'Men Not Allowed': the Social Construction and Rewards
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‘MEN NOT ALLOWED’: THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION AND REWARDS OF THE WORK OF DOMESTIC MAIDS OF KOLKATA By MANALI DUTTA A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Department of Geography and Environmental Studies Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario © Copyright April 2006, Manali Dutta Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 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The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. this thesis. Neither the thesis Ni la these ni des extraits substantiels de nor substantial extracts from it celle-ci ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement may be printed or otherwise reproduits sans son autorisation. reproduced without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne Privacy Act some supporting sur la protection de la vie privee, forms may have been removed quelques formulaires secondaires from this thesis. ont ete enleves de cette these. While these forms may be includedBien que ces formulaires in the document page count, aient inclus dans la pagination, their removal does not represent il n'y aura aucun contenu manquant. any loss of content from the thesis. i * i Canada Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Abstract The tasks carried out by women captured in the phrase ‘women’s work’ which forms a vital part of the social process of reproduction and is often unpaid, is not innocent in the sense that it is not a straightforward interpretation of the work that women do. There is an underlying denigration involved as they are monetarily invisible and thereby invisible in official discourses. An examination of the influence of this process as it works in the Indian labour market is attempted here through the work situation that domestic maids in Kolkata face where, despite long hours of hard work, they are in one of the most lowly paid and insecure jobs. The lack of state support, a stagnant economy, increasing competition for available jobs, have come to plague the workers in this sector, most of whom are women. Having to cope with the shackles of illiteracy and the lack of mobility, the domestic maids have limited choices open to them. Domestic responsibilities, like housework and childcare, remain undiminished adding to their burden as social norms strongly favour the male members of the household. Under such circumstances covert resistances both at the site of work and at home have become an important expression of dissent of the maids. However more recently there has been a groundswell of organized movement of these workers at the grassroots level. ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge the keen interest and support of my supervisor Dr. Fran Klodawsky, Associate Professor of Geography and Environmental Studies at Carleton University, Ottawa. I would like to thank the other members of the faculty especially Dr. Fiona Mackenzie, for their patient answers to my incessant questions. I would also like to thank Ms. Hazel Anderson, Graduate Administrator, for her help during the various phases of the program. I would like to thank my mother for encouraging me to explore the world, my father who has been the guiding light in my life and my husband with whom I want to share life’s infinite possibilities. I remain indebted to all my friends and other acquaintances made during my research work. I was also invigorated by the efforts of my five year old nephew who emulated my research techniques on all and sundry often to devastating and hilarious effect! iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table of Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgements iii Table of Contents iv List of Tables vii List of Figures viii List of Maps ix List of Acronyms x List of Appendices xi Glossary xii Chapter 1 Introduction: Marginalizing ‘Women’s work’ 1 1.1 Organization of the thesis 7 Chapter 2 Re-examining patriarchy and domestic work in the Indian context 11 2.1 Women in patriarchy 12 2.2 The Discourse on Work 15 2.3 Women’s work under the cloud of globalization 19 2.4 Women in the informal sector 23 2.5 From Resistance to Reconstitution 27 Chapter 3 Women’s Work: A historically contested issue 31 3.1 Historical stages in the evolution of women’s work in India 36 3.1.1 Pre-colonial period 36 3.1.2 Colonial period 37 3.1.3 Post Independence period 42 3.1.3.1 Effect of the partition on middle class women 45 3.2 Focus on West Bengal 45 3.2.1 Economic recession and women’s prospects 46 3.2.2 The state as a mediator for women 50 3.3 Conclusion 52 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Chapter 4 Research Methodology: Developing a suitable methodology and documenting the research process 4.1 Searching for a suitable methodology 53 4.1.1 Positionality 57 4.1.2 Subjectivity 62 4.1.3 Power in research process 65 4.2 The Research Process 68 4.2.1 The research location and participant selection 68 4.2.2 Semi structured interviews 72 4.2.3 Participant observation 74 4.2.4 Action oriented research 76 4.3 Reflexivity 79 Chapter 5 The bridges that separate: ^ Employers’ attitude towards domestic workers 5.1 The preference for females 83 5.1.1 The necessity of engaging maids 84 5.1.2 Gadgets and appliances as failed alternatives 88 5.2 Considerations for recruitment and retention 91 5.2.1 Performance standards driven by the nostalgia for the past 91 5.2.2 The importance of caste and/or religion 94 5.3 The maid as the ‘other’ 99 5.4 Conclusion 101 Chapter 6 Working conditions of the maid: ^ 0 2 Housework that pays 6.1 A contested terrain 105 6.1.1 Deconstructing the male breadwinner 106 6.1.2 ‘Losing Honour’ in going out to work 111 6.2 The travails of work 117 6.2.1 Experiences of commuting 117 6.2.2 Struggles at the site of work 122 6.2.2.1 Extra work : The ‘choice’ of saying no 125 6.2.2.2 Wages of subsistence 127 6.2.2.3 The politics of taking leave 128 6.2.2.4 The disappearance of other benefits 131 6.3 Prisoners of ‘choice’ 133 6.3.1 The prospect of alternate employment 133 V Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6.3.2 The meaning of being a domestic worker 136 6.4 Conclusion 138 Chapter 7 The ‘Unconventional’ family: 140 Women’s struggle within the family structure. 7.1 When neglect becomes routine 144 7.1.1 Housework without pay 144 7.1.2 Childcare provisions 147 7.2 Daughter and mother 152 7.3 The politics of control 160 7.4 Conclusion 166 Chapter 8 In Drawing A Conclusion: 168 Struggle, Resistance and Reconstitution. 8.1 Empowerment through organizations 169 8.2 Two grassroots NGOs in Kolkata 172 8.2.1 Parichiti 174 8.2.2 Nishtha 180 8.3 Organizing for change 187 8.3.1 Building on the alternatives 187 8.3.2 Strategies and Issues 188 8.4 ‘Pulama’ - A case study 195 8.4.1 - A studied case of continued abuse 195 8.4.2 - The realizations for Parichiti 200 8.5 Not a time to conclude yet... 202 Appendix 205 Bibliography 212 vi Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. List of Tables Table 2.1 Worker Population Ratio by Sex (Census and NSS survey), 1971-94 17 Table 2.2 Impact of SAP on poor women’s living conditions in India 22 Table 3.1 Statewise selected Industrial characteristics of India (2000-01) 47 vii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. List of Figures 6.1 Typical workday and wage rates for two different women in paid work viii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. List of Maps Map 3.1 Political map of India 33 Map 3.2 District Map of West Bengal 34 Map 4.1 Research Area Location: Calcutta 70 Map 4.2 Research Area Location: South 24 Parganas 71 ix Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. List of Acronyms BRAC Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee CDF Cooperative Development Foundation CITU Center for Industrial Trade Unions CPI(M) Communist Party Of India (Marxist) DGE&T Directorate General of Employment and Training HRLN Human Rights Law Network ILO International Labour Organization IMF International Monetary Fund MEPZ Madras Export Processing Zone NCW National Commission for Women NDWM National Domestic Worker’s Movement NEP New Economic Policy NGO Non Governmental Organization NSSO National Sample Survey Organization PAR Participatory Action Research Paschim Banga Ganatantrik Mahily Samity PBGMS (The United Democratic Bengali Women’s Organization) PDS Public Distribution System SAP Structural Adjustment Program SEWA Self Employed Women’s Association SNA System of National Accounts WTO World Trade Organization WWF Working Women’s Forum Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner.