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International journal of philosophy of 1 culture and axiology CULTURA CULTURA 2012 and ax of ph Internat i losophy ofculture i ology i onal journal journal onal Vol IX P eter 24.07.12 15:37:38 Uhr L No 1 No ang CULTURA

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY OF CULTURE AND AXIOLOGY Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology E-ISSN (Online): 2065-5002 ISSN (Print): 1584-1057

Advisory Board Prof. dr. Mario Perniola, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Italy Prof. dr. Paul Cruysberghs, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium Prof. dr. Michael Jennings, Princeton University, USA Prof. Emeritus dr. Horst Baier, University of Konstanz, Germany Prof. dr. José María Paz Gago, University of Coruña, Spain Prof. dr. Maximiliano E. Korstanje, John F. Kennedy University, Buenos Aires, Argentina Prof. dr. Nic Gianan, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines Prof. dr. Alexandru Boboc, Correspondent member of the Romanian Academy, Romania Prof. dr. Teresa Castelao-Lawless, Grand Valley State University, USA Prof. dr. Richard L. Lanigan, Southern Illinois University, USA Prof. dr. Fernando Cipriani, G.d’Annunzio University Chieti-Pescara, Italy Prof. dr. Elif Cirakman, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey Prof. dr. David Cornberg, University Ming Chuan, Taiwan Prof. dr. Carmen Cozma, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University Iassy, Romania Prof. dr. Nancy Billias, Department of Philosophy, Saint Joseph College, Hartford, USA Prof. dr. Christian Möckel, Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany Prof. dr. Leszek S. Pyra, Pedagogical University of Cracow, Poland Prof. dr. A. L. Samian, National University of Malaysia Prof. dr. Dimitar Sashev, University of Sofia, Bulgaria Prof. dr. Kiymet Selvi, Anadolu University, Istanbul, Turkey Prof. dr. Traian D. Stănciulescu, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University Iassy, Romania Prof. dr. Gloria Vergara, University of Colima, Mexico Prof. dr. Devendra Nath Tiwari, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India Prof. dr. Massimo Leone, University of Torino, Italy Prof. dr. Christian Lazzeri, Université Paris Ouest Nanterre La Défense, France Prof. dr. Asunción López-Varela Azcárate, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain

Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief: Co-Editors: Prof. dr. Nicolae Râmbu Prof. dr. Aldo Marroni Faculty of Philosophy and Social- Facoltà di Scienze Sociali Political Sciences Università degli Studi G. d’Annunzio Alexandru Ioan Cuza University Via dei Vestini, 31, 66100 Chieti B-dul Carol I, nr. 11, 700506 Iasi, Romania Scalo, Italy [email protected] [email protected] Executive Editor: PD Dr. Till Kinzel Dr. Simona Mitroiu Englisches Seminar Human Sciences Research Department Technische Universität Braunschweig, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University Bienroder Weg 80, Lascar Catargi, nr. 54, 700107 Iasi, Romania 38106 Braunschweig, Germany [email protected] [email protected]

Editorial Assistant: Dr. Marius Sidoriuc Designer: Aritia Poenaru Cultura International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology Vol. 9, No. 1 (2012)

Editor-in-Chief Nicolae Râmbu

PETER LANG Frankfurt am Main · Berlin · Bern · Bruxelles · New York · Oxford · Wien Bibliographic Information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available in the internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de.

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ISSN 2065-5002

ISBN 978-3-631-63867-5 © Peter Lang GmbH Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften Frankfurt am Main 2012 All rights reserved. All parts of this publication are protected by copyright. Any utilisation outside the strict limits of the copyright law, without the permission of the publisher, is forbidden and liable to prosecution. This applies in particular to reproductions, translations, microfilming, and storage and processing in electronic retrieval systems. www.peterlang.de

CONTENTS

CULTURAL ILLUSIONS

Danial YUSOF 7 Parallels between Contemporary Western and Islamic Thought on the Discourse of Power and Knowledge

Andrei CORNEA 29 Relativity and Relativism: On a Failed Analogy

Andityas Soares DE MOURA COSTA MATOS 43 A Western Cultural Illusion: State and Law or State as Law?

