religious identity. targetingthe have Pundits. Many of Jagmohan blurredto boundaries the between perceived Kashmiriyat the fabric of shatter to andhelpedPakistan situation the Jagmohan Infactexacerbated state. policies farfrom Kashmirsecuring forIndia served undermineto thecredibility of Indianthe bewithhave you dealt to accordingly”. area “ifyou Muslim,youJagmohan’sin following strategy and arepro-Pakistani words: the biased the Pundits.” towards in very many ways hand. Hewasalso a free he military the gave terrorists the going after rather than So wereham-handed. his tactics partly, and he becausewasauthoritarian, partly peopleKashmiri whowasinsensitive, by was“identified assomeone office Jagmohan the in his secondtenure Jagmohan. During played by role andthe nineties, eighties-early late Bhikhu Parekh offers a somewhat different kind of assessment of the Kashmir situation in the “India’s grip on Kashmir” J.K.L.F (Yasin Malik Faction), on26 93 Pundits’. the of fears Kingdom, on 28 95 94 172. 96 Interview conducted with Azmat A. Khan, former General Secretary and International spokesman for the Excerpt from an Interview conducted withLord (Professor) Bhikhu Parekh inKingston upon Hull, United Navneeta Chaddha Behra- State, Identity Violence:and Jammu,Kashmir Ladakh,and Manohar, 2000,Page Ibid and put in its place a strong Islamist agenda. Full-blooded Islamizationrequired agenda. Full-blooded Islamist strong in a itsplace and put th April, 2008. 93 And thus Machiavellian tactics were flagrantly deployed to retain 94 . 95 th Navnita Behra echoesasimilarlineand of thought speaksof April, 2008,Bradford, United Kingdom. Hizbul 96 Thus for both Parekh and Behra, Jagmohan’s Behra, and Parekh both for Thus 41 and its and advocacy Kashmir’sof mergerwith CEU eTD Collection be guaranteed in accordance with inthe with beaccordance guaranteed 101 100 Democracy goal was to establish an independent state of Jammu and Kashmir, which would be an in its declared which of early instancethe 1990’s manifesto for J.K.L.F Consider advantage. organization. anIslamist stretch no by was it significantly most and valley Kashmir inthe actor local Yet itIn this context the role of thecould J.K.L.F merits close consideration. Tobegin with it was the key not resist playing upon be controlled remote from to organization Pakistan’. the Islamic prominent in figureallowhe of thevalley organization the ‘would that proclaimed not the card toallowed score toa dictatepoliticalwithin thethe ranks agenda of the forJ.K.L.F Kashmir. took place Yasin on theMalik issue who as hadto how emerged far could asPakistan the most be 99 Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 2007, Page 239-240. and John Tirman (ed.) - Terror, Insurgency and the State: Ending Protracted Conflicts army. Indian the “the pro-Pakistan mince andconfirmed: not Hedidin words December1991. inIslamabad press conference 98 its Through blockingengineering defections, and supplies arms evenkillingsympathisers. J.K.L.F contain the ‘secular’ J.K.L.F. The I.S.I also played a key role in weakening the J.K.L.F by 97 independence Balraj Puri- Kashmir Towards Insurgency in Sumantara Bose- The JKLF and JKHM: The Kashmir Insurgents, in Supra Ibid Supra , Page 173. Note 14. Note 12,Page 190. , its economy beto based on Hizb 97 . The . 98 channels I.S.I systematically leaked information about J.K.L.F hideouts systematicallyinformationJ.K.L.F leaked channels hideouts to about I.S.I A fact publicly proclaimed by the J.K.L.F Chief Amanullah Khan at a at Khan Amanullah Chief J.K.L.F the by proclaimed publicly Afact Hizbul-Mujahideen Hizbul in fact is believed to be the creation of the ISI. to counter and counter to of ISI. the creation be the is believedto in fact Holy Quran was killing J.K.L.F workers”. Tracts for The Times for Tracts Islamic Socialism Islamic 42 and the and 100 , Sangam Books, London, 1993, Page 68. Sunnah , and the rights of minorities would Marianne Heiberg, Brenden o’ Leary . 101 99 , University of Indeed the schism Islamic CEU eTD Collection persistent between its secular rhetoric of rhetoric its secular between persistent such as the as such Freedom Party) donotshareDemocratic ideological groups the of extremistgoals Islamist Kashmir and Jammu as the rechristened League(later People’s J.K.L.F and the True, Andhe prayed for success the “ of a with concluded The meeting toasanobserver. taken Iwas of a meeting my recollection than organization the on it lefthas impress and deep the organizers. ofthe request the at withheld been have meeting ofthe details However time. same at the Pakistan and India dam, human rights situationet al but admit that publicly they are not capable of dealing withopenly hostile 105 104 Gallery, Institute forDefence Studies and Analysis, Sage Publications, New Delhi, Page 25. 