V. Khanna M. Saran the Ramayana Kakawin; a Product of Sanskrit Scholarship and Independent Literary Genius

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V. Khanna M. Saran The Ramayana kakawin; A product of Sanskrit scholarship and independent literary genius

In: Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 149 (1993), no: 2, Leiden, 226-249

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THE RAMAYANA KAKAWIN: A PRODUCT OF SANSKRIT SCHOLARSHIP AND INDEPENDENT LITERARY GENIUS

The Old Javanese Ramayana kakawin (RK), written in Central Java a thousand or so years ago, is not only one of the earliest full-length Ramayanas written beyond the shores of India, but perhaps the most important and impressive overseas re-telling of the Rama tale. The RK has been the subject of intensive and appreciative study by several scholars: Kern, Juynboll, Poerbatjaraka, Aichele, Sarkar, Bulcke, Hooykaas, Zoetmulder, Uhlenbeck, Robson and Santoso, to mention the most eminent among them. This article does not seek to deal with all the problems which they have addressed; it merely attempts to offer some new ideas concerning three related themes, namely: (1) the relationship between the RK and its primary source, the Sanskrit kdvya by Bhauj called Ravana-vadha (The Slaying of Ravana), better known as the Bhajjikavya (BhK); (2) the Old Javanese poet's1 familiarity with and skilful use of some other Sanskrit classics; and (3) the RK as an independent literary work.2

1 We cannot say with certainty whether the author of the Ramayana kakawin was a male or a female. We use the noun 'poet' and pronoun 'he' throughout this article purely as a conventional device. 2 While recognizing that there are still many unresolved issues relating to the problems of interpolation/reshaping/interpretation of the text, for the purposes of this article we use the text and translation of the Ramayana kakawin prepared by Soewito Santoso. Wherever we refer to a translation other than Santoso's, this is specifically mentioned. To the extent that any passage commented upon by us turns out to be the work not of the original poet but by some later hand, our comments about Sanskrit scholarship and/or poetic skill naturally apply to

VINOD KHANNA is currently an Ambassador-in-Residence affiliated with the University of Delhi. A graduate from Bombay, Oxford and Delhi Universities, his interests include international relations and the role of the Ramayana in Indonesian cultural history. MALINI SARAN is an independent researcher specialized in art history and Indonesian art and culture who graduated from Loreto College, Darjeeling. Both authors have published on their respective subjects in leading Indian journals and newspapers and are currently engaged in jointly writing a book on the role of the Ramayana in ancient Indonesia. The address at which they may be reached is CII/86 Bapa Nagar, New Delhi 110003, India.

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1. THE RAMAYANA KAKAWIN AND THE BHATTTKA VYA

Since a suggestion by H.B. Sarkar in 1934, and after that in the successive works of Manmohan Ghosh, Bulcke and Hooykaas, it has been established that the RK had an Indian prototype, and that this was not the Valmiki Ramayana(VR) but the BhK (Zoetmulder 1974:226-228). On the basis of a comparison between the RK and the BhK, Hooykaas advanced the thesis that after following the BhK more or less closely for the first two-third part or so of his work, the author of the kakawin completely abandoned his Indian prototype, apparently borrowing 'from the flotsam and jetsam of general knowledge concerning the Ramayana that was current in those days in South-east Asia' (Hooykaas 1955:34). Elsewhere, Hooykaas argues that 'It is only the first 60% or so of the OJR [Old Javanese Ramayana] that runs parallel with the Bhk; from then onward the same epic material is dealt with, but the differences become so considerable that comparison has no longer the force of proof: the poet of the OJR went his own way' (Hooykaas 1958b: 5-6). This view of Hooykaas' has been accepted, with occasional variations, by a large number of scholars, including Zoetmulder, Sarkar, and Robson. Thus Zoetmulder says, '... the close correspondence of the kakawin with the kawya exists only in the first part of the former. After sarga 13 it becomes less and less, and from sarga 17 onward it has vanished altogether' (Zoetmulder 1974:229). According to Sarkar, "The text was based, up to the middle of the sixteenth canto, on the Sanskrit Bhattikavya, but the source of the remaining portion has not been yet determined' (Sarkar 1985:313). Robson, in a paper presented at a conference in Lucknow in India in 1986, asserted, 'A comparison between the OJR and BhK shows, however, that by no means the whole of the former is based on the latter; in fact, at the most two thirds can be said to be taken from the BhK, while the last one third is entirely independent. We do not know what could have motivated the poet to abandon his model at this point; actually the transition is gradual, [the correspondence] becoming less after sarga 13, and disappearing entirely from sarga 17 (up to the end in sarga 26).'

Need for revision of the Hooykaas thesis We feel that the Hooykaas thesis is in need of some revision. The path for such a revision was paved by Soewito Santoso when he suggested that the RK adheres to the BhK right down to the end (Santoso 1980a:33-38).

whoever was the author of that passage. For the Valmiki Rama"yaria, all references are to the three-volume translation by H.P. Shastri, since a complete English translation of the Critical Edition is not yet available. For the Bhatti- kavya we use the text edited and translated by Karandikar and Karandikar (see Bibliography for publication details).

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However, he did not substantiate his view with sufficient examples.3 Though he was right in challenging Hooykaas' thesis, the relationship between the two texts is more complex than assumed by him. In sargas 17 and 18, the Old Javanese author of the RK does abandon the BhK, although, as we shall see, he does not turn to any 'flotsam and jetsam' but to the original epic, the Valmlki Ramayana. Similarly there is very little correspondence between sargas 25 and 26 of the kakawin and the Sanskrit kdvya. However, a careful comparison of the two works shows that, after having temporarily moved away from his Indian prototype in sargas 17 and 18, the Old Javanese poet does return gradually to it in sarga 19 and, basically, remains with it up to sarga 23, and part of sarga 24 as well. What is the nature of the evidence we need to present to establish that the Old Javanese poet did in fact return to the BhK in sargas 19-24? Hooykaas, and others who follow him, recognize that even in those earlier parts of the kakawin for which they acknowledge a correspondence with the Sanskrit kavya, the Old Javanese poet was not mechanically translating his prototype. 'It certainly was not his intention to give a translation of the Sanskrit text. Right from the beginning he allowed himself a certain amount of liberty to depart from his model, even in those parts that follow the Sanskrit original most closely' (Zoetmulder 1974:229). This being so, we do not need to look for a stanza-by-stanza identity with the BhK as far as sargas 19-24 of the RK are concerned; it would be sufficient for us to demonstrate clear and considerable parallels between these sargas of the RK and corresponding passages of the BhK (with the Old Javanese poet occasionally allowing himself 'a certain amount of liberty to depart from his model') for our argument to have 'the force of proof. A Hooykaas-style comparison of sarga 19 of the RK and the relevant passages of the BhK, for instance, demonstrates a clear concordance, as the following table shows.

Episode BhK RK sarga 14 sarga 19

Ravana's army prepares for battle 2-11 2-18 Demons bid goodbye to their families 12 19-32 Deployment of Ravana's generals 15-16 33-35

3 Santoso gives the following examples of correspondence in support of his rejection of the Hooykaas view: (i) RK sarga 22, 41-42 = BhK sarga 15, 19-20; (ii) RK sarga 24, 13 = BhK sarga 17, 97; (iii) RK sarga 24, 134-135 = BhK sarga 20, 6-8; (iv) RK sarga 24, 216 = BhK sarga 22, 13; and (v) RK sarga 26, 19 = BhK sarga 22, 29. He offers no examples from sargas 17-21, 23 or 25, only a passage each from sargas 22 and 26, and three passages from sarga 24.

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Rama makes preparations: gives Laksmana a glance 17-18 39 Monkeys get ready 19 40-42 Strange omens observed by Rama 20-21 45-46 Ravarja hears of arrival of enemy 22 60 The two armies clash 23-30 71-131

A similar comparison of sargas 20-23 and parts of sarga 24 of the kakawin with the relevant passages of the Sanskrit kavya yields evidence of the same level of continuing concordance. BhatU is broadly following Valrmki in his description of the conflict between the two forces, and one cannot rule out the possibility that the Old Javanese poet could have been referring to some other Valmiki-based texts, though every now and then a revealing clue clearly suggests that the BhK was certainly one of the texts before him. This can be shown by citing examples from each of the relevant sargas.

(i) Sarga 19 Whether it is the scene of the demons bidding goodbye to their families, or the phrase about Rama casting a glance at his brother at exactly the same point in the two texts, or the description of the curious omens seen by Rama - all these little touches, which we observed in the comparative exercise above, clearly indicate that in sarga 19 the Old Javanese poet has returned to the BhK.

(ii) Sarga 20 As the battle unfolds and opposing warriors engage in single combat, we are struck by the extraordinary identity of the pairs of contestants in the two texts: the demon Prajarigha versus the monkey hero Sampati, Pratapana versus Nala (there is a revealing mix-up about the name Pratapana which we will clarify below), Jambumali versus Hanaman, Mitraghna versus Vibhisana, Praghasa versus Sugnva, Bajramusji versus Mainada, Nikumbha versus Nlla, Virupaksa versus Laksmana, ASaniprabha versus Dvivida (Drawida in the RK), and Indrajit versus Angada. These protagonists already appear in the VR, but in a somewhat different order. The fact that the RK poet is basing himself on the BhK is obvious from the sequence of the battles being identical to those in the BhK (BhK sarga 14, 31-36; RK sarga 20, 7-35). A careful textual scrutiny reveals another interesting point which establishes, more or less conclusively, that the RK poet was following the BhK and no other model at this point in sarga 20. He refers here to Nala's adversaries as 'Sphutadaksj' and 'Pratapanaksi' (sarga 20, 15-18), not Pratapana, which is the name we find in the VR and the BhK. We have here one of the rare instances of oversight, where the RK poet, who is otherwise an accomplished Sanskritist, perhaps misread the BhK. The relevant phrase

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in the BhK is 'sphuratpratapanaksinV (sarga 14, 32), which actually means 'the gleaming eyes of Pratapana'. The author of the kakawin apparently derived his two names from this single Sanskrit phrase. This error is trivial but telling; we have cited it to reinforce our argument that RK, in its sarga 20, is very much with BhK.

(Hi) Sarga 21 The great demon warrior Indrajit, the son of Ravana, renders Rama and Laksmana unconscious with the help of a deadly serpent missile. To destroy her morale, Ravana deludes Slta into believing that the two bodies are lifeless. In the RK, Slta laments: 'yan bajra sdksdt pwa kunari hatiriku, matari nya tan syah ri pgjahta ndtha' (sarga 21, v.19, line 2) ('Perhaps my heart is made of adamant that it does not break at your death').4 Exactly the same episode occurs in BhK. That the RK's source here was neither the VR nor any 'flotsam or jetsam' becomes obvious on examining the lament of Slta in BhK. Confronted with the horrifying sight of Rama's apparently lifeless body, the hapless Sita asks, 'Lauhbandhair-babandhe nu, vajrena kirri vinirmame, I mano me, na vind Rdmdd-yat puspho\a sahasradhd" (sarga 14, 56) ('Is my heart caged in iron fetters or is it fashioned out of adamant that it does not burst into a thousand pieces without Rama?'). It would be carrying scepticism too far to assume that, by some extraordinary coincidence, the Old Javanese poet decided on his own to use exactly the same va/ra-related simile at precisely the same point as BhK.

(iv) Sargas 22 and 23 We list below some of the passages in these sargas where there is clearly discernible correspondence between the two works.

Episode RK BhK sarga 22 sarga 15 Turbulence when Kumbhakarna (K) sets out for the battlefield 44 23 Shower of blood among the ill omens 48 26 Vibhisana warns Rama about K's prowess 65-66 39-40 sarga 23 Laksmana destroys K's crown and armour 2 64 Description of K's^all 8 69 The slaying of Ravana*sTbur sons (except for Indrajit) 10-19 74-94 sarga 17

* Santoso has translated bajra as 'steel'. 'Adamant' would be a more accurate translation.