Steven CRESAP, Louis TIETJE 57 Irreconcilable Foundations: An Analysis of the Cultural Environment Facing Moral Educators

Liudmila BAEVA 73 Existential Axiology

Paola PARTENZA 85 Mary Wollstonecraft: Ideology and Political Responsibility

Dan-Eugen RAŢIU New Theoretical Framework for Approaching Artistic Activity: the 101 Principle of Uncertainty. Pierre-Michel Menger’s Sociology of Creative Work

Frederic WILL 123 Cultural Illusions

Dennis IOFFE 135 The Notion “Ideology” in the Context of the Russian Avant-Garde

Abdul Rashid MOTEN 155 Understanding and Ameliorating Islamophobia

Seungbae PARK 179 Against Moral Truths

Reena CHERUVALATH 195 Analyzing the Concept of Self-Deception in Indian Cultural Context

Alexander BAUMGARTEN 205 Li/toij ferome/noij. Notes towards Plotinus’ Semiology of Heaven

Morten Ebbe Juul NIELSEN 215 The Duty to Recognize Culture

Madalena D’OLIVEIRA-MARTINS 235 The New Feminine Emotional Codes in Hochschild: New Perspectives for Modern Social Studies

Vilmos VOIGT 249 The Bridge in Semiotics

10.5840/cultura20129122

Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 9(1)/2012: 73–83

Existential Axiology

Liudmila BAEVA Faculty of Social Communications Astrakhan State University, Russia Tatischeva, 20 a [email protected]

Abstract. This article is dedicated to basing a new current of philosophy – existential axiology. The nature of this theory involves the understanding of values as responses of a person to key existential challenges: death, solitude, dependence of the nature and the society, etc. Value is the striving of a human to clarify the meaning and significance of our existence, it is an act of freedom, expression of subjectivity because it’s based on our personal experience and preference. We regard values as meaningfully-significant purposes of existence, that are a special type of information, reflecting the originality of the subject and expressing the most significant longing for his own self-perfection. The sense and importance of information take effect in the programming of the psychic phenomenon and processes. Values express the maximum amount of information about the subject and emerge in the world as his highest manifestation. Since the variety in the human world is very great, axiological picture of the world will always be plural. Keywords: value, existence, structure of values

A VALUE AS AN EXISTENTIAL PHENOMENON

The development of existential axiology, as a special direction, studying meaningfully-significant priorities of the person’s activity and a degree of their influence on life in the globalized society, is of prime importance, as it facilitates the maintenance of spiritual personal freedom in spite of leveling the cultures, dramatization of sociopolitical life and monopoliza- tion of economy. Thus, the relevance of studying values, in terms of neo-existentialism, is dealing with theoretical and practical application of the possibilities of axiology in solving basic and modern anthropological issues, when the capabilities of the monistical world view are exhausted, and a person is fated to the freedom in choosing and acting. Society and culture, understood in a classical philosophy as over-individual sources of values, still hold their importance, but they are considered through the perspective of a historical subject – a person, creating culture, morality, civilization, actively influencing on the social and natural system and be-

73 Liudmila Baeva / Existential Axiology ing influenced in his/her turn by the objectification. Therefore, the existential viewing of a value gives the possibility of humanitarian and anthropological, understanding culture and history, where a person is de- veloping and striving to solve the problem of existence sense. Methodological basis of the research is related to a set of categories and principles, related to existential philosophy and philosophical an- thropology. The theories created by M. Heidegger, V. Frankl and N. Abbagnano influenced the formation of the conception of existential axiology in different ways. The research of the structure and the essence of values by R. Hartman1, R. Frondizi2 and S.K. Hansson,3 symbolic and logical expression of a value by G. Vernon4, the correlation of meaning and significance of a value structure, search for subject and object of values by K. Baier,5 the ethical content of values by R. Brumbaugh,6 vital and existential analysis of values – A. Maslow7, Ph. Foot8, the crisis of classical values of the West and the search of new imperatives by E. Levinas,9 D. Vokey,10 the analysis of the priorities of postindustrial and information epochs Y. Masuda,11 =. Giddens,12 I. Castells,13 B.J. Kallenberg,14 etc. played an important role in our research. The main research goal is a philosophic substantiation of the existential nature of values. The achievement of this goal deals with the solution of the following problem: studying of a value as an existential phenomenon by analyzing the structure elements of a value, its anthropological and ontological sources. The research of the essence and the role of values is by right the most important task of the modern philosophic knowledge in relation to the strengthening of the role of an anthropogenic factor in the development of nature and society. The axiological formation of a subject activity becomes not only a sphere of his/her personal existence, but also a poten- tial factor, allowing the general understanding of the direction of the social history development. It makes the modern researchers explore the values of a person’s being and the society existence not only in the tradi- tional context of ethic and ethics-esthetic sphere, but first of all, as a key ontological and essential factor. Therefore, the conception of existential axiology as a field of knowledge, studying the issues of interaction between the individual and ontological, personal and social, meaningfully- significant and existential, spiritual and natural things in terms of “as- signment to values.” Regarding the world view, existential axiology is

74 Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 9(1)/2012: 73–83 dedicated to focus the attention of a representative of modern techno- cratic society not only to the issues of facilities and methods for improvement of external being, but also to the search of sense and meanings of personal and natural lives. The existential research of values starts with the issues of a subjective source of value representations and aims at the understanding of their influence on the surrounding natural and social being. In the existential aspect, a value appears as a kind of a vec- tor, representing the trend of those changes in social being, which don’t belong to the category of objective, spontaneous and natural. In the cas- es, when we deal with directed self-development and the attempts to contribute a rational and ethic principle into the natural being, the appeal to the values – meaningfully-significant purposes – is inevitably. The modelling of the reality in the consciousness, its practical changing and the complement in terms of an adequate thing, appears as the sphere of true freedom of an individual to be able to go beyond the scope of his/her natural and social programme. Values are an ideal phenomenon with a specific feature to belong to a subjective perception and consciousness. Generally, in the most case, a value can be defined as a complex of the willing, emotional and intellectual feelings, directed from a subject to objective reality and representing, more relevant aspirations and ambitions with goals and significance. In this regard, the same value is deeply individual, felt by each subject, and can exist objectively only as a result of the development of public con- science or collective unconscious. In this case, values are a conception related to the sphere of generality, according to Hegel’s tradition, to un- derstand this concept (“the theory of relation”) as something extremely general, rich, involving all the overall diversity of something single through dialectic relief, in terms of the so called “the theory of similarity” as known the universal represents a category to be the poorest in matter, comprising similarity of single objects. Thus, the generality of values doesn’t preclude their individual and single filling and the perception by each subject. In our opinion, the statement of this generality as over-individual and objective one is in general groundless, as its understanding, description or contemplation will always be subjective and evaluative because of the nature of an axiological phenomenon. The plu- rality of an axiological world view reflects not only relativity, but the uniqueness of values as unique alternate solutions of issues of the sense and a purpose of the existence and improvement.

75 Liudmila Baeva / Existential Axiology

A value is unique in perception, experience by a subject and is charged with socially important significance and matter, therefore represents the unity of single things and the universal and thereby a value originally doesn’t exist without a valuating subject and an evaluation process itself. A value is a phenomenon of spiritual creativity, laying in the creation of significance and meanings of subjects, which cause subjective feelings. However, such approach doesn’t stand for the reducing of a value to the appraisal. A value is a meaningfully-significant purpose of the existence while the appraisal is a phenomenon of the individual’s attitude to subjects from in the context of the revelation of positive or negative qualities and characteristics. If the appraisal is always subjective as it exists only as an attitude directed from a personality to an object, a value also can be considered as an objective phenomenon. It can estrange itself and exist apart, like pieces of spiritual creative work (such as myths, beliefs, traditions, knowledge, ideals, etc.), but initially a value is always a value of a subject, absorbed into the natural and social reality and looking to the improvement of his/her existence. At the same time the peculiarity of the philosophical research is asso- ciated with the revelation of the general meaning of the processes under study. Is it possible to speak of its general meaning, when there is diversity of value experience and value imaginations? That time the searchings of Plato, M. Scheler, N. Lossky, R. Hartmann for objective values, re- sulted in the statement of a transcendental “world of values,” not be- longing neither to nature nor human. According to the most sophists’ opinion, the united meaning of values was in the improvement, directed at the ideal and the divine objective reality. After non-classical world view, in terms of voluntarism and psychoanalysis power, pleasure and self-actualization were asserted as the main content of human values. According to these approaches, a man was considered as a formed and predetermined by the programmed Divine foresight or the absolute will but values – as a factor of the reflection and the concordance of personal and universal aspirations. In our opinion, the searches for the universal meaning of values should be related to the understanding of human incompleteness and his/her ability for personal identity and self- development. We believe that more or less all kinds of values are associ- ated with the solution of the key problems of the existence: mortality, solitude, the absurdity of mechanical vital activity, and the striving to the immortalization or the consolidation of his/her presence in the objective

76 Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 9(1)/2012: 73–83 life, filling it with meaning and sense, not given initially stands for as the united in the appraisement of the objective reality and the formation of person’s values. The desire for the immortality or the achievement of a new quality of life, in any form, lay in the different values, showing, what a subject considers the missing and the necessary for the strengthening his/her objective reality and its changing for the improvement. In this regard, values are individual options of adjusting the substantial differ- ences between the mortality of a body and the possession of consciousness (which Pascal called a problem of “thinking reed”). Thus, values of material and vital welfare (life, health, a family, children, safety, comfort, wealth, etc.) express the aspiration for physical perfection and the pro- longation of corporal objective reality (both personal and in descendants’ life). Social and moral values (equality, respect, justice, peace, friendship, communication, etc.) express the striving for the strengthening of individual relations within the society, another person, which a man multi- plies his/her objective reality in and through. Mystical and spiritual values prove the desire of spiritual immortality, if the subjectivity is even re- jected in such a case. The vitally important values (love, creativity, freedom, spirituality, knowledge, etc.) reflect the aspiration to fill life with a unique sense, allowing us to realize that a person can get new quality and mark the objective reality with creative work and thinking. By this connection, values can be defined as a subjective search for the overcoming of limitations of natural and social programme, obtaining the source, strengthening, multiplying, prolonging and improving individual objective reality, moving it onto a new level of quality. Values, being the base of person’s world outlook, are able to influence the external world, having their own objective reality and become a response to the life challenge and the absurdity of the existence without appraisal, estranging from a subject like pieces of spiritual creative work. Thus, we meet the definition of a value as a dominant of the consciousness and the existent, directed at the achievement of the ideal objective reality, creatively influencing on the person’s inner development and vis- ual environment through the filling them by meaningfulness and sense. Joining a man and the world with the ties of meaningfulness, values change on both sides of this relationship, in the line of proper things. In such a way the existential vision of values is expressed through the understanding of its essence as a manifestation of the subjectivity and its

77 Liudmila Baeva / Existential Axiology role as the possibility of the reality “decoding,” filling the objective reality with sense and goals, which have creative and transforming nature.