103 102 fact.” cadreswere J.K.L.F Muslims that time at when that in Kashmirwas insurgency the asits “ peak mein admit membersIndeed London during JKLF with enoughto were candid discussions like Mushtaq-ul-Islam quit the party to swell the ranks of the Pan-Islamic Hezbollah party. aspiration be ourguide, Quran isour constitution, jihadis our strategy andmartyrdom our inspired andguided by hasIslam woken up. The sun of Islamic revolution is rising. waving bannerof the For instanceIslam. ShabirShah Kashmiri “...the nation proclaimed: of easy --tothe painsemphasize temptation was metat to in London its I Office Bearer of succumbed thatone –something ethos its of espousal secularist for organizations a relatively Even Shabir Shah’s People’s League that invited the wrath of extremist Islamist The J.K.L.F holds regular private meetings where it raises issues that plague ‘Azad Kashmir’ such as Mangla as such Kashmir’ ‘Azad plague that issues itraises where meetings private regular holds J.K.L.F The Supra K.Santhanam, Sreedhar ,SudhirSaxena and Manish (ed.)- Jihadi’s Jammuin and Kashmir: A portrait Supra 104 [Emphasis added]. Nothing perhaps stands out in my mind to markin[Emphasis mymind out to added].Nothingperhaps the Islamist stands tinge Note 93. Note 96,Page 180 .” 102 Hizbul Mujahidin [Emphasis added]. Notsurprisinglymore therefore hard-line inclinedleaders and all Muslims Jama’at-i-Islami Kashmiriyat 43 fighting for freedom”. , whether you like it or not that is the that not or it like you whether , But asharp runs disjuncture deep and and its unwillingness to reach out and out reach to unwillingness its and non-Muslims werenon-Muslims not trusted...all the maulvi called upon to lead theprayer. to upon called 105 Allah will 103 CEU eTD Collection http://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20061028/j&k.htm#1 107 106 invoked often asYasinMalikhave leadersJ.K.L.F such secondary” in relation to those (Muslims) whose children have died. Muslims as being the victims. primary for Hence JKLF“the issue of pundits coming backis damagethe toKashmir’s caused tradition of dominant the istolerance, sentiment about instance. isWhile a of there andSikhs for realization LadakhiBuddhists Kashmiri Pundits, Kashmiri non-Muslim voices, of of board take on society: sections hopesandother anxieties The gimmickry. political mere into dissolve daring and dramatic how matter no gestures otherwise be byasenseof truth, backed to have effectiveness historic acquire Malik of Yasin associate close a been also has who Wani Majid Ishfaq Commander Area the of orders the on Pundits Kashmiri of killing to admitted known is Karate, his notoriousbetter aliasunder Bitta justice. brought Hehas to publicly from refrained Ahmed demanding condemning a‘compulsivelikeFarroq or killer’ Dar, that Pundit community, as visiting such campsin Pundit hehasrefugee Jammu. sofar However the towards gestures symbolic courageous made also He has Kashmir. of issue the resolve 3.3 The Ferment Within indicate. possibly could what numerical statistics than is far greater fabric social-cultural on the inflicted has Islamization that The damage identity. political-national of indicator natural a as perceived increasingly identity; religious Newstrack Interview of Bitta Karate downloaded from Supra mujahidin Note 93 intervention seems to have succeeded in dividing Kashmiris in terms of their of in terms Kashmiris in dividing succeeded have to seems intervention 44 (Accessed 20/05/2008). http://radiokashmir.org/video/politics.html Kashmiriyat 107 Gestures of reconciliation to 106 as the framework to . Also see CEU eTD Collection 108 been” have should otherwise they than messier things making by oblige diversionary tactics and Kashmir proved to be ideal target. And India was only too willing in the leadership looking for Pakistan of whenwas from Afghanistan action shifts centre the to the one hand you see radicalizationin 1989 “on a landscape: of transformation Kashmiri political particular signifies the radical of Islam Bhikhu makesIn thisthat theaptobservation immediate of 1989. respect context Parekh the notably in Afghanistan directly address not instance hedoes For context. international and historical from larger the amongst other places,Ganguly’s makes work important intervention, howeveran looks itat Kashmir inisolation trajectory. a violent onto political opposition thereby pushing power, centralize increasingly under Delhi New of tendency the Also exposure. media and literacy of levels Congress higher by facilitated institutional decay in thevalley was political by accompanied accelerated mobilization tutelage ofinsurgency systematicexplainargues that frame inKashmir. to the He roots reference of to whittleKashmiris into the arms by The Indian State a farcereducing political-electoral the to process many helped push awayof extremists. the Sumit Ganguly’sautonomy work provides a sound of Pakistanithe theoretical agenda: theIndian political establishmentand the local Kashmiri separatist. statesfurtherironically apartfrom helped key atthe two who looks other Pakistan, actors section in India Anddiscourse. paved thatthe militantinsurgencyway for andits agenda.Pan-Islamist This tendedThe seeds of communal inpolarization werein Kashmiri by nurtured part its internal political to 109 Supra . Supra Note 80. Note Note 95. 