Briefing Paper: Turn off the Red Light

Campaign to criminalise the purchase of sex and stop the demand for trafficked and prostituted women and girls in Ireland

February 2, 2011

The Immigrant Council of Ireland (ICI) is an are females trafficked for the purpose of independent human rights organisation. We commercial sexual exploitation. advocate for the rights of migrants and their families and act as a catalyst for public International concern about trafficking is debate. Our Information and Referral Service welcome and has been reflected in a number responds to more than 10,000 enquiries each of human rights instruments and conventions year. We are also an Independent Law that underpin the fundamental rights of those Centre, which allows us to provide legal exploited through trafficking. The UN Palermo representation to clients. Protocol lays the foundation for international action on trafficking by providing an In 2009, the ICI published groundbreaking international framework for the definition of research exploring the trafficking of migrant trafficking. It refers to force, coercion, women into the Irish . The movement and exploitation. Article 3 (a) of research, “Globalisation, Sex Trafficking and the Protocol states: : The Experiences of Migrant Women in Ireland” , was funded by the “Trafficking in persons shall mean the Religious Sisters of Charity and carried out in recruitment, transportation, transfer, collaboration with the Health Service harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of Executive (through the Women’s Health the threat or use of force or other forms of Project, Baggot St) and Ruhama. coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power of a position of Trafficking in human beings has increasingly vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of been recognised as a global human rights payments or benefits to achieve the consent violation. The US State Department estimates of a person having control over another that approximately 800,000 people are person, for the purpose of exploitation. trafficked across national borders, which does Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the not include the millions trafficked in their own exploitation of the prostitution of others or country. Approximately 80 per cent of other forms of sexual exploitation, forced transnational victims of trafficking and forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar labour are women and girls, up to 50 per cent to slavery, servitude or the removal of of which are minors (US State Department organs.” 2006). The majority of transnational victims

Article 9 (5) of the Protocol requires the international traffickers, Irish pimps, States Parties to: prostitution agencies and buyers collaborate in the commercial sexual exploitation of over “adopt or strengthen measures to discourage 1,000 women and girls. It indicates a highly the demand that fosters exploitation of lucrative and easily accessible sex industry persons, particularly women and children, worth approximately €180 million into which leading to increased trafficking.” women from poor regions of the world are trafficked and recruited to service the sexual The Council of Europe Convention on Action demands of men in Ireland. The widespread against Trafficking in Human Beings also use of the and mobile phones has underlines “the importance of tackling made the buying of sex much more accessible demand in order to prevent and combat the but less visible as the core of the prostitution traffic itself.” It urges governments to: industry in Ireland has moved indoors. At any one time over 800 women, up to 97 per cent “discourage the demand that fosters all of whom are migrant women, are advertised forms of sexual exploitation of persons, with sexually explicit pictures of each woman especially women and children, that leads to and detailed lists of the sexual acts which can trafficking through legislative, administrative, be bought. Apartments and hotels are the educational, social, cultural, or other main locations but buyers can also get ‘call measures.” outs’ to their homes in any part of the country by filling out an order form with explicit Ireland has followed international example in details of her body and the sexual acts they introducing specific legislation and policy want her to perform. There is no national initiatives to respond to the issue of strategy to respond to this huge growth in the trafficking with the introduction of the Irish sex industry or to tackle the increased Criminal Law (Human Trafficking) Act 2008, level of demand for commercial sex. the setting up of the Anti-Human Trafficking Unit in the Department of Justice and Law Sweden and increasingly other countries Reform and the publication of a National including Norway and Iceland have recognised Action Plan to Combat Trafficking. However, that the most effective way to prevent pimps the Irish response, as in most countries, has and traffickers supplying an ever increasing focussed on the targetting of women by number of women to sex markets is to traffickers and their transportation across address demand. By criminalising the buyers borders with much less attention given to the of sex in 1999, the Swedish state sent out a prostitution industries in destination clear message that the use of women and girls countries, such as Ireland, which are the for sexual gratification would no longer be locations in which women and girls are tolerated. By de-criminalising women in bought for sexual exploitation, regardless of prostitution and providing resources for their means of entry. The buying of a person support and exit routes they also recognised for sex is legal in Ireland. Criminal offences in the exploitation and harm of being relation to prostitution remain for the most prostituted. Over the past decade Sweden has part as minor public order offences, such as been successful not just in preventing soliciting, or are related to the criminal trafficking but in changing peoples’ attitudes activities of organised crime. to prostitution with 85 per cent of the population now supporting the law. Research in Ireland carried out by the Immigrant Council of Ireland (Kelleher et al., Ireland can now follow their example in 2009) reveals a criminal underworld in which creating a society where the sexual 2