A VALUE STRUCTURE

A value is traditionally considered as integral united substance, having certain characteristics in the correlation with the other phenomena. Vari- ous classifications and hierarchical systems of values originate as a rule from the understanding of a monad value, an undivided unit of the spiritual existence. In particular, R. Frondizi emphasizes in his research the value essence, that it can’t be reduced to the sum of separate properties, as it represents itself in Gestalt-quality.15 Totally sharing the idea of the complex and synthetical nature of a value, we think, that the study of its integral parts is however necessary and allows a deeper understanding of its multifactorial and antinomical nature. A value structure is linked with its personal and subjective-objective nature. The issue of considering a value as unity of different levels in axiology has its traditions. Thus, G. Vernon suggested the explanation of value nature in the terms of the conception of symbolic interactive interaction, substantiating bi-integrated value essence, which “firstly is a label, secondly, significance.”16 In our turn we believe, that the existential essence of a value is reflect- ed by its structure, which is distinguished in the following levels: 1. Significance is the most important level of a value, integrating the separate links of the inner and the external for a world subject. R. Hartman even identified significance with a value itself.17 Significance as a meaning of an object or a phenomenon for a man, i.e. as a characteristic or quality, meeting his/her inner needs, forms the substantive subject matter of a value, intensifying and directing the actions of the other factors. The achievement of a meaningful goal, for example, victory, draws not only a person’s separate physical facilities but it also adds them willing, intellectual and emotional abilities. 2. Sense is the second structural level of the existence and the expression a value, bringing to light the reason for which something obtains a value priority. Something, valued by a subject is always charged with significance and expresses his/her idea of a proper and perfect status. Moreo- ver, objects of the external world get valuable, because they are some- how connected with the sense of the existence of a subject him-

78 Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 9(1)/2012: 73–83 self/herself. Substantial meaning of all the values is striving to the eterni- ty in being (in a status of non-suffering). Objects of the external world or the abilities of a person become valuable, depending on what they contribute to the “immortality” of a subject (personal, ancestorial, spiritual, etc.) 3. Experience is the third level of value expression, indicating the inner feeling of life running without any meaningful object or the assumption of opportunity of its presence of a value in the being of a subject. The experience can’t be imposed or alien, it is the expression of the subjectivity and in this sense, freedom. The basis of experience lays in the existence of a person, which is understood by a subject on the emotional and moral level. Experience deals with the significant energetic directivity of axiological attitude. We agree with C. Hall, that values are “a measure of intensity” of an object, showing the intensity of the feelings, contributed to it.18 The greatest experience is produced by the perception of those objects, which contain a subject of himself/herself (for example, world, nature, society and a family) or which existence he/she associates his/her own life sense (life, love and creative work) with. During the experience, there can appear an emotional feeling of the involvement of some phenomenon and of the external world and his/her own ego, one instinc- tively “comprehends” the interrelation of an external phenomenon with his/her own nature. Analyzing this concept, H. Rickert points out, that experience means, what we experienced, doesn’t remain alien to us, but it became our weal, a part of our ego, and deeply sunk into our inbeing and pushed out strong shoots there.”19 Feeling enjoyment, pleasure or suffering, a person connects his feelings with a phenomenon of the external world, and therefore he/she unites the inner and external being into the integrated reality. In such a way, the existential matter of a value is in the free nature of value attitude, based on experience, in its appealing to the solution of a problem of sense of one’s own being and in acceptance of free basic meanings, but in their creative forming by a person. Thus, the base of a value structure comprises all the most important spheres of the perception and the activity of a subject: willing, unconscious and archetypic, emotional, reasonable and intuitive spheres, i.e. the whole integrity of the existence.