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Laksmana-Indrajit battle commences: former uses the Varuna missile 61-62 43 Indrajit discharges the Asura missile 63 44-45

Laksmarja kills Indrajit with Indra-Rudra missile 66 46 Dust raised by clash of armies causes confusion between friend and foe 78 60-61

Admittedly the BhK itself broadly follows the VR but, being a much briefer work than the epic, highlights only certain points in the battles. The RK chooses to deal with precisely these same points. Furthermore, every now and then, when Bhatfi adds a little flourish of his own, the author of the RK follows suit, as in the detail of the confusion caused by the dust.

(v) Sarga 24 This sarga presents a more complex picture. There is clear agreement between the first thirty or so stanzas of sarga 24 of the kakawin and the last 25 or so verses of sarga 17 of its Indian model, covering the final stages of the Rama-Ravana duel. A series of details confirm that the Old Javanese poet continued to have the BhK before him. Thus, in the BhK, immediately after the episode of the arrival of Indra's chariot and charioteer to assist Rama, the poet speaks of Ravana discharging the 'PaSupata' missile at Rama {sarga 17, 97-98), whereas we do not find any reference to the Pasupata in the VR at this stage. The same sequence of events as in the BhK is found in the RK {sarga 24,14-15).5 Further along in sarga 24 the RK poet does appear to allow himself more or less total freedom from BhK. In Vibhisana's lament at Ravana's death {sarga 24, 32-42) and in Rama's famous discourse on kingship {sarga 24, 47-86) there is no correspondence with the BhK at all. In the latter passage, the Old Javanese poet draws upon another Indian classic, the Manusmrti, a source we shall elaborate on later. We have not been able to trace any Indian source for the RK's mode of description of the joy and celebration in Lanka following the coronation of Vibhls.ana {sarga 24, 91-126), however. Nevertheless, the RK poet appears to be returning to the BhK for the few verses in which Hanuman goes to inform Slta of Rama's triumph.

Episode RK BhK sargalA sarga 20 Hanuman hails Slta 128 1

5 Except that here, too, the OJ poet seems to have been misled by the complicated structure of Bhatti's verse into believing that it was Rama who discharged the 'PaSupata'.

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Hanflman offers to kill the demonesses who have tormented Slta 129-130 2-3 Compassionate Slta dissuades Hanuman 131-133 4-6 Slta's message to Rama via Hanuman 134 7 Slta appeals to (i) the Earth 157 31 (ii) the Waters 158 30 (iii) the Light/Sun 159 32 (iv) the Wind 160 29 (v) the Sky 161 33

Trijata's spirited intervention, following Slta's plea (sarga 24, 169-186), has no counterpart in either BhK or VR. The rest of sarga 24 does appear once again to be based on BhK, but with a declining degree of correspondence. In sarga 25 and 26, the RK poet makes a categorical departure from his Indian prototype. These two sarga have been recognized by scholars as being quite different from the rest of the kakawin, so much so that Zoetmulder is inclined to assume a different authorship (Zoetmulder 1974:230). Nonetheless, in one very important respect, the Old Javanese poet does follow Bhatti at the end: both works conclude with the triumphant return to Ayodhya of Rama, happily re-united with his wife Slta. Though Bhatfi narrates the story of Rama basically along Valmikian lines, he drops the Uttarakdnda altogether; and so does the kakawin. This is not surprising. Many other well-known ancient Indian poets, even though otherwise following Valmiki, were not particularly attracted to this kdnda. This, the final book of the the Sanskrit epic as it has come down to us, was widely regarded as a later accretion6 and as being of not quite the same quality as the remainder of the epic. It includes the episode of the faithful Slta's exile by her husband Rama on the basis of totally false rumours about her chastity, and her final entry into the lap of Earth, her mother. Sarkar explains the absence of the Uttarakdnda in both the BhK and RK in terms of Bhamaha's dictum as laid down in his Kdvyalarikdra, that a mahdkdvya should deal with 'the good fortune of the hero' (Sarkar 1980:220). This is consistent with Hooykaas' finding regarding the eagerness of the Old Javanese poet to meet the criteria for an ideal mahdkdvya laid down by Indian theoreticians (Hooykaas 1958b). Robson and Aichele explain the absence of the Uttarakanda in Bhk differently. They see RK as an allegorical work in praise of its royal patron, Rakai Pikatan, suggesting that the poet deliberately gave his kakawin a happy ending because the efficacy of the work depends on 'the magical identity of the main character in the poem with the (royal) sponsor, and the

' Later though it was than the other krin4as, the Uttarakdncfa was still written several centuries before the Bhaftikavya. So its non-inclusion by Bha((i was deliberate.

Downloaded from Brill.com09/30/2021 07:50:05PM via free access The Rdmdyana Kakawin 233 work would only have a desirable effect if it succeeds in carrying the story to a happy conclusion' (Robson 1980:16). It is our view that the RK has a happy ending because it is faithful here to its prototype, the BhK. If the Old Javanese poet did indeed have the allegorical purpose attributed to him by Robson and Aichele, then, of course, the happy ending of the BhK would have been an additional attraction. Our disagreements with Hooykaas notwithstanding, there is not the slightest doubt that his comparisons of the RK and the BhK are invaluable to any student of the subject. Thus he demolishes the view of scholars like Kern, Juynboll and Poerbatjaraka, that the erotic passages in the RK are later interpolations, by showing how some of these stanzas are based quite unmistakably on corresponding passages in the BhK (Hooykaas 1955:35). He further offers a useful analysis of the manner in which the Old Javanese kakawin deals with certain episodes at greater length. His examination of 30 such passages shows 'the OJR's liking for good narration, dramatic tension, artha-kama-dharma-moksa, and its dislike for /-d/yosa-practices (perhaps the occasion to demonstrate blbhatsa) - all of these subjects recommended by the Indian theorists' (Hooykaas 1958b:26-30). It is somewhat mystifying that Hooykaas did not look at any examples beyond sarga 15.

2. THE RAMAYANA KAKAWIN AND OTHER SANSKRIT CLASSICS

A fascinating fact which emerges from a study of the RK is how well- acquainted the ancient Javanese poet was with a wide range of other Sanskrit classics. It would be curious if the kakawin poet's knowledge of the Ramayana in particular, and of Sanskrit literature in genera!, had been restricted to the abstruse BhK.