exploitation of women and girls is seen as and controlling tactics used against their unacceptable and contrary to a society based victims. The degree of violation is of profound on equality and justice. We can change significance to each individual woman as is Ireland from being a welcome and easy the extent to which she has any freedom or location for traffickers, pimps and prostitution control over her existence. Sexual violation is agencies and end the tacit acceptance of intrinsic to all prostitution and ultimately Ireland as a destination country for the constitutes “cruel, degrading and inhuman marketing of migrant women and girls. A law treatment” as defined within the European criminalising the buying of women and girls Convention on Human Rights. Therefore the for the purpose of sexual exploitation should Irish State has a responsibility to protect all be introduced alongside a widespead women who have been violated in this educational and awareness raising campaign jurisdiction not just those who have been on the harm of prostitutiton. Services directed trafficked into Ireland. The conviction of one at women exploited in the industry need to be Irish prostitution organiser reveals both the resourced and exit routes to enable women to brutality and the profits of the Irish leave need to be made available. prostitution industry:

Addressing the Questions “Foreign women were effectively bonded into Those who promote the legalisation of the sex near slavery in 48 locations across Ireland industry and oppose the criminalisation of the and forced in many cases to hand up all of purchase of sex put forward a range of their earnings. He was about to open up arguments which need to be challenged. This in South Africa especially for soccer document attempts to briefly address some of fans travelling for the World Cup. He those arguments with reference to an specialised in exploiting the poor and increasing body of Irish and international vulnerable. He boasted of an international research and evidence which demonstrates property portfolio and seven-figure cash the effectiveness of tackling demand by savings. A number of men, Irish based criminalising the buyer of sex and the associates, controlled the brothels, ensuring negative consequences of making prostitution that no customers were turned away. If the legal and legitimate. women did not comply with customer’s requests during their 15 hour shifts in the “We need to focus on trafficking and forced brothels-10 a.m. – 1.a.m. - they were prostitution and not on freely chosen threatened and beaten.” prostitution.” (Irish Times May 8, 2010) Prostitution and trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation do not exist in separate, “Women make a ‘free choice’ to enter distinct realms but rather on a continuum of prostitution, they are not forced.” exploitation. Traffickers, pimps and Freedom of choice is a misleading and prostitution agencies collaborate in the inaccurate term when applied to the commercial sexual exploitation of women and constrained and limited contexts in which girls girls and are indiscriminate in relation to how and women enter prostitution. Gender girls and women are supplied to the market. inequality, globalisation, poverty, and the They use a range of similar tactics including collapse of women’s economic stability in kidnapping, violence, coercion, deception and poorer regions of the world are creating the enticement and they share the same intention conditions in which vast numbers of women i.e. to ensure a continuous supply of women are driven into the sex industry. Young and girls to the sex industry. This is not to women are persuaded to migrate to Western deny the different levels of abuse, violence European countries for what they believe is 3