108 45 109 CEU eTD Collection ideologically close to the Front), Candidates of (Muslim (1987). state M.U.F legislature United tothe elections and ruling callousness the inof Congress A New Delhi. case inis good point the rigged was factor arrogance the theforemost Kashmirvalley. Perhaps inthe Islamistpropaganda andtheir militants of success and acceptance initial the towards contributed factors Several twenty three seats, and a mere two from the valley,and one from Ladakh. majority valley, in two Jammu, and onein Ladakh; Congress sweptthe Jammu winning Muslim inthe seats eight thirty won Conference National this polarization: mirror clearly 112 Kashmir. of cause the to atraitor Farroq and Delhi New for stooge a as Conference National the upon look to came Farroq son his to onto Abdullah.passed It has beenbaton adominant politicalthe force inthe death valley his though many in the valley earlyFollowing by the 1990’s base. social its broaden to made was attempt community of KashmiriPundits) itwas rechristened as JammuThe and Kashmir NationalConference and an influence of Pundit Jawaharlal Nehru (who was independent India’s first Prime Minister and hailed from the monarchical set up under Raja Hari Singh. Initially known as the Muslim Conference, the Sheikh under the 111 110 Conference theNational spectrum settle. allowed in to migrated toPakistan 1947were Muslims who Gandhi went so far as bid wooHindus from of to leaningJammu away Janta Party Bharitya Hindu the Mrs (B.J.P). to incite Jammu Hindusdraws attention to Indira Gandhi’s election againstcampaign and its distinctly communal tone in a the Resettlementthe elections of 1983 that Act set respect this In regions. Ladakh and inJammu sameprocesses the to under responses political varied the tone forwhich the communalisationreligious dimension. Andas Navnita Chaddha aptly fails healsoremarks toaccount for the of political discourse. BehraGanguly also fails to explain as to why political assertion acquired a particular kind of Supra The party was led by Sheikh Abdullah who initiated a movement inKashmir to formally dismantle the Supra Note 110 Note 96,Page 15 and Page 150-151. . Jama’at , werebeaten up by Insheer and Congress disgust goons. 111 gravitated towards Islamist parties towards results gravitated Islamist election and 46 110 At the other end of the 112 CEU eTD Collection administration viewed the problem purely as a secessionist movement fermented byPakistan.fermented movement asecessionist as viewedpurely problem the administration state the him Under handed. heavy decidedly was approach own Jagmohan’s However collaborators inthestate. remove such symbols... vote will get this. Near some other werebooths, coffins placed withacryptic note: anyonewho will cast his polling boothswith reading: placards will anyonewho vote cast can his take this a gift. as on on 22 116 115 114 113 21 India of (Times Gandhi Rajiv Minister Prime to Jagmohan Kashmir and Jammu of Governor by letter in anopen arewell recorded damningdetails insurgency.Its wayfor armed the paved state Indian by valley the in the process political-electoral the of subversion Perverse as Crusades. In a conscious invocation of Islamic religious symbols he spoke of war in Kashmir nameSyedSalahuddin the Pakistan the Malik) andformed (asdid to 1989 hecrossed over in his Upon release prison. into andsubsequently tossed he defeated rigging wasdeclared blatantYasincharges of and agent onahis Malik.Amidst elections M.U.F ticket polling 1987 the whocontested Shah notice,Yusuf inof Muhammad areworthy two these particular rage many youth intocrossed Pakistani Kashmir controlled and joined the Jagmohan- My Frozen Turbulence in Kashmir, Allied Publishers Limited, New Delhi, 1991,years. Page 558.of five term a for elected aredirectly members its of parliament; house Lower the is Sabha Lok st Supra Supra al-jihad, April 1990): “Do you“Do remember not April 1990): what happened Sabha day onthe Lok the of nd November, 1990. In tantalizing gesture, a In November, 1990. Note 14,Page 236-237. Note 10 or holy war. No inone administrationthe of AbdullahDr.Farooq any took step to such was the commitment andstandingofyour leaders and ” 116 114 [Emphasis added]. , the legendary 12 legendary the , 47 th century Muslim century commander the during TV sets wereTV placed someofthe sets near Hizbul Mujahidin mujahidin and took 115 . 