CREATING THE MODERN SOUTH: POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE TAR HEEL STATE, 1945 TO THE PRESENT by DANIEL PAUL MENESTRES KARI FREDERICKSON, COMMITTEE CHAIR GEORGE C. RABLE LISA LINDQUIST DORR DAVID T. BEITO GORDON E. HARVEY A DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History in the Graduate School of The University of Alabama TUSCALOOSA, ALABAMA 2011 Copyright Daniel Paul Menestres 2011 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ABSTRACT This dissertation describes the process of political development in North Carolina during the twentieth century. Beginning with the creation of the “solid South” in the early twentieth century, North Carolina’s unique one-party system featured a spirited rivalry within the Democratic Party that was largely absent throughout the South. The political rivalry between conservative and progressive Democrats profoundly influenced the course of North Carolina’s political development. Following the Second World War, the interaction between state and national politics played a significant role in the development of the state’s two-party system. By the end of the twentieth century, a competitive two-party system supplanted one-party politics. Historians have written extensively about political development in the twentieth-century South, but there are few state-specific studies focusing on political change in the modern South. Using manuscripts, newspapers, and interviews, this dissertation traces the process by which one southern state gradually cast aside one-party politics and developed a strong, competitive two- party system. As such, this research provides insight into the development of two-party politics in the modern South. ii DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to my family and friends for all of their support. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS There are many people who deserve acknowledgment of the completion of this dissertation. First and foremost, my advisor, Kari Frederickson, has read numerous drafts of this dissertation and provided considerable feedback. When I found myself struggling to finish this project, it was her kind urging, guidance, and support that helped speed it to completion. Whether we talked about politics, sports, or movies, I have always valued our conversations. I would like to thank my dissertation committee, George C. Rable, Lisa Lindquist Dorr, David T. Beito, and Gordon E. Harvey for providing excellent feedback and asking important questions about this project. While attending the University of Alabama, I was fortunate to receive considerable financial support. I would like to thank the Department of History for several teaching assistantships, research assistantships, travel funding, and a generous dissertation fellowship that made possible several months of uninterrupted research in North Carolina. I am also thankful to Dr. H.G. Jones and the North Caroliniana Society for awarding me an Archie K. Davis research fellowship which allowed me to spend two weeks in Chapel Hill in June 2008. I also spent one semester as a writing tutor and I would like to thank Dr. Luke Niiler of the Department of English for his guidance and support. I would also like to thank the many professors for whom I worked as a teaching or research assistant: John Beeler (a fellow Tar Heel and barbeque specialist extraordinaire), Kari Frederickson, Joshua Rothman, and the late Ron Robel, who gave iv me my first opportunity as a teaching assistant that made it possible to attend the University of Alabama. Although they have read very little, if any, of this dissertation, my friends in Alabama helped make graduate school a fun and challenging experience. I would like to thank Mark Boulton, John Mitcham, Becky Bruce, Charles Roberts, Joe Pearson, Joe Danielson, Matt Downs, Justin Turner, Christopher Swindle, Christian McWhirter, Ed Combs, Kris Teters, Adam Hegler, Todd Frederick, Megan Bever, Randy Hourigan, Kevin Horton, Dean Lawson, Tim Daniels, Michael Wood, Rob Riser, and Stephanie Chalifoux. My friends in North Carolina, including John J. Livingston, Jason Cole, Craig Schofer, Mike Kielawa, and Jeff Sykes and Hannah Crane Sykes, reminded me that there is life beyond graduate school. They have read none of this dissertation but they assisted in its completion. I am grateful to Craig Schofer for providing housing while working in Chapel Hill. Jason Cole and Michael Kielawa provided many opportunities to get away from my work. John J. Livingston, a former college roommate, helped make excellent use of my summer and winter breaks through our numerous camping and hiking trips in North Carolina and Tennessee. I would like to thank my family for providing considerable financial and emotional support throughout my time in graduate school. I hope that the finished product more than satisfies their questions about the subject of my dissertation and its date of completion. I think especially of my parents, Roland and Marjorie Menestres; my grandparents, Arnold and Faith Shertz; and my uncle and aunt, Robert and Connie Shertz. Morgan Jackson and Gary Pearce discussed politics with me, while former Governor James B. Hunt took time from his busy schedule to discuss his political career and North v Carolina politics. I am grateful to each of these gentlemen for talking with me and sharing their insights. Sonia Hamczyk provided abundant emotional support as I finished my dissertation in North Carolina, while Barry and Otis often chimed in with their verbal criticisms, most of which involved their desire to be fed and spoiled. Heather Murray has not read any of this dissertation, but she provided support and friendship throughout my graduate school career. Likewise, Susan McClure, Attie Mack, and Dusty Mack have never read one word of my work, but they provided much encouragement throughout my time in graduate school. Although the process of writing a dissertation is often a solitary experience, researching is not. Much thanks to the many helpful archivists at the North Carolina State Archives in Raleigh, especially Earl Ijames, for introducing me to the high calorie, high cholesterol, highly- caffeinated meals at the Legislative building cafeteria. In addition to Earl Ijames, those who assisted me on a daily basis included Gwen Mays, Doug Brown, Ron Vestal, and Larry Odzak. Likewise, the archivists at the North Carolina Collection and the Southern Historical Collection located at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill provided friendly assistance during the course of my research. For many years, the North Carolina Collection has made available to researchers bound volumes of news clippings on North Carolina-related topics. This resource saved me (and many other researchers) from countless weeks of microfilm research, not to mention the motion sickness and boredom that often accompanies this thankless task. The comforts of the North Carolina Collection makes researching there a fun and enjoyable experience. vi CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................ ii DEDICATION ........................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................................................... iv INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................1 1. “There are 300,000 Republicans in North Carolina”: The Democratic South through the Second World War, 1900-1945 ...............................17 2. Progressivism, Conservatism, and the Politics of Race in the Postwar South: Kerr Scott to Luther Hodges, 1945-1960 ...................................62 3. The Decline of Democratic Party Supremacy in North Carolina Politics, 1960-1968 ..............................................................................132 4. “I didn’t leave the Democratic Party, it left me”: The 1968 Election and the Remaking of North Carolina Politics .....................................182 5. Jesse Helms, Jim Hunt, and the Development of Two-Party Politics, 1972-1984 ............................................................................................211 6. “Where do you stand, Jim?”: The 1984 U.S. Senate Race and Two-Party Politics in North Carolina ..................................................270 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................321 BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................328 vii INTRODUCTION In 1984, the two most powerful political leaders in North Carolina faced each other in the state’s most important election in decades. Democrat Jim Hunt, the popular two-term governor, sought to unseat incumbent Republican Senator Jesse Helms, himself a popular two-term veteran of the United States Senate. This campaign marked the first time that the most prominent leaders of each political party faced each other in the state’s new two-party system. The ensuing campaign was a battle of epic proportions, a clash of political titans, which had all of the makings of a legendary duel in the modern South. If any observers questioned the existence of viable two-party politics in North Carolina prior to 1984, its existence was manifest in the aftermath of the Helms-Hunt donnybrook. The Helms-Hunt Senate race was just one campaign, but it was a pivotal event in the development of two-party politics in North Carolina. This campaign, set against the backdrop of a landmark presidential