legitimate employment and a better life but and young women are integrated into the are totally unaware that they have been mainstream sex markets with current targeted by prostitution agencies who will estimates suggesting that 10-30 per cent of force them into prostitution in the destination trafficked females are minors, (Kelly 2002). country, (Kelly, 2002). Extensive research Research indicates that the female indicates that poverty, family loss, prostitution market is sustained by adult homelessness, drug addiction and a history of women as well as under age girls, who are physical and sexual abuse combine to make inserted into the same cycle of exploitation young women vulnerable to being recruited and intended for the same kind of customer by pimps and traffickers, (Barnardos, 1998, and are considered as “interchangeable and Zimmerman et al., 2006). A recent study goods”, (Monzini, 2005). Irish research of thirty five women and men in prostitution revealed that 11 per cent of those trafficked in Dublin revealed that all were dependent into Ireland for sexual exploitation were heroin users prior to entry into prostitution minors at the time they were first trafficked, and a significant minority were minors at the (Kelleher et. al., 2009). In the context of the time, (NACD, 2009). commercial sex market research with sex tourists reveals that buyers are quite Some women choose to enter the sex indiscriminate in using children, girls and industry in the desperate hope of earning women, (O’Connell Davidson & Sanchez money for a period of time which will provide Taylor, 1998). As Dr. Liz Kelly says: the means for themselves and their families to exit poverty. But this ‘choice’ can be “The simple fact is that where sex industries compared to people in extreme poverty are tolerated, the sexual exploitation of choosing to sell their organs, which has now children is facilitated……How can it be that on been recognised by international human one day when the young person is 15 or 17 rights bodies as exploitation and has led to a their involvement in the sex industry is full ban on trade in biological material. We exploitation and illegal, but on the next day – need to extend the same understanding and their birthday – when they are 16 or 18, this protection to women who have “chosen” to becomes not just legal but legitimate, a survive by the sexual exploitation of their matter of choice, a form of work? What bodies, (Westerstrand, 2002). As survivors of process can occur in 24 hours that transforms prostitution state: something inherently exploitative into an issue of choice and consent?” “Women do not wake up one day and (Kelly & Regan, 2000) ‘choose’ to be prostitutes. It is chosen for us by poverty, past sexual abuse, the pimps who “Making the conditions of ‘sex work’ safer take advantage of our vulnerabilities, and the should be our main concern not the act of men who buy us for the sex of prostitution.” prostitution itself.” (Manifesto, EWL Conference, 2005) Concern regarding the violence and abuse women are subjected to in prostitution has “Adults are choosing to sell sex. It is not the led many people to focus only on attempting same as child sexual exploitation.” to make the conditions in which women are There is a critical need to introduce specific prostituted safer. This strategy fails to measures to eliminate all forms of child abuse recognise that there is no safe environment in including commercial child sexual which to be prostituted and that being bought exploitation. However, there is very little for sex is inherently damaging and harmful. evidence that a separate market exists for The levels of physical and sexual violence children or young girls but rather that girls experienced by women and girls in 4

prostitution are immensely higher than the violent customers and having to service pimps general population. In one major five–country and guards, (Farley. 2004). Interviews with report on prostitution 80 per cent of women 103 male sex purchasers in the U.K. found reported physical harm, 60 per cent reported that of the majority of men who had sexual assault, and over 60 per cent had been purchased sex in indoor facilities, admitted subjected to emotional abuse and verbal they were aware of pimping, trafficking, threats, (Raymond et al. 2002). International violence and coercive control over the research which conducted interviews with prostituted women they purchased in 207 trafficked women revealed severe levels massage parlours, brothels, and escort of violence, 95 per cent of women had been agencies, (Farley et al., 2009). subjected to physical or sexual violence with 75 per cent physically hurt and 90 per cent Women interviewed in Dublin described their reporting sexual assault, (Zimmerman et al., experience with some agencies and the risks 2006). The majority of women (89 per cent) of indoor prostitution. They expressed their also reported threats of violence to fears of call outs to hotels and the buyers’ themselves, 36 per cent reported threats to homes and not knowing what or who would their children and family and 77 per cent had be waiting for them. Some agencies said no freedom of movement. One migrant ‘security’ was on call at the apartments for woman in an Irish agency describes how little ‘protection’ but women knew that they were control women have over what is done to in fact there to ensure that customers were them: satisfied. One of the women spoke of being severely beaten by a security man when a “In this agency there were rich, older men. customer complained that she would not do They wanted sex without condoms… as he asked, (Kelleher et al., 2009): everything that was not just normal sex… these men were crazy… one guy was a “It felt like a prison, no time for lunch and I teacher. You had to dress up in a school was on call 24/7. I saw between five and uniform, no make-up… shave pubic hair and seven men a day, with occasionally a day off – he would spank you and you would hit him. It but never a Saturday or a Sunday. There was was awful.” no choice about which men you saw and some (Anara) men wanted sex without condoms. If you refused to have anal sex you had to pay a “Indoor managed parlours and brothels are penalty or the ‘security’ men would beat you safer and better for women than the streets” up.” There is ample evidence in Ireland and (Isobel) internationally of the level of violence that women in experience. “Harm reduction strategies are the most However, the idea that indoor managed effective.” brothels and apartments are safe Health care is a vital part of responding to the environments for those being prostituted is needs of women in prostitution. International increasingly shown to be false and misleading. research has documented the harmful Some studies indicate that women in indoor consequences of prostitution on the physical, prostitution are less able to control the sexual, reproductive and psychological health conditions and interaction with men. Women of women, (Farley 2004, and Raymond et al., talk about being alone in a room with the 2002). Women presenting to the Women’s customer, not being able to reject customers Health Project (HSE) in Dublin display a range or warn each other, that they are not of health symptoms, including bacterial encouraged to report violence or prosecute vaginosis, thrush, hepatitis A and B, urinary 5