113 poll Of CEU eTD Collection (H.U.M), an Islamic “the Harkat-ul-Mujahidin report: aC.I.A extremistAccording to byAmerica. andaccepted known organizationwas useful and necessary to retain control thatin a violent and volatile situation. All this was well Pakistan supportscalculation seems tohave been that the possibility of playing off factionone in against the other its proxy war against 117 took field: the gun.’ the of militants on otherwhothe innot believed inpolitical activism dialogue and but language the Kashmirfound themselves in; trapped ‘sandwiched between army the on onehandthe and many in that of situation desperation the tragic the acknowledges he samebreath In the also as who wasmade languishforina government worked nearly four doctor, months’. to prison knives; byIndiasubsequently brother, His carried aleadinga story Today, Indianmagazine. Filled with deep anguish herecountedhowarmy personnel branded hisnephew hot with brother, nephewHis friends. and family his targeted army the beliefs and political his of Because a Pakistan. friend whoto flight his for were responsible was army Indian ‘The inErshad: to According no years. fourteen way politically involvedPakistanfor in to there over and lived 1990 Association. Hecrossed as Bar Secretary General were all picked of J.K.D.F.P.Shabir Hehails Shah’s from Baramullah of district Kashmir heworked where up. India. This was something reinforced ofmy incourse meeting with a Ershad, representative abuses by Indian the forcesparamilitary in were decisive popular opinion turning against The slightest suspicion of militant sympathy was dealt with aniron fist. Serious human rights As the Pakistani inspired As thePakistani many populace, becamewhom of sheercannonfodder for Islamists. the of section large a radicalising thus victims, hapless their and militants wielding gun the Atranslated excerpt from an interview Conducted with ErshadLondon in on 30 117 Theinblanket faileddistinguish Indiangovernment its crackdown between to Lashkar-i-Toiba, Jaish-i-MohammadLashkar-i-Toiba, andHarkat-ul-Ansar “intifada” in Kashmir progressed several Islamist organizations Islamist several progressed Kashmir in 48 th April, 2008. . The I.S.I CEU eTD Collection medical students in Australia and M.B.A inAustralia medical in andM.B.A students graduates Oliver reinforces Pakistan -- strongly trained with the with trained the inmedical student Australia is serving a prison for having sentence trained 20days for with Several countries, notably Australia has notably Several countries, designated lends whatso and no such propaganda support rhetoric ever claims. to and all accusations of Pan-Islamic linkages are ‘Indian ‘Indian propaganda’ linkagesare and of Pan-Islamic all accusations informerinsists spokesmen, Lashkar public that whenceis the Indian tri-colour ceremonially on raised Independence Day.YahyaMujahid, on Delhi’s (2000), medieval seatof the RedFort Mughalrulers the andtheprincipal site 121 118 agenda.” pan-Islamic its promote tactics…to terrorist using increasingly in Kashmir….is forces Indian all of India.” of all pamphlet (why we are waging jihad?)Islamabad: states as its goal the “restorationmadeThe by point aboveis lethal illustrated well yet propped up by another Islamist group of Islamic rule over United States and its Pakistan as an ally in the ‘war on terrorism’. control as they refused Washington’s own role innurturing extremist In Islamists. a few yearsitall spiralled outof to abide by their scripted role and turned against their patrons: the 119 August 1996 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5zFqlYNtQY4 120 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4416771.stm Harkat-ul-Ansar- Increasing threat toWestern Pakistani and Interests, Page 2, Who the are Kashmir Militants?,6 April, 2005, Lashkar-e-Toiba- A Documentary by Journeyman Pictures. Available on Available Pictures. by Journeyman A Documentary Lashkar-e-Toiba- Ibid Lashkar 118 Not surprisingly Not reportsconveniently C.I.A though the glossed over . David Hicks, detained in Guantanamo Bay having in detained isalso charged with prison, . DavidGuantanamo Hicks, Lashkar-i-Toiba 119 This declaration prefigures the symbolism of symbolism the prefigures declaration This Lashkar in Kashmir. , always keen to flaunting its Pan-Islamist ambitions. Its 121 . (Accessed on 20/05/2008). The profile of many Lashkar recruits-- such as Available at 49 Lashkar’s Lashkar concerns are confined to Pakistan areconfined concerns to Lashkar-i-Toiba’s asunlawful. a Iza-ul-Haq Declassified 120 . However C.I.A