The Ramayana kakawin and the ValmTki Rama~yai)a Though the RK uses the BhK and not the VR as its main source, a close comparison of the three works reveals that the Old Javanese poet was quite familiar with the original epic as well. It is not as if he were merely aware of the broad outline of the story as narrated in the VR; he seems to have had access to a copy of the Sanskrit epic, to which he refers whenever he finds BhK too cryptic.7 This is not to suggest that, whenever the author of RK wished to go beyond the BhK, he invariably relied on the VR. In some cases, as we shall see later, he turned to other Sanskrit classics; more often he used his own poetic imagination. However, we feel that whenever an episode occurs in the kakawin which does not feature in the BhK, it is worth first checking whether the Old Javanese poet could have been drawing on the mother epic as his source.

7 We cannot tell to which recension of the Valmiki Ramayana he had access, nor can we assume that he had a good complete manuscript.

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Let us now examine some of the more important cases where we feel the author of the RK turned to the VR for inspiration.

(a) Rama's discourse to Bharata An important 'borrowing' from the VR occurs in sarga 3 of the RK, Rama's well-known discourse to Bharata, which does not figure in BhK. According to the sequence of events, Bharata is away when his mother, by intrigue, ensures the exile of Rama and the nomination instead of her own son as yuvaraja, prince regent, which leads to the death of the heart-broken DaSaratha. On his return, Bharata is horrified to learn of his mother's machinations. He immediately sets out to persuade Rama to return and take over the throne. In Valmiki's epic, Rama, seeing Bharata approach and unaware of his father's death, believes that his younger brother has already assumed the duties of a yuvaraja and proceeds to ask him a series of questions about the welfare of the realm. These queries are in fact rhetorical and provide an opportunity for Rama to explain how an ideal king should exercise his power and discharge his responsibilities to his people (Shastri 1962:1, 393-398). In the RK, Rama delivers his exposition on statesmanship and statecraft to Bharata after turning down the latter's request to return to Ayodhya, while urging his younger brother to assume the reins of government (sarga 3,53- 86). This difference in sequence is unimportant; the relevant point is the nature of Rama's discourse in the two texts. There is a strong resemblance in the content of Rama's advice to Bharata as it appears in the VR and in the Old Javanese kakawin respectively. In both we see the same balanced combination of high moral concerns, down- to-earth Realpolitik, and sensible attention to the ruler's own physical needs - a combination inherent in a philosophy which calls for setting dharma, artha and kdma, in the proper order and proportion, as the goals of life. Both texts emphasize the importance of honouring the brahmins (as the repositories of learning), exercising care in the appointment of counsellors, and keeping secrets. One of the primary obligations of a king is to ensure the welfare of his people. In both texts, Rama points out that the loyalty of subjects is secured not by using force, but by winning their affection. However, neither in the VR nor in the RK is Rama an unrealistic idealist. In both he recognizes that there are some enemies whom the ruler must crush ruthlessly. The economic background of the polities in both is agricultural, and Rama reminds the ruler in each case that the prosperity of the realm is critically dependent on the peasants. Rama's exposition to Bharata in the RK is not a carbon copy of the corresponding passage in the VR. The RK poet could also have had other sources at his disposal. Furthermore, he may have wished to adapt the discourse to some extent to the situation in Java in his time. But the degree of similarity with the VR is sufficient to strongly suggest that the Sanskrit epic was one of the main reference works used by the kakawin poet here.

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(b) Ramayana kakawin sargas 17 and 18 and the Valmlki Ramayana It is true that there is no correspondence between sarga 17 and 18 of the kakawin and the BhK. Here the Old Javanese poet has turned to Valmlki's epic for the elaboration of certain important events which receive only a cursory mention in the BhK.

Sarga 17: Hooykaas has noted the relationship with the VR with respect to the episode in which Ravana makes a desperate bid to win Slta's affections by the stratagem of showing her the imitation head of Rama. He rightly points out that the kakawin 'draws much greater profit from the strong human tension in this dramatic (and near tragic) situation ..." (Hooykaas 1958b:55).8

Sarga 18: Hooykaas does not, however, seem to have realized that in sarga 18 as well the Old Javanese poet derived his inspiration to a considerable extent directly from Valmlki's epic. In this part of the kakawin, Ravana sends his spies, Suka and Sarana, to collect military intelligence, with specific instructions to count the prominent among the monkey host. They disguise themselves as monkeys but are identified by Vibhlsana. Rama - whom today we would hail as an adept in the art of psychological warfare - turns down the advice of his counsellors to put the spies to death. Instead, he treats them courteously and allows them to freely assess his formidable military capability. Convinced of Rama's virtue and might, they return to persuade Ravana to release Slta and make peace with Rama, but only succeed in driving him into a paroxysm of anger. This exercise in espionage that backfires on Ravana takes up no more than a mere phrase in BhK, where even the names of the spies are not mentioned (sarga 14,1). Freeing himself of Bha^i's pedagogic intent, the author of RK instead gives us a detailed paraphrase of the episode from Valmlki's epic. In both the yR and the RK: (i) Ravana sends two spies, Suka and Sarana, into Rama's camp; (ii) the spies disguise themselves as monkeys; (iii) but they are discovered by Vibhlsana (iv) the wise and compassionate Rama spares their lives and lets them return to Lanka to inform their master about the invincibility of his adversary; and (v) Suka and Sarana advise Ravana to make peace and return Slta, but only succeed in infuriating their master. (Shastri 1976:111,60-72.) The likelihood that our poet was drawing for his inspiration on the VR becomes greater when one notes that Ravana's spies, in listing the leading figures of the monkey army in the RK, mention not only well-known

8 According to Bulcke, the Old Javanese poet was here following an ancient Sanskrit play, Abhiseka-Nafaka (Bulcke 1962:204-205). If this is so, it would only reinforce our argument about the poet's wide-ranging Sanskrit scholarship.