tract infections and many other health protection against violence and abuse do not conditions related to prostitution. These apply, (Eckberg, 2004). One can hold an infections have serious, long-term ethical and political view on the act and agent implications with women facing constant of sexual exploitation and still work non- worry and anxiety in trying to maintain and judgementally and respectfully with women in protect their health. To focus only on getting prostitution. Services can work with women women in prostitution to insist on condom on trying to protect themselves and their use and safe sex practice fails to recognise the health whilst at the same time providing exit reality of power and victimisation. The ICI routes and working towards the elimination research revealed that dangerous, of prostitution. What we believe as service unprotected sexual activities are providers influences our interaction with commonplace with a high proportion of individual women and has major implications buyers stating they had unprotected oral, on the principles and practice which underpin vaginal and anal sex. There was increasing direct services to women exploited in the sex pressure on women to put their own health at industry. Practitioners need clarity that risk and engage in high risk activities with holding the position that prostitution is a form bodily fluids: of sexual exploitation is not inconsistent with a non-judgemental supportive service to “Men are constantly looking for sex without women which respects their rights. condoms, including anal sex, which I do not do… Men want more and more things… not “A narrow focus on harm-reduction and safer just normal sex. I have to move around… I do sex is an inadequate and ineffective response not stay in any one place for too long as they to the needs of women in prostitution. will get to know by the reviews (posted on Prostitution is a form of violence against punter.net) that you will not do these things.” women and sexual exploitation has (Floria) devastating impacts on the health and well- being of women and girls. It is critical that our Sexual and reproductive clinics need to be service develops a response that reflects this part of an overall mental and physical health reality.” care strategy which recognises the inevitable (Coordinator of Women’s Health Project, HSE, harm of prostitution. Each contact with Dublin) women through health care can be an opportunity to provide her with as much “Sex work is a legitimate form of work and support and as many options as possible, needs to be integrated into regular including exit strategies. employment structures.” In legalising prostitution in 2002 the German “There is no place for a moral position government was attempting to define selling regarding sex work, it is judgemental of sex sex work as legitimate work and create workers.” conditions in which women were safer and It is legitimate to hold a moral position that had access to health insurance and pensions. buying a person for the purpose of sexual They also believed that the enforcement of gratification is an act of sexual exploitation by the law would ensure that criminal elements the buyer and a violation of human rights. By and traffickers would be targeted and not taking a position on the ‘right’ to effectively controlled. An extensive evaluation prostitute girls and women we are in fact in 2007 indicates that none of these accepting the setting apart of a group of aspirations have been realised. In fact, there is women and girls for the purpose of sexual no evidence that women are safer, only a tiny exploitation where the normal legal number of women have accessed health 6