document, armed assault Lashkar’s CEU eTD Collection periphery. The main cadre of the movement was made up of maincadreof periphery.was made local boys.” The movement the up of inthe active more were be howeverthey nullified, cannot mercenaries foreign presence of with in wasmorehim,measuredinteracted “while inhis Bradford to According the response. I to“Indian resident response ASrinagar suchdenialwasimperative. grown occupation” home- spontaneous a as movement their of legitimacy the establish to in order that conviction the from stems believe I denial This involvement. “foreign” any denied vehemently interviewed I Kashmiris the However republics. Asian Central the and Pakistan Afghanistan, attracted pan-Islamic of site the as Kashmir insurgency. ‘Islamist’ for support local diminish tended to actions longthese in of itsome run women.the But for codes restrictive and other Lashkar forlaunched apureIslamicThe brutal campaign led by Islamists order armed by Asians and South/ South East Asians. This brigade broadly comprised groupingsthree along geographiclines: Arabs, Central helpin1999 to Kashmir thePakistani ofKargil. the army heights vital capture strategically is inthis Instructive regard diversion the of from 055brigadein soldiers elite Taliban’s 200 forged extensive links with the linkswith lethal forged extensive Most security analysts are convinced that areconvinced analysts security Most comforting between linkage frenzy poverty-illiteracy and religious alwaysnot does hold. University of Kashmir), on 25 125 124 123 122 warriors’ ‘holy of profile social changing the concerning claim Roy’s Excerpt from an Interview conducted withDr. Irshad Ahmad Shah (Reader, Political Science Department, Ibid. Supra Supra began with began with drivingthe outof smallthe Hindu minority and imposition of veil the Note 103, Page 30. Note 66,Page 315-316. mujahidin recruits from recruits from all Islamicworld:over the Syria, Libya, Sudan, Egypt, th April, 2008,Bradford, United Kingdom. 124 Al-Qaeda Lashkar 50 of the notorious Islamic ofthe BinLaden. notorious warrior and Harkat-ul-Ansar have systematically 125 122 While the roots . Clearly the Clearly . Hizbul jihad and 123 CEU eTD Collection of ‘nationalism’ are locked in struggle. Internally within India, this isbeing within lockedIndia, this of struggle waged Internally instruggle. ‘nationalism’ are competing visions forTwo polity Indian of andprospect society. the effect’ a large‘domino ‘ The proclaimed psychologically,morally and physically. Local support for militancy is clearly on decline. been worn havedown in Kashmir alarge scale. People on andeconomically militarily lives figures) 80,000 Conference (Huriyatestimate) to (official consumed between 40,000 inIndian Kashmirhas decades The of war two proxy 3.4 TheFallout role that religion could play in Kashmir. constructive-liberal argue for the led many to hasalso this Pakistan; runs through line that among faultsectarian given violent uncertainty shias and discomfort sharp caused acute the distinct andalarge of Sufi mergerdimension Shia following. Theprospect with Pakistan by the is occupation the inthiscontext instance cultural local sensibilities. Hence for gradual also the decline inlocal support for militancy.An instructive little very care Islam, their intense and genuine however mujahidin, Foreign by Hindus and Muslims the alias Mast Gul -- of 128 127 Central Asia- Caucuses Institute, Silk Road Program, Studies January 2007, Page 57. 126 alarge indicate nonetheless presenceofforeigndoes strong and movement of undoubtedly local in are the grounded matrix, available the evidence Sumantara Bose- Roots of Conflict: Paths to Peace, Harvard University Press, 2005, Page 4. Ingolf Kiesow and Nicklas Norling- The Rise of India: Problems and Opportunities, Silk Road Papers, Ibid intifada’ Charar-i-Sharif, 126 as symbolic of symbolic as in Kashmir, sponsored and supported by in the and Kashmir,sponsored supported carries Pakistan, the holiest Sufi shrine in the valley and revered alike revered and valley the in shrine Sufi holiest the 127 Kashmiriyat. 51 mujahidin 128 Islam in Kashmir has always had a -- led by the Afghan militant with . The Indian state has been bled been has state Indian The . mujahidin . CEU eTD Collection mounted upon the Pakistani state to end its support to militant groups. Initially, tomilitantgroups. toendits Pakistan support uponthemounted state Pakistani be strong pressurebeganto militancy and terror, of Islamicbecame As theWestatarget Kashmiriyat the firmlypsyche thathad entrenchedin itself thepopularmindby and nowthreatens 1947, 19.05.2008). 