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VALUES AND INDIVIDUAL FREEDOM

Unlike knowledge, values contain a limited quantity of information on the inner objective reality of a subject and appear as its highest manifestation in the world. If knowledge is the manifestation of the being for a subject, values are the manifestation of a subject for the objective reality. Relying on the research of V. Frankl and A. Maslow we can note, that there are two main types of values: 1) forming under the influence of the objective being, “from being” (values of being), and 2) controlling the reality, forming “over being” (values of a subject),20 “Being-values.”21 The values of the first type express the significance of qualities of actual being, as well as the objective needs of a subject (values of life, health and possession of material welfare). The values of the second type de- note the ability of a creative person to be free regarding the objective conditions of the existence and the possibility of the directed influence on the individual and the external being (freedom, knowledge, spirituality, creative work, love and non-violence). On the basis mentioned above, we can conclude (and this is different from Frankl’s tradition) that values are preferences of one or another way of self-development, related to the subject’s aspiration towards development. By this connection, value formation or evaluation represents a phenomenon of the subjectivation of the external being for an individual, when a new meaning and sense are introduced to it, serving as the basis for its active and practical changing. On the one hand, the subjectivation can be evaluated as introduction of a new spiritual and psychic component into the unconscious world, which can result in the formation of the no sphere in a positive way. On the other hand, the subjectivation transforms objects of the external reality evaluated according to the specific needs and peculiarities of an individual. Thirdly, the subjectivation changes the one who represents its active side. A man, who highly evaluates the objects of the external reality, associates the existence with the possession of them, and results in his deeper rooting into the natural, social and objective being. The subjectivation is creative in each of these aspects, as it deals with the being ex- pansion, the creation of a new spiritual reality, which can become later the source of practical creative work. Evaluation represents more than the application or appropriation of objects, it turns out to be their vivifi- cation – bringing sense and meaning into their existence. In refers only to the “noetic” world (V. Frankl22), the world interpreted by a subject,

80 Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 9(1)/2012: 73–83 but at the same time it becomes the being itself, as a subject has meaning and sense in himself/herself. The world of values of an individual transforms the objective being into the subjective reality, becoming a kind of removal of both of them. On the basis of an intuitive or conscious idea of the proper reality variant, an individual adds the missing elements, modifying the whole universe. Values like a mirror reflect marks of subject’s life activity, but studying of their dynamics is important not only for the understanding of the individual being, but also for the compre- hension of social self-development, as the direction of the world history course can depend on the acts of an individual today, who uses not only his force and abilities, but all the facilities of the modern science and technologies to achieve his/her meaningful purposes. Values are one of the main components of the spiritual foundation of the society, determining the “spiritual tuning,” intellectual, moral, emotional and essential atmosphere of the epoch and the various types of the society. Within its widest sense, a value can be defined as the guiding line of the actions for an individual and the society, specifying the direction of self-development, substantiating the substantially meaningful ideas of the human existence, his desire for sense and perfection in the being. We can conclude that values represent the manifestation of an individual in the world, the quintessence of his/her subjectivity, the fullest expression of his/her existential claims to obtain sense and significance. In this turn, values transform the external environmental reality, directing the activity of an individual to a particular meaningful goal and forming the direction of social processes. We generally see the existential essence of a value as the unity of anthropological and ontological aspects: 1) striving to provide the being with senses and meanings expresses incompleteness, the unpro- grammedness of personal existence, its free “project” essence; 2) values represent one of the highest form of expression of subjectivity, individu- ality and uniqueness of a subject, his creative response to his/her existence without any original sense and meaning; 3) axiological creative work is the expression of personal freedom in relation to the natural and social programme of the life activity, the opportunity to “decode” one’s own ego and environmental space according to its meaningful goals; 4) values express a degree of personal interest in the phenomena of the external being and represent the point of connection between the anthropological

81 Liudmila Baeva / Existential Axiology and the ontological, the external and the inner, the existent and the proper. Therefore, values are responses of a person to the key challenges of the being – death, loneliness, foreignness to the world, absurdity and non-freedom. They are attempts to introduce significance into the world, not having originally its planned goal and sense, to create (or change) himself/herself and the world in accordance with the personal preferences. In this regard, an existential approach to a value follows the opti- mistic tradition of N. Abbagnano’s23 existentialism, where the freedom is an opportunity to choose and not only a tragedy of a man.