insurance, the illegal sector continues to grow safety standards for brothels and escort and profit and the people who have benefited agency ‘workers’ standards that are most are the organisers and owners of the guaranteed under international labour businesses, (Kavemann, 2007). Similarly in the conventions to workers in the Netherlands, famous for the red light districts mainstream labour force. in cities such as Amsterdam and Rotterdam, there is increasing concern and evidence that The Victorian Government adopted a harm legalisation has not brought any more safety minimisation approach to tackling the social for women but rather a massive legal and problems and human rights abuses that illegal trade in migrant girls and women, (Kelly prostitution created. However, in every et al., 2008). The Dutch police believe that category, legalisation has exacerbated these over 750 trafficking organisations operate in harms and produced many of its own making. the country and that 90 per cent of women The actual consequences have been: from East-Central Europe are trafficked, § Massive expansion of the legal (five times (Monzini, 2005). A review of prostitution greater) and illegal sex industry (four to regimes in nine countries concludes that: five times greater); § Legal and illegal business are inextricably “The inherent difficulties in integrating linked, for example by common prostitution into formal employment laws and ownership, legal brothels are laundering structures is the strongest evidence that this is money for illegal ones and providing not ‘a job like any other’, and efforts to treat it cover for trafficking and child as such reveal a host of contradictions which prostitution; neither law nor policy can resolve. This in turn § Increasing role of business and financial compromises the ambition to enhance sector in the industry; huge investment women’s status, rights and safety.” and profits A$ 1.78 million in 2004/5; (Kelly et al, 2008) § Integration into the mainstream tourist industry for example the Sexpo annual “Legalising brings a safer more controlled trade show in now held in five capital industry.” cities with 65,000 visitors; The Australian State of Victoria has now § Demand increase: approximately 3.1 experienced over two decades of legalised million buyers per year in an adult . There was a set of assumptions population of 1.3 million; underpinning the decision to legalise and § Major increase in agencies supplying belief that a regulated industry could: women and girls and minimal control by § Contain the rampant growth of the highly women themselves with ‘pimping on a visible and street prostitution grand scale’; trade; § Pressure on women to do anything § Eliminate organised crime and the illegal demanded by the buyers by agencies; sector; § No evidence that violence and rape are § End sex trafficking and ; less; § Provide more control and safety for § Intensified commodification of women’s women in prostitution; bodies; and § Protect public health because § Encroachment of prostitution into public discouraging prostitution impeded AIDS life. intervention programs among (Sullivan, 2004) prostituted women; and § Eliminate harmful work practices by introducing occupational health and 7

“Buyers are looking for mutual, respectful, victimised women, (Farley et al., 2009). A consensual sex.” quarter of the buyers believed that they could Consent is not something one can buy. What do anything to her once they had paid and money is buying is the right to override that the concept of rape did not apply to consent and obtain sexual gratification prostitutes. without the need to see another person as a real person. An analysis of over 1,000 reviews “Look, men pay for women because he can posted by men on Punter.net Ireland gives a have whatever and whoever he wants. Lots of clear indication of buyers attitudes. A men go to prostitutes so they can do things to consumerist discourse of getting good value them that real women would not put up for your money and of whether she was with.” worth the price and did what was advertised pre-dominates. The physical attributes of “Men who are lonely and isolated need to women are discussed in detail and buy sex.” disappointment and anger are expressed if The profile of men in in Ireland who reported she does not measure up to the picture on the that they buy sex (one in 15) bears out web, especially if she looks older. international research that the majority (61 per cent) are married or in a relationship. Gratification of their own sexual needs is They tend to be highly educated with incomes stated by most men as a justification and in the middle range. Many of the apartments entitlement for buying sex with explicit detail where women are placed by agencies are in of the sexual acts that took place posted on the financial and business sectors of Irish the site in graphic and aggressive language. cities. A significant proportion of men buy sex There is high expectation that she ‘enjoys’ it during the daytime, particularly at lunchtime and women are expected to feign reactions and in the evenings after work and and desires that are sexually arousing to the presumably return home afterwards to to buyer. Women who show disinterest get their partners and families, (Kelleher et al., severely reprimanded in the reviews. 2009). Research with buyers consistently Comments such as “she had no enthusiasm indicates that buyers have a high number of for the job”, “I felt she was not at this very sexual partners in their lifetime with 77 per long”, “she is very withdrawn”, “she has made cent of the U.K. study participants reporting a bad career choice”, “she is very mechanical” more than 10 sexual partners. and “she is past her sell-by date” are common. Many stated that they want the A study in Scotland which conducted 110 woman to make the encounter a ‘girlfriend interviews with buyers also found that experience’ (GFE) but only in so far as she acts prostitution negatively impacts upon the the as if she is emotionally engaged and way men think about and behave towards interested in them, not in any reciprocal non-prostituted women, (Mc Leod et al., relational way. 2008). They demonstate that the more frequent the prostitution use the more likely Fifty-five percent of the participants in the the participant was to have committed U.K. study believed that a majority of women sexually coercive acts against their partners. in prostitution were lured, tricked or Some of the interviewees themselves trafficked and 36 per cent said they thought acknowledged that men’s attitudes could be that the women they used had been affected: trafficked to London from another country. However, there is no evidence that this belief deters them from purchasing sex from 8

“Men think if they can buy a prostitute and inevitable and exists outside the parameters treat her as an object, they can do the same of ethics and the law. It seeks to give young with other women.” men and women the message that buying a person for sexual gratification is not normal, “Most of the men who go see it as a business acceptable or harmless behaviour. In Sweden, transaction and don’t see the girl as a woman. 85 per cent of the population of both men This could impact on how a man sees women and women now support the law and see in general.” prostitution as unacceptable.