130 129 valley”. in the left Indianess of symbol “only the as describe they whom valley, in the Hindus homelandfor Panunfor Kashmir Kashmiri by aseparate Kashmiri group prominent Pundit Jammu region and among the Kashmiri Pundits. A good examplePakistan’s policies helped fosterthe rise of right wing Hindunationalism, particularly in the of the same is the demand prescient. be in to respects some proved have above cited memorandum of the The words Pakistan. Yet its policy and action might well produce that result.” incapable of providing room and livelihood to the 40 million Muslimsof India should migratethey to Does Pakistan seriously it think could give us anyhelp ifsuch an emergency situation arose? Itis war a wage can against Hindusin Pakistan in Kashmir,if Muslims why that should Hindusrealize notnot do sooner or later, Pakistan retaliatein against brothers Muslimsmisguided in India? “…Our composed a at time when memorythe partition of was still fresh andvivid (1951): a memorandum on behalf of the Muslim community in India to the United Nations, Kashmirvalley. kindfears The of and anxieties kind this of polarization prefigurescauses in National Conference,confined Congressand People’s haveDemocratic Party got the to the bastion by militancy inspiredreligiously inofvalley Kashmir the triggered consolidation of Jammu as right wing divide caused andreligious The ethnic others. Congress and bytheIndian National espoused politics officially ‘secularism’ and BJP of nationalism Hindu of politics wing of right the between B.J.P (Bharitya Janta Party). Other parties like the For a Kashmiri Pundit point of view see Why Homeland? Available at Supra 130 Note 7, Page 1001. Thus, Hinduness came to be equated with the Indian state; be reflectingonce again state; with equated Thus, Indian the cameto Hinduness . 52 129 www.panunkashmir.org (Accessed on (Accessed CEU eTD Collection 131 What is worth noting is that from the pulpit of the Masjid, calls were regularly given for army. Pakistani of the soldiers of headscaptured severed valley paradedthe and in Swat the towns havecaptured Islamists militant from Islamabad hundred kilometres two action. Barely military order Chinese nationals forced Musharaf kidnappingbehaviour,to and policemen and vigilante actions whichincluded beating-terrorizing those seen guilty of un-Islamic a stone’s throw from the I.S.I.Maulana of sparked bythedefiant headquarters. Eventually the recentcrisis its than owncreatures, by against Islamabad violence of turned telling itsmore be could open Nothing Islam. radical defiance militant of seminary a as Masjid Lal fostered him after of state authorityPakistan ruled who others and Zia-ul-Haq Pakistan. haunt to come now has that way the and andIslam, radical state Pakistani the between relationship intimate the both underscores It that could be fuelled by a loss of Islamabad’s patronage.” the HUA to retaliate. group’s The rhetoric andpast action demonstrate hostility towards Islamabad Islamabad’s compliancewith U.S U.Kdemands and to itscease support to the HUA…might prompt “…I.S.I providesmuch as as$30,000 and perpossibly asmuch as $60,000 month the H.U.A.to But withdrawn: somerecords of and detailsthe thelikely of support this falloutbeonce this support to AC.I.Aithad report nurtured. on H.U.A, of one mostradicalthe violent organizations, andoutfits militant state betweenthePakistani fracture adangerous created arrests selective forms Pakistani the Soon outfits. establishmentmilitant all curb to pressure Western renewed in resulted India targeting found the Westernevidence offluid boundaries between militant organizations targeting the West and those pressure to curb radical as and againstmountingleaving themfree Butrepeated tooperate “freedom fighters” India. Islamic militancy in responded West against bycurbingmilitants while of the aftermath the Eleven Nine in all Supra hard to resist. Withdrawal of support increasing and curbs on their activities alongwith Note 118, Page 3. Lal Masjid 53 (Red Mosque) in the heart of Islamabad, barely 131 jihad CEU eTD Collection Pakistan’s support to the secular J.K.L.F. However on being asked about its subsequent about being asked on However J.K.L.F. secular the to support Pakistan’s Ahmed Lord cites innocence, Pakistan’s relative concerning his protestations To reinforce Indian. being LordAhmed for how is fusion there complete abetween beingboundaries of Hindu and Islamic movements much taking a very “you are in hisresponsewasstaggering: the region plan ideological game Pakistan’s groups: “ I can honestly say this is radical Islamist to support Pakistan’s about a question Ahmedto Lord Nazir responsethe of me was amused left what somewhat massive lightof ample evidence, the despite However violence. of expediency the and consolidation Islamic findsPakistan itself in largelyistoday product of itsthe parochial vision own sectarian of of prostitutes”. Shiaas“asect the