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figures like Hanuman and Artgada, but also such lesser-known generals as Gawaya, Gawaksa, Sarabha, Kurnuda, Dhumra and Satabali, all of whom figure in the account rendered by Suka and Sarana in the VR. The resemblance which sarga 18 of the RK bears to the VR does not end with the Suka-Sarana espionage attempt. All students of the VR will know of the ambassadorial exercise undertaken by Artgada at the behest of Rama to deliver an ultimatum to Ravana to return Sita and beg for mercy or be destroyed in battle. Bhatti skips this episode, but the Old Javanese poet, once again going beyond his immediate prototype, 'borrowed' the episode from the Valmikian epic. In this epic, the furious Ravana is merely quoted as ordering that Artgada be put to death (but the mighty monkey hero escapes) (Shastri 1976:111, 96-102). The RK author, on the other hand, skilfully exploits the dramatic possibilities offered by the fact that Artgada is the son of Vali, killed by Rama under somewhat dubious circumstances. In the kakawin, Ravana recalls this embarrassing fact when he denounces Artgada and his royal master {sarga 18,46).

(c) Rdmdyana kakawin sargas 79-24 and the VR We have already noted the correspondence, in varying degrees, between the RK and the BhK from sarga 19 to sarga 24 of the former. We further suggest that the poet, while composing these sargas, had both the BhK and the VR with him. Every now and then, in his depiction of the war between the armies of Rama and Ravana, he recorded a detail from the VR which BhK had passed over. In doing so, he adapted Valmikian imagery freely to his own purpose. Thus the RK, unlike the BhK, includes Yama and Varuna in the list of gods vanquished by Kumbhakarna in his earlier exploits (sarga 22, 66). In the VR, Kumbhakarna himself mentions these two among the deities he is capable of destroying (Shastri 1962:111, 169). Proceeding further in sarga 22, to verse 78, we find the RK poet giving a vivid description of Kumbhakarna's lance, made of iron with gold bands. And this is exactly how VR describes it (Shastri 1962:111, 173). A little further on, in verse 82, Hanuman breaks this lance on his knee, which is precisely what the intrepid monkey warrior does in the Sanskrit epic! (Shastri 1976:111, 181.) Other examples of correspondence between the RK and the VR could be cited. While it is possible that the Old Javanese poet had access to some other version(s) of the Rama tale, the parallels with the VR are too striking to be ignored. It appears that the kakawin poet's use of both the BhK and the VR is consistent with the structure of his'own work.

The R3ma~yan.a kakawin and the Bhagavadgltd It is highly probable that in composing the eulogy which the sages sing in honour of Rama in sarga 21, the Javanese poet modelled himself not on any Indian Ramayana but on a passage in Chapter X of the Bhagavadglta, the

Downloaded from Brill.com09/30/2021 07:50:05PM via free access The Rdmdyana Kakawin 237 most famous of the religio-philosophical works of ancient India.9 In the Bhagavadglta, Krsna, an incarnation of Visnu, assumes a human form in order to destroy evil in the age of the other great Indian epic, the Mahabharata. In response to a plea by his friend and disciple, the Pandava hero Arjuna, Krsna explains his true nature. In doing so, he draws on the full range of Hindu mythology to point out the divine essence immanent in all the Universe, representing the best and the noblest In the kakawin, Rama, paralysed by Indrajit's snake-arrow, is completely demoralized and ready to give up the fight, indeed, to abandon life itself. At this stage a group of sages appears in the sky to remind Rama that he is none other than the god Visnu himself, and in the process use epithets which are clearly drawn from the Bhagavadglta. The RK poet does not give us simply a direct translation, but re-arranges the material to suit his poetic needs - changing the sequence, adding, deleting - yet remaining unmistakably loyal to his source. Thus, for instance, in the RK the sages addressing Rama declare: 'Rin sumSno kabeh kila ta silryya nitya dumilah, I rin [n] aji sdma veda kita rin hyari Indra ta kita, I rin wate'k indriya pwa ya manah awakta ya Igwih, I rudra kabeh kitekana ta Sahkardgaway inak' (sarga XXI, 130) ('Amongst the luminaries you are the ever luminous sun, amongst the scriptures you are the Sama- Veda, amongst the deities you are Indra, amongst the organs of sense you are the super-mind, amongst all the rudras you are the beneficent Sankara'). Turning now to the corresponding phrases in the various verses of Chapter X of the Glta, we find Krsna describing himself in these terms: '... jyolifdm ravir anifumdn' (verse 21, line 2) ('... among the luminaries [I am] the radiant sun'); 'Veddndm sdmavedo'smi I devdndm asmi Vdsavah I indriydndni manat ca'smi ..." (verse 22, lines 1-3) ('Of the Vedas I am the Samaveda; of the gods I am Indra; of the organs of sense I am the mind ...')10; 'Rudrdndrri Sarikaraf cd'smi ...' (verse 23, line 1) ('Of the Rudras I am Samkara ...')• The marked identity of the superlatives used in the RK and the Bhagavadglta respectively to hail Rama and Krsna continues as we proceed. To cite a few additional examples:

Epithet Ramayana kakawin Bhagavadglta sarga 21 Chapter X Meru v. 131 v.23 Vainateya (Garuda) v. 132 v. 30 Ananta v. 133 v. 29 Jahnavi (Ganga) v. 133 v. 31 Margaslrsa v. 134 v. 35

9 Hooykaas points out that this possibility was noted by Aichele on the basis of a suggestion by Poerbatjaraka (Hooykaas 1958b:66). 10 The Old Javanese poet is aware that Vasava is one of Indra's many names.

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Kapila V. 138 V. 26 Ucchaisravas V. 140 V. 27 Gayatn V. 141 V. 35

The author of the RK appears to be quite at home in the mythological background of the epithets used by Krsna in the Bhagavadgita. Thus Krsna calls himself the 'Skanda' among the military generals (v. 24). The sages in the RK, on the other hand, praise 'Rama' as the 'Kumara' among the army commanders (v. 140). The RK poet is obviously aware that Skanda and Kumara are synonyms, both denoting Kartikeya, who is the son of Siva and the god of war, or the Mars of Indian mythology. The use by the RK of the Skanda metaphor has another interesting implication. It is well-known that a paraphrase of the Glta occurs in the Old Javanese Bhismaparwa. However, the translation of the Old Javanese Bhagavadgita given by Gonda indicates that one of the lines which the parwa author dropped in his paraphrase of the Sanskrit original is the Skanda metaphor (Gonda 1935:36-82). This would suggest that even if the RK author had the Bhagavadgita passage available to him in an Old Javanese version of the Bhismaparwa of the Mahabharata, he may have been personally acquainted with the original Sanskrit passage. Of course one cannot assert this with any absolute certainty, for the poet may have had before him some other Old Javanese translation. There are other passages in the RK which echo the Bhagavadgita. However, many of the concepts which figure in both texts - like the three gunas, the saltwa, the rajas and the tamas - had become so common in Hindu religio-philosophic texts that their presence in the RK would not be conclusive proof of the author's direct familiarity with the Bhagavadgita. The comparison of the eulogy of Rama by the heavenly sages in the RK with Chapter X of the Bhagavadgita, however, demonstrates more or less conclusively that the Old Javanese poet was familiar with at least some parts of the Bhagavadgita. The liberal use of Hindu philosophical concepts and mythological figures by the author of the RK reflects the intellectual and religious enviroment in which he wrote. Clearly, at least the more literate members of the ruling class at the Central Javanese court and their priestly mentors were broadly familiar with the ideas and values which inform the Old Javanese Ramayana kakawin.