Whilst the majority of interviewees in both “We can succumb to resignation and base our studies believed in men’s right to buy sex and actions against prostitution and trafficking in that the majority of men did so, most men (59 women on the idea that these practices are per cent and 71 per cent) had ambivalent inescapable, necessary and something that feelings of guilt and shame. Criminal sanctions will always exist and therefore should be and public exposure were considered to be accepted: because men need it, women the most effective deterrents whilst being ‘choose’ it, or because prostitution has always asked to attend an educational programme existed as the ‘oldest profession in the world’. was regarded as the least effective. The Or, we can firmly reject the idea that some authors conclude that education programmes women and children, mainly girls, should be should be offered in addition to rather than as seen as commodities that can be bought and an alternative to legal sanctions. sold. Instead, we must have a vision, like we do in Sweden, that it will, in fact, be possible “The Swedish model is repressive and to eliminate prostitution and instead create a punitive. Prostitution is a necessary and society based on gender equality, a society in inevitable part of life.” which prostitution and trafficking in women is Combating prostitution and trafficking for seen as incompatible with the dignity and sexual exploitation has been a high priority of worth of the human person and the equal the Swedish Government for over a decade. rights of men and women.” Since 1999, the Swedish Government has (Lise Bergh, State Secretary for Gender defined prostitution as a form of violence Equality, Sweden, 2005) against women and children and made the purchase of sexual services on the streets, in “The Swedish approach has failed and brothels or from escort agencies a criminal prostitution has gone underground.” offence, (Ministry of Industry, Employment The Swedish government established a high- and Communications, Sweden, 2002.) The level Inquiry in 2009 to investigate how the women and children who are victims of criminalisation of the purchase of sex has prostitution and trafficking do not risk any worked in practice and what effect it has had legal repercussions as they are considered to on the incidence of prostitution and human be exploited by the procurers and the buyers. trafficking over the past decade. The report of The law in Sweden is not seen as merely the Inquiry is extremely positive and punitive but rather it is declarative and concludes that the law has been an important normative, sending out a clear statement that instrument in preventing and combating prostitution is harmful not only to the prostitution and human trafficking for sexual individual prostituted woman or child, but purposes. The report recognises that also to society at large and contrary to investigating such a secretive, criminal activity Sweden’s goal of achieving equality between is complex and difficult yet it is confident that women and men. The Swedish approach the results of their inquiry offer a clear picture challenges the view that prostitution is of the current situation. They conclude that: 9

§ Street has halved References for Briefing Document since the introduction of the ban; Barnardos (1998) Whose Daughter Next? § In comparable countries, Norway and Children Abused through Prostitution, Ilford, Denmark, the number of people in street Barnardos. prostitution has increased dramatically in the same period, three times higher than Council of Europe Convention on Action in Sweden; against Trafficking in Human Beings (2005) § There is no evidence that prostitution has Warsaw,16.V. gone underground. Indoor prostitution including massage parlours, sex clubs and Cox, G., Whitaker, T. (2009) Drug Use, Sex hotels has not increased; Work and the Risk Environment in Dublin, § Internet prostitution has increased in all National Advisory Committee on Drugs. three countries over the past decade but is much more extensive in neighbouring Ekberg, G. (2004) ‘The Swedish law that countries; prohibits the purchase of sexual services’ in § There is no indication that criminalisation Violence against Women 10(10): 1187-1218. has increased the risk of violence or worsened the conditions of those people Farley, M. (2004) ‘Bad for the Body, Bad for exploited through prostitution; the Heart: Prostitution Harms Women even if § Trafficking is considered to be Legalised or Decriminalised’ in Violence substantially smaller in scale than in against Women, 10: 1087-1125. comparable countries. The National Criminal Police believe the law has acted Farley, M., Bindel, J. & Golding, J., (2009) Men as a barrier to human traffickers and Who Buy Sex: who they buy and what they procurers establishing themselves in know, EAVES, London and Prostitution Sweden; Research and Education, San Francisco § There has been a marked change in attitude to the purchase of sexual Förbud mot köp av sexuell tjänst (Prohibition services that coincides with making it a of the purchase of sexual services) (2010) En criminal offence to buy sex. There is now utvärdering 1999-2008 (An evaluation 1999- strong support for the ban on purchasing 2008) (SOU 2010:49) sexual services in Sweden (70 per cent-80 per cent); and Healy, G., & O’Connor, M. (2006) The Links § The ban has proved to be an effective between Prostitution and Sex Trafficking: A deterrent to sex purchasers. Briefing Handbook, Coalition against Trafficking in Women and the European The Inquiry recognises that criminalisation has Women’s Lobby. to be part of an overall strategy and stresses the necessity of continued and sustained Kavemann, B and Rabe, H. (2007) The Act social work and resources for police and law Regulating the Legal Situation of Prostitutes – enforcement. They recommend the implementation, impact, current establishment of a national centre to co- developments: Findings of a study on the ordinate policies to prevent and combat impact of the German Prostitution Act, prostitution and human trafficking for sexual SoFFLK. purposes. Kelleher associates , O’Connor, M., Pillinger, J. (2009) Globalisation, Sex Trafficking and Prostitution: the Experiences of Migrant 10