LalMasjidrefer to the circle for authority Islamabad. Its is being challenged andundermined. Proclamations from 134 United Kingdom on 23 133 21/05/2008). http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2007%5C10%5C27%5Cstory_27-10-2007_pg3_1 132 in Afghanistan, Kashmir and West.the For Pakistan the call was enforceto the at yashahdat” Maulana was killed in a standoff with governmentforces, by proclaiming as its goal the after even cause Islamic the to commitment its unwavering underscores website Masjid’s Excerpt from an interview Conducted withLord Nazir Ahmed, memberof the House of Lords, LabourParty, Lal Masjid and Fazalullah, 27 October, 2007, Ibid. Hindu Indianfundamentalist : either the rule of rd [is concerned]....” April, 2008. complete nonsense Shari’ at Shari’ 133 Heblames the Pundit exodus on the Indian army. On ormartyrdom. History seems to have come full line.” 54 134 Careful reading of his lines reveals that as far as as 132 Pakistan’s supportforradical The horrific quagmire that quagmire horrific The Shari at Shari (Accessed “Shari’ . The CEU eTD Collection Indian lobby.” Indian 138 137 136 135 “jugularPakistan’s vein” Hence, PresidentMusharraf in declaration a televised addresstothe Kashmirnation, that is incorporation in an imperativePakistan requirement forsafeguarding its Muslim identity. its makes Muslimness Kashmir’s for Pakistan polar contrast, In commitment. secularist India Kashmir as the only whereit importance, be ormarringcan in instrumental making of Muslim thefuture so many.” majority state of ina of great hasbeen position placed nation Kashmiri’s a tiny of such circumstances India constitutes the cornerstoneWritingin 1967he speaks of history “ironyof the by that a combination fortuitous of of its capture drivingthe behindpersistent reason Kashmir romanticismin for circles. political powerfully Baaz Nath Prem activist Political and writer Kashmiri eminent the of words The very Pakistani tothe close establishment. relationship with the latter according to Many of the JKLF cadres I interacted with felthe was his with characterizing bonhomie , a new government. Pakistan the of sensitivities Kashmiris for spokesman care the samegood independent atthe of and take the time people by forcefully “Emma asserting: Nicholsononce toAzad went Kashmir and spoke to those on Islamabad’s and Human the within discourse political gimmickry “Azad Kashmir” rights Watch Rights and Human members of by Parliament reports European recent to responded it as “allegation”. be anddismissed defensive he somewhat tended to marginalization Supra Supra Ibid Ibid. who were nationalist and anti-Pakistan Note 120. Note 128, Page 15 136 LordAhmed appears tofind itdifficultto position himself as an 138 . 55 , her briefing, wasdonefromLondon by the 137 135 For He CEU eTD Collection itsbeagendait. largerIslamist seems againstto turning to pumpitsthis vein attempt through international However politics. into arenaof the power Pakistan ensurechose to that its jugular vein isneverby severed, theKashmirthrusting issue 56 CEU eTD Collection marks the culmination of a process set in motion in the Indian sub-continent by Colonial rule Colonial by sub-continent Indian the in motion in set a process of culmination the marks It arrangement. territorial-constitutional a new of making the merely than basic more much something in1947 reflects Pakistan of creation the is that dissertation the of The argument in shape. milieu of took theidea Pakistan peculiarwhich historical the Islamabad’s India seized it as its moment offind over-shadow anxiousto to foreign away inUnion American Pakistan Sovietpolicy. destiny to establish its claim final the victory its pavedof wayfortemptation against blinding concerns the the emergence to be the flag bearer of Islam. worked togive factors lifeIslamicferocity and militancy. to condition The foremost that Kashmir, as the first theatre of global of theatre first the as Kashmir, of and militancy; Islamic Radical of laboratory primal the as Afghanistan of speak could One the city is significant symbolically; it means the ‘abode of Islam’. 139 inis constituted unconditional literal conformity the to Muslim the of indivisibility this And be. may they wherever indivisible, as Muslims embraceall posits modernityandnationalism. represent Islam Radical and with seeks to to signify the sites forconfrontation modernitywith and nationalism. Afghanistan and Kashmirvalley could be said the defining moment it,and the through world’s defining with experience radical ‘Islamic terrorism’ andits of Islamic radicalism, we Together Afghanistancouldvalley and the signifying KashmirAsia, speakof as South and the confrontation it Islamabadwas established as capitalthe in 1960’s the under orders from GeneralAyub Khan. The name of 139 obsessiveitin pursuit whatenvisioned as cause the of stemmed from Islam Conclusion jihad. 