Notes Hartman Robert. “Formal Axiology and the Measurement of Values”. In Value Theory in Philosophy and Social Science. Ervin Laszlo and James B. Wilbur (Ed.). New York, London: Gordon and Breach, 1973. p. 123-132. 2 Frondizi Risieri. What is Value? An Introduction to Axiology by Risiery Frondizi. Illinois: La Salle, 1971. 3 Hansson, Sven Ove. The Structure of Value and Norms. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- versity Press, 2004 4 Vernon Glen. “Values, Value Definitions, and Symbolic Interaction.” In Value Theory in Philosophy and Social Science. Ervin Laszlo and James B. Wilbur. Eds. New York, London: Gordon and Breach, 1973. 125. 5 Baier Kurt. “Concept of Value.” In Value Theory in Philosophy and Social Science. Ervin Laszlo and James B. Wilbur Eds. New York, London: Gordon and Breach, 1973. 3-11. 6 Brumbaugh Robert. “Changes of Value Order and Choices in Time.” In Value and Values in Evolution. Axiological Studies in Honor of Robert S. Hartman. John Davis. Ed. Tennessee: The University of Tennessee. Press Knoxville, 1972. 49-60. 7 Maslow Abraham. The Psychology of Science: A Reconnaissance. New York: Harper & Row, 1966; Chapel Hill: Maurice Bassett, 2002. 8 Foot Phillippa. Natural Goodness. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. 9 Levinas Emmanuel. “The Contemporary Criticism of the Idea of Value and the Prospects for Humanism.” In Value and Values in Evolution. Axiological Studies in Hon- or of Robert S. Hartman. John Davis. Ed. Tennessee: The University of Tennessee. Press Knoxville, 1972. 163-178. 10 Vokey Daniel. Moral Discourse in Pluralistic World. Notre Dame, 2001. 11 Masuda Yoneji. The Information Society as Post-Industrial Society. Washinton: D.C. 1983. 12 Giddens Anthony. The Consequences of Modernity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.

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13 Castells Manuel. The End of the Millennium, The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture. Vol. III. Cambridge, MA; Oxford, UK.Blackwell, 1997. 14 Kallenberg Brand J. Ethics and Grammar: Changing the Postmodern Subject. Notre Dame: Notre Dame Press, 2001. 15 Frondisi Robert. “Value as a Gestalt Quality.” In What is Value? An Introduction to Axiology. Robert Frondisi. Ed. Harvard: La Salle. 1971. 159-165. 16Vernon Glen. “Values, Value Definitions, and Symbolic Interaction.” In Value Theory in Philosophy and Social Science. Ervin Laszlo and James B. Wilbur. Eds. New York, London: Gordon and Breach, 1973. 125. 17Hartman Robert. “Formal Axiology and the Measurement of Values”. In Value Theory in Philosophy and Social Science. Ervin Laszlo and James B. Wilbur. Ed. New York, London: Gordon and Breach, 1973. 39. 18 Hall Calvin S. Theories of Personality. New York, London, Sydney, Toronto. 1970. 93. 19 Rickert Henry. Sciences of Nature and Sciences of Culture. Moscow. 1998. 237. 20 Frankl Victor. Man’s Search for Ultimate Meaning. (A revised and extended edition of The Unconscious God; with a Foreword by Swanee Hunt). New York: Perseus Book Publishing, 1997. 21 Maslow Abraham. The Psychology of Science: A Reconnaissance. New York: Harper & Row, 1966; Chapel Hill: Maurice Bassett, 2002. 89. 22 Frankl Victor. Man’s Search for Ultimate Meaning. New York: Perseus Book Publish- ing, 1997. 23 Abbagnano Nikolo. L'esistenzialismo positivo. Torino: Torino University, 1948.