Women in Ireland, Immigrant Council of United Nations: Economic and Social Council, Ireland. Economic Causes of Trafficking in Women in the UNECE Region, ECE/AC/.28?2004/10 Kelly, L. (2002) Journeys of Jeopardy: A Review of Research on Trafficking in Women and United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress Children in Europe, Vienna: IOM. and Punish Trafficking in Persons especially Women and Children, supplementing the UN Kelly, L., Coy, M., & Davenport, R. (2008) Convention against Transnational Organised Shifting Sands: A Comparison of Prostitution Crime (The Palermo Protocol) (2000) Regimes across Nine Countries, London: London Metropolitan University. United States State Department (2006) Trafficking in Person Report, Kelly, L., and Regan, L., (2000) Rhetorics and www.state.gov/g/tip/ris/tiprpt/2006. Realities: Sexual Exploitation of Children in Europe, London Metropolitan University. Westerstrand, J., (2002) ‘Prostitution and the Cunning Patriarchy- towards a new Lally, C. (2010) A Pimps Irish Business, Irish understanding’: Paper Presented at Seminar Times May 8 th on the effects of Legalization of Prostitution Activities: A Critical Analysis organized by the Manifesto of Survivors of Prostitution and Swedish Government, 5-6 November, Sweden Trafficking (2005) Press Conference, European Parliament. Winberg, M. (2002) Swedish Deputy Prime Minister, Speech at the Seminar on the effects MacLeod, J., Farley, M., Anderson, L., & of Legalization of Prostitution Activities; A Golding, J. (2008) Challenging Men’s Demand Critical Analysis organized by the Swedish for , Glasgow, Government, 5-6 November, Sweden Women’s Support Project Zimmerman, Cathy et al. (2006) Stolen Smiles: Monzini, P. (2005) Sex Traffic: Prostitution, The Physical and Psychological Health Crime and Exploitation, London: Zed Books. Consequences of Women and Adolescents Trafficked in Europe, London: London School O’ Connell, Davidson J., Sanchez Taylor, J. of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. (1998) Prostitution, Power and Freedom Cambridge UK: Polity Press. Commissioned and paid for by the Immigrant Council of Ireland Raymond, J., D’Cunha, J., Ruhaini Dzuhayatin, www.immigrantcouncil.ie S., Hynes, P., Ramirez Rodriguez, Z., Santos, A. Information & Referral Service: 01 674 0200 (2002) A Comparative Study of Women Administration: 01 674 0202 Trafficked in the Migration process: Patterns, Email: [email protected] Profiles and Health Consequences of Sexual Exploitation in Five Countries, N.Amherst, MA. Author – Monica O’Connor Monica O’Connor is an independent Sullivan, M. (2005) ‘What happens When researcher and policy adviser on violence Prostitution Becomes Work?’: An Update on against women. She is currently in receipt of a Legalisation of Prostitution in Australia, scholarship from the Irish Research Council Coalition against Trafficking in Women, N. for the Humanities and Social Sciences Almherst, Massacusetts. (IRCHSS) to pursue doctoral research on prostitution and trafficking in Ireland. 11