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Jonathan Bird Phd FINAL 2 June 2019

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Jonathan Bird Phd FINAL 2 June 2019 READY EXERCISER ONE: EXAMINING THE EFFICACY OF IMMERSIVE TECHNOLOGIES IN THE EXERCISE DOMAIN A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Jonathan M. Bird BSc, MSc, CSci Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience Division of Sport, Health and Exercise Sciences Department of Life Sciences College of Health and Life Sciences Brunel University London 2019 ii Abstract The present programme of research sought to examine the effects of audio-visual stimuli during exercise, using immersive, commercially available technologies. Three original studies were conducted using a range of settings (i.e., real-world, laboratory), methodologies (i.e., qualitative and quantitative), exercise modalities (i.e., gym workouts, cycle ergometry) and consumer products (e.g., music-video channels, virtual reality head-mounted displays) in order to explore the main research question from various perspectives. A substantive theory was proposed in Study 1 that sought to explain and predict the social process of exercising in the presence of a music-video channel. The model provides support for a three-stage process that commences with the content of the music-video channel. The second stage depicts a series of moderators that revolve around the core category, appraisal of appropriateness. Lastly, a range of effects pertaining to exercisers and facility staff are predicted. Study 2 sought to examine the influence of a range of audio-visual stimuli on cycle ergometer exercise at the ventilatory threshold. The findings indicated that a 360-degree video with music condition elicited the most positive affective valence, greatest perceived activation, most dissociative thoughts, and highest ratings of perceived enjoyment. Study 3 sought to veer towards greater ecological validity with the inclusion of a commercially available virtual reality-enabled cycle ergometer. The findings demonstrated the efficacy of such technology, as conditions that entailed virtual reality elicited the most positive affective valence, highest perceived activation, largest number of dissociative thoughts, and greatest perceived enjoyment. Taken holistically, the present body of work demonstrates that audio-visual stimuli can serve as a catalyst for several affective, cognitive, and behavioural effects across various exercise modes and intensities. Researchers are beginning to recognise the importance of affective responses in shaping future exercise behaviours. The addition of audio-visual stimuli within the exercise environment represents a cost-effective and easily implementable intervention that might encourage individuals to partake in regular exercise. iii Dedication To my parents, Liz and Tony, for their love and support. iv Acknowledgements It is difficult to mention everyone who has helped me in this scholarly venture. If I were to thank everyone individually, it would require an additional chapter. The path that I have taken has not always been easy and I am indebted to those who have been there for me. I consider myself extremely fortunate to have been surrounded by a fantastic team of researchers at Brunel University London. My principal supervisor, Professor Costas Karageorghis, has consistently gone above and beyond to guide me through this journey. I have learnt a great deal under his guidance and the musical-themed amendments kept me smiling along the way (I concede that an early draft of my research proposal did “jump around like House of Pain”). Attention to detail is of paramount importance and I thank Costas for his criticality and patience throughout the entire process. Dr Alexander Nowicky ensured that I remained firmly fixated on the attainment of short-term goals, which led to the construction of the present thesis. This “brick-by-brick” approach helped me stay grounded in spite of what, at times, felt like an unsurmountable volume of work. Data collection would not have been possible without the assistance of Dr Steven Baker and Mr David Brookes (University of Gloucestershire). I am grateful for their trust in me, providing me access to their equipment and facilities. I would like to thank several “critical friends” with whom I have discussed the research presented herein. Foremost among these are Dr Marcelo Bigliassi (University of São Paulo, Brazil), Dr Leighton Jones (Sheffield Hallam University), and Mr Russell Discombe (Solent University). Finally, I would like to extend a special thanks to my parents, Liz and Tony, brother, James, and sister, Jasmine. Your unwavering support has meant the world to me as this expedition metamorphosed from a dream into a reality. v Table of Contents Section Page Abstract ....................................................................................................................... ii Dedication ................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ........................................................................................................ v List of Tables ............................................................................................................... xv List of Figures ............................................................................................................. xvi List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................... xix Preface ......................................................................................................................... xxi Chapter 1: Introduction to the Research Programme .................................................. 1 1.1 Physical (In)Activity ......................................................................................... 1 1.2 Sedentary Behaviour ......................................................................................... 2 1.3 The Digital Revolution ...................................................................................... 3 1.4 Auditory Stimuli and Exercise .......................................................................... 5 1.5 Audio-Visual Stimuli and Exercise ................................................................... 6 1.6 Statement of the Problem .................................................................................. 7 1.7 Overview of the Research Programme ............................................................. 8 1.8 Operational Definitions ..................................................................................... 10 Chapter 2: Review of Literature .................................................................................. 18 2.1 Exercise Psychology ......................................................................................... 18 2.1.1 Prominent theories ..................................................................................... 20 2.1.1.1 Social Cognitive Theory ..................................................................... 21 2.1.1.2 Reasoned Action Approach ................................................................. 25 2.1.1.3 Self-Determination Theory ................................................................. 31 vi 2.2.1.4 Transtheoretical Model ....................................................................... 35 2.1.2 The cognitive paradigm .............................................................................. 41 2.1.3 Dual-process models .................................................................................. 44 2.1.4 Affect heuristic ........................................................................................... 45 2.1.5 Affective–Reflective Theory ...................................................................... 46 2.2 Affective Phenomena ........................................................................................ 48 2.2.1 Affect .......................................................................................................... 50 2.2.2 Emotion ...................................................................................................... 51 2.2.3 Mood .......................................................................................................... 54 2.2.4 Hierarchy of affective phenomena ............................................................. 55 2.2.5 Dual-Mode Theory ..................................................................................... 56 2.2.6 Measurement of affective phenomena ....................................................... 58 2.2.6.1 Distinct-states approach ...................................................................... 59 2.2.6.1.1 The Profile of Mood States (POMS) ............................................ 60 2.2.6.1.2 The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) .................................. 61 2.2.6.2 Dimensional approach ......................................................................... 62 2.2.6.2.1 Circumplex model of affect ......................................................... 62 2.2.6.2.2 Single-item measures ................................................................... 64 2.2.6.2.3 Multi-item measures ..................................................................... 66 2.2.6.3 Distinct-states vs. dimensional approach ............................................ 68 2.2.6.4 A three-step approach to measurement ............................................... 69 2.3
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