The Ram^yana kakawin and Kslida\sa's Meghadflta There is at least one passage in the RK which strongly suggests that its learned author's reading extended to some of the works of the famous Sanskrit playwright and poet Kalidasa. Here Rama, cruelly separated from his beloved wife Sita, laments:

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'My memory of your sweet look is kindled by the sight of a deer, the elephant reminds me of your elegance, the moon of your brilliant face. Ah! I am possessed by your beauty. The water of the deep river is flowing, its ripples are like your eyebrows moving. Shining are the feathers of the dancing peacock. For sure, I say, it is your brilliant hair-knot' (sarga 7,24-25).

The Old Javanese poet apparently derived his inspiration for this passage from one of the verses of the message which the exiled Yaksa sends to his beloved in Kalidasa's lyrical masterpiece, Meghaduta, which says:

'In the syama vines I see your body, your glance in the gazelle's startled eye, the cool radiance of your face in the moon, your tresses in the peacock's luxuriant train, your eyebrow's graceful curve in the stream's small waves; but alas! O cruel one, I see not your whole likeness anywhere in any one thing' (verse 103) (Rajan 1989:162).

We are struck by the fact that Rama and Yaksa are both reminded of the same four physical features of their beloved by the same four natural phenomena.11 Even if these may have been fairly standard similes by the time the RK was written, it would really be far too much of a coincidence for the Old Javanese poet to have brought together in one single passage precisely the four which Kalidasa used in one verse. Students of Sanskrit literature have always regarded Kalidasa as unequalled in the use of the upama (simile). It is almost as if the learned Old Javanese poet deliberately chose to reproduce these similes from the Meghaduta as a tribute to the great master.12

" (i) A deer's gaze = the beloved's glance; (ii) the moon = her face; (iii) a peacock's feathers = her hair; and (iv) water ripples = her eyebrows. 12 The Old Javanese poet here borrowed the Sanskrit poet's similes but not his language. We have therefore not burdened this article with a reproduction of the original Old Javanese and Sanskrit versions of the corresponding verses. It may be noted that the numbering of the verses varies in various editions of the Meghaduta. Rajan explains that she used the critical edition with Bharata Mallika's commentary produced by J.B. Chaudhuri (Rajan 1989:16-17). Most other editions divide the poem into the Purva-Megha and the Uttara-Megha, with the verse under consideration occurring in the latter. In the text with the commentary of Mallinatha as edited by Kale it is indicated as verse 44 in the Uttara-Megha part of the MeghadQta.

Downloaded from Brill.com09/30/2021 07:50:05PM via free access 240 Vinod Khanna and Malini Saran The Ramayana kakawin and the Manusmr.ti In the VR, Rama offers no special advice to Vibhlsana after his coronation as ruler of Lanka. BhK's Rama does make a few suggestions of a rather general kind. The RK's Rama, on the other hand, delivers an extensive lecture on the status and role of a king. This passage, known as the as(a- brata, is even more famous than that containing Rama's advice to Bharata. While the concept of the divine character of the king is fairly widespread in Indian literature, the Old Javanese poet appears to have turned to the Manusmrti, one of the most influential texts of ancient India, for the specific idea of eight divinities who are embodied in the king and should be his role-models.

Santoso renders ihe central ten stanzas of the asfa-brata passage in sarga 24 of the RK as follows (Santoso 1980b):

'51. Besides he [the king] is supposed to be respected, because deities are in him. There are eight deities in the body of a king, which gives him power without equal. 52. These eight gods are Indra, Yama, SQryya, Candra, Anila, Kuw6ra, Barurja and Agni. They are embodied in the king. That is why he should have cherished the asfabrata (the eightfold meritorious acts). 53. This is the meritorious act of Indra which you should follow: He gives rain to the satisfaction of the world. You should take Indra as an example and carry out his acts. Generosity is your rain overflowing the world. 54. The meritorious act of Yama is "punishing the evil-doers". He punishes the thieves after they are dead. You should also punish the wrong-doers. Whoever gives trouble to the world should be eliminated. 55. The Sun-god (Rawi = Suryya) always absorbs the water, slowly not forcefully. If you have to take [from the people] to obtain [something], you should do it the way the sun does, in a gentle way. 56. The meritorious deed of god SaSl (Candra = Moon) is to make the world happy. Your conduct should show kindness and tenderness. Your smile should be sweet like nectar, honour your elders and wise people and be kind to them. 57. You should act like Hanin (Anila = Wind) when you are investigating the conduct and behaviour of other people. Your investigation should be carried out in a proper and unobtrusive way. That is the excellent and subtle meritorious act of Bayu. 58. Enjoy the pleasures and luxuries of life but do not overdo eating, drinking, dressing, wearing ornaments and jewellery. That is the meritorious act of Dhanada which should be taken as an example. 59. God Baruna holds an extremely poisonous weapon, the snake-arrow which can tie up [people]. You should take as an example the merit of

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this snake-arrow, that is you should give no freedom to the wicked people. 60. The meritorious act of Bahni (Agni = fire) is that he always burns up the opposition. Your aversion to the enemy is the fire, whoever you attack, he must be crushed. That is what you call the meritorious act of Agni.'13