57 Several contingent and long-term historical long-term and Several contingent Sharia as the unalterable code of life. code of unalterable asthe Ummah CEU eTD Collection communal conflagrations bloody the during partition of 1947. honour. The intensity and scale violenceof communal inKashmirin 1989mimicked the shame of sense all of community entire the rob to was intent The trees. from hung menhouses campaign: and murdered were burnt, and were women were stripped, raped, of nearly 250,000 Kashmiri from Pundits valleythe in 1990 was resultthe of a vicious unlikein anything before that seven-eightthe years hundred inof Islam Kashmir. The exodus was utterly that rupture of anewkind introduced by ideologically Islamabad, financially and face of Islam, particularly for the Kashmiri Pundits. The forPundits. Kashmiri the face of Islam, particularly valley. in the organizations Islamist extremist sustaining apolicy systematicallyof Kashmirithe targeting by Pundits, up propping This stands starkly out in ferventIslamabad’s support for Talibanthe in Afghanistan and known ideological the as crucial in to Afghanistan-Kashmir. war unleashed hasseen been and becausethat precisely attention ferocity scalemerits and unprecedented polarization by enforced polarization brutal communal-religious The of kind political categories. subsumed insweeping it beenhas rupture has caused Thesevere invariably far state. and social-cultural reaching of Afghanistan,is the outcome of a conscious well thought-out policy chosen by the Pakistani Mujahidin equations.power international with and Afghanistan-Kashmir in the engagement Pakistan’s clarify of to salience and nature element overlooked though critical a is This formation. identity neat of politics in 19 the th century: as the processes of century: as knowledge of processes Colonial the andas formation andprocess intervention in the Kashmir valley, as also the Afghan the also as valley, Kashmir the in intervention mujahidin intervention is intervention unlike atany Its inthe past. time 58 Mujahidin have come to symbolize the brutal the symbolize to come have Mujahidin jihad intervention, supported intervention, and Taliban conquestand Taliban and CEU eTD Collection speak of speak of asmereviolence aberration on margins the modernity of is manifestly misleading. definitive question thatviolence isanessential arises iswhetherof Modernity.To constituent nurturing andmaking possible the hatred andrise of intolerance in Hence religion. grave the for implicated deeply stands itself Modernity be that seems to fact grim The unsettling and fraughtthe and Modernity. Islam, between complex Religion relationship transnational passions andforces within larger Islamposes disturbing questions concerning of rise the in facilitating world ‘secular’ and ‘democratic’ ‘modern’, the of role The designs violently turningtheir against creators. driven by anare Kashmir of awfulquestion vexed the on overtures peace Pakistan’s sense also as Afghanistan in of anxiety about extremist Inyears American recent policy states. nation leadingmany modern of activesupport the so Islamists nurturedforces would not have acquired the inkind of scalepursuit extremist Such and it. from potency flowed has that they nowviolence the posses and Islam were radical of ofit not emergence the to for grand theSoviet Union Islam. innear have States Both, and United the equal measure contributed principal instrument– raises question of the important Modernity’s relationship with radical The role of the West in fostering the rise of radical Islam – with Pakistan serving as the 59 CEU eTD Collection Pakistan. 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Available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4416771.stm Whoare Kashmirthe April, Militants?,6 2005, http://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20061028/j&k.htm#1 http://radiokashmir.org/video/politics.html from downloaded Karate of Bitta Interview Newstrack th April, 2008. rd April, 2008. th www.panunkashmir.org April, United Kingdom. 2008,Bradford, .Also see 64 Available at th April, 2008. th . April,Bradford,United 2008, Declassified CEU eTD Collection November 1995,London. Disaster, Rights Human for Responsibility International Afghanistan: International- Amnesty Pakistan, 2002,SustainablePolicy Development Islamabad. Institute, Nayyar, A.H and Ahmad Salim (ed.) - The Subtle Subversion: The State Of Textbooks in Reports 1997. Christopher Bellamy- Afghans may find peace in the Pipeline, in the peace find may Afghans Bellamy- Christopher 20 Tribune, Herald International Afghans- the for Speaks Who 65 th The Independent November, 1986. , 14 th March,