Let us now compare this with the relevant passages in the Manusmrti. In Chapter 5, it states: '[96] A king has a body made of the eight Guardians of the World: Soma (the Moon), Fire, the Sun, Wind, Indra, the Lords of Wealth and Water (Kubera and Varuna), and Yama.' (Doniger and Smith 1991:110.) In Chapter 9 Manu further expands the concept, as follows:

'[303] The king should behave with the brilliant energy of Indra, the Sun, the Wind, Yama, Varuna, the Moon, Fire, and the Earth. [304] Just as Indra rains heavily during the four monsoon months, even so he should rain down the things that are desired in his own kingdom, behaving like Indra. [305] Just as the Sun takes up water with his rays for eight months, even so he should constantly take up taxes from his kingdom, for in that he behaves like the Sun. [306] He should pervade (his subjects) with his spies just as the Wind moves about, pervading all creatures, for in this he behaves like the Wind. [307] The king should restrain his subjects just as Yama restrains both friend and foe at the proper time; for in this he behaves like Yama. [308] He should seize evil men just as Varuna is seen to bind people with his ropes; for in this he behaves like Varuna. [309] When his subjects thrill with joy in him as human beings do at the sight of the full moon, the king is behaving like the Moon. [310] He should constantly turn the heat of his brilliant energy and majesty against evil-doers and use it to injure corrupted vassals; this is traditionally known as behaving like Fire. [311] He behaves like the Earth when he supports all living beings just as the Earth bears all living beings equally.' (Doniger and Smith 1991:229- 230.)14

The correspondence between the two passages is obvious. Indeed, the relationship is even closer than appears from the translations which we have used. Where both the Manusmrti and the RK use the same concept,

13 Santoso's translation may be compared with that of the ten a$ta-brata verses from the kakawin by Hooykaas (Hooykaas 1956:339-340). " The passage from Chapter 9 of the Manusmrti speaks of the Earth rather than Dhanada (Kubera), mentioned in the a$ta-brata in the RK, although in Chapter 5 Manu mentioned Kubera, and not Earth. However, this does not remain a puzzle for too long. Further down, in stanza 80, the RK also mentions the 'Brata Prethiwi'!

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\ratalbrata, this is rendered somewhat differently in English by the two translators.15 Since Manusmrti was a well-known text in ancient Java, it is not very surprising that the author of the kakawin turned to it (or some excerpt from it available to him) to present his views on the status and role of the monarch. Significantly, the Old Javanese poet, before concluding Rama's discourse, pointedly quotes him as exhorting his disciple to pay attention to the rules set out by Manu (sarga 24, 82), thus giving us an ample hint about the source of the concepts taught by Rama to Vibhlsana.

3. THE RAMAYANA KAKAWIN AS AN INDEPENDENT LITERARY WORK

It should be clear by now that the RK has drawn on its Sanskrit sources, in particular the BhK, to a much greater extent than has generally been recognized. However, a good poet can create an independent and original work of literature even where he resorts to such relatively large-scale 'borrowing'. This is certainly true of the numerous re-tellings of the Rama tale through history. Kamban's Tamil and Tulsidas's Hindi Ramayanas - just to take two better-known examples - are quite rightly regarded as literary masterpieces in their own right in their respective languages, even though they have 'borrowed' heavily from the Sanskrit Valrmki Ramayana and other forebears. Similarly, the Old Javanese Ramayana kakawin has been justly hailed as 'first and foremost a largely independent creation of literary art' (Uhlenbeck 1989:339). The Old Javanese poet may or may not have had the didactic purpose of producing an exemplary kakawin which Hooykaas attributes to him (Hooykaas 1958b). But, as Hooykaas' study certainly brings out, he had definitely mastered the art of writing in accordance with the criteria of a mahakdvya laid down by such theoreticians of Sanskrit poetics as Dandin and Bhamaha. Even more importantly, having mastered the mechanics of writing a mahakdvya, the author applied these with poetic creativity, so that his work has become no mere display of technical virtuosity but an outstanding work of literature. The main Indian prototype of the RK, the BhK, is in many ways an impressive work but is not a particularly attractive poem. BhaBi has allowed his objective of providing a guide-book on the rules of Sanskrit grammar and rhetoric to dominate his poetry. A standard work on the history of Sanskrit literature speaks of Bhatti's 'consciously laboured language' and castigates him for making 'all thought, feeling, idea or expression' a slave

15 In Sanskrit, the word vrata has several, but related, meanings, namely 'a religious act of devotion', 'a vow, promise, resolve", 'an observance, practice', 'mode of life, course of conduct', 'a rule, law', 'sacrifice', or simply 'an act, a deed, work'.

Downloaded from Brill.com09/30/2021 07:50:05PM via free access The Rdmdyana Kakawin 243 to his exacting didactic purpose (De 1947:1,183-185). In sharp contrast, the authorities on Old Javanese literature are unanimous in their judgement of the RK as a most beautiful poem.16 There are many facets of the RK which make it a superb literary achievement These have been much commented upon by various authorities on the subject. We shall not attempt a comprehensive analysis of all its merits but will highlight just a few below.

(a) A lively work full of drama and colour Though thematically the RK poet has followed the BhK for most of the story, he has invested his account with a vividness and intensity that is missing in his model. The BhK lacks a sense of drama. A number of the most exciting and moving episodes of Valmlki's epic have become rather matter-of-fact under the impact of Bhaui's relentless scholasticism. The leading characters of the epic, who have fascinated lovers of the Rama tale for more than two thousand years, have become disconcertingly two- dimensional. The RK, on the other hand, is full of drama, tension, adroitly managed confrontations, racy dialogue, and vibrantly alive characters. Dasaratha's anguish when faced with the sage Visvamitra's demand to let his young son Rama go with him to protect his hermitage from the murderous depredations of the rak$asas, Rama's near-derangement at the abduction of Slta, the electrifying debate between Ravana and Kumbhakarna, the touching leave-taking by the demon soldiers as they bid goodbye to their families before marching into battle - episode after episode acquires a life and intensity, colour and feeling, which are lacking in Bhayi. The liveliness and raciness of the RK text may be partially attributable to the fact that it is a work designed more to be heard than read. We do not need to add anything further to the illuminating comments in this connection made in his various articles by Robson, building upon suggestions by various scholars from I Wayan Bhadra to Uhlenbeck.17 Indeed, it has been suggested that there was some sort of a symbiotic relationship between the kakawin and the wayang kulit, the Javanese shadow puppet theatre (Ras

16 Indeed, Poerbatjaraka regards the RK as the most beautiful of them all in regard to language, embellishments, and so on (Sanloso 1980a:15). In a conversation with one of the co-authors of the present article, Prof. Uhlenbeck described it as the most beautiful work in the entire history of Indonesian literature. 17 To quote from Robson's Lucknow paper, 'The style of Skt kdvya is compact, not to say dense, and is characterized by long compounds ... The style of the OJ, on the other hand, is transparent (in most places) and elegant in its simplicity ... The loose structuring and use of short, manageable syntactic units that characterize this style point unambiguously in the direction of a literary work that was intended by its author to be perceived by ear, rather than eye.' (Robson 1986:8-9.)

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1976:55-56; Santoso 1980a:24). If contemporary wayang kulit performances are anything to go by, this seems eminently plausible.18

(b) The depiction of the Srngara rasa The Indian texts on aesthetics divide the SrfigOra rasa (erotic sentiment) into two broad categories: Sambhoga or Enjoyment and Vipralambha or Separation. The RK poet renders both with equal felicity, making his way skilfully through various nuances of love, from extreme joy to extreme pain. For Vipralambha we turn to the lament of Slta, abducted by Ravana and languishing in captivity far away from her beloved Rama. She confides in her faithful companion Trijaja, saying: '... The heart of one in separation is burnt horribly and turned to nothing by the arrows of the god of Love; deceitful and exceedingly humiliating, like evil spirits they penetrate into the heart, and consciousness is then enveloped by passion and bewilderment' (sarga 8, 156). And 'O sinful god Manmatha [the god of love], may you be a human being and suffer the anguish of those overwhelmed by desire ...' (sarga %, 158). But the most moving expression of Sita's love occurs in the message which she sends to Rama via Hanoman. In the BhK, as in Valmlki, she sends her crest-jewel to Rama. So does the Sita of the RK, but the Indonesian poet adds an inspired innovation to this - a letter. She describes her letter as an expression of her longing and her crest-jewel as herself coming to pay homage to him. To Slta the ring which her husband sends her is like his embraces, and its sight fills her with the 'pangs of love and longing'. She asks Rama to recall the time when they were young, saying (and here we use a translation not by Santoso.but by Hooykaas):

'... all kinds of fitting pleasures were given to us, nothing was wanting for our happiness; thou wert skilled in love-making and in all that has been taught by the excellent KamaSastra. In Indrani and Sacl thou wert versed, thou wert not inexperienced; especially didst thou have knowledge of everything concerning the senses; that was the reason for my mind being sorrowful, for my heart being bruised and broken; for there exists none other to equal thee in knowledge and in virtue ..." (sarga 11, 27-28) (Hooykaas 1958b: 144).

" Hooykaas, while referring to the extension in the RK of the passage relating to the fight between Sugriwa and Walin, refers to the popularity of such scenes in theatrical performances, both court and popular, in Yogyakarta in the 1930s (Hooykaas 1958b:29).

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Incidentally, while Indrdni and Sad are well-known names for the wife of Indra, the two words also have a specialized meaning outside the known texts, denoting particular types of coitus. Here we have yet another instance of the Old Javanese poet's mastery of the Sanskrit language.19 In the depiction of the sambhoga facet of the love between Rama and Slta, the RK goes well beyond the BhK. Though Bhatji is more uninhibited than Valmlki in his treatment of the sentiment of love, he does not depict the physical love between Rama and Slta, which the ancient Javanese poet does not hesitate to do. There are a number of other Sanskrit works which handle this delicate theme.20 But the Old Javanese poet's love scenes have a charm all their own. Depending on the demands of the situation, he is tender and bashful or uninhibitedly erotic. The description of Rama and Slta's wedding night (sarga 2,65) provides a good illustration of the former, while the account of their union following their return to Ayodhya (sarga 26, 31- 32) gives it the intensity of a Tantric ritual. Images of seduction and sexual playfulness amongst the birds and the beasts, and even flowers, abound in the RK as reflections of similar sexual delights amongst the human characters. Thus, for instance, all nature joyfully abandons itself to amorous dalliance in Lanka when the virtuous Vibhlsana comes to the throne, its happiness symbolizing the harmony and tranquillity in the land. The Javanese poet, reflecting his society's approach to life, sees sexual fulfilment as an essential ingredient of happiness.

(c) The RK's Trijala - a triumph of characterization At the level of characterization, the most impressive innovation by the RK poet is the manner of presentation of the character of Trijata, the daughter of Vibhlsarja, who is Slta's only comfort during her captivity in Lanka. True, Trijaja is not an invention of the Old Javanese author. She makes two appearances already in Valmlki's epic, in the minor role of one of the demonesses placed by Ravana near Slta to intimidate his captive, but who actually turns out to be sympathetic towards Slta. She is not described here as being related to Vibhi§ana. In fact, the epic refers to her as an old demoness. Bha^i's Trijaja is modelled on the Trijata in the VR. As in the epic, she is sympathetic towards Slta but is no relative of Vibhlsana. In the

" This was brought to our attention by Zoetmulder. 20 Mahanataka, for instance, contains a love scene which Bulcke regards as positively indecent (Bulcke 1962:209). However, this work was probably written in the 10th century A.D. and is unlikely to have been available to the Old Javanese poet. Then there is the Janakiharanam of Kum&radasa which has some very explicit love scenes between Rama and Sits. There is evidence suggesting that this work did travel to Indonesia (Lokesh Chandra 1978), and we cannot rule out the possibility that the Ramayana kakawin poet may have read it. However, a comparison of the two texts reveals no influence of the Janakiharanam.

Downloaded from Brill.com09/30/2021 07:50:05PM via free access 246 Vinod Khanna and Malini Saran entire poem she is mentioned in merely three verses (sarga 8,99-100; sarga 14, 61). There are some other Indian re-tellings of the Rama story in which Trijata does become a more defined character than in the VR and the Bhk. Moreover, the RK is neither the first nor the only Ramayana version in which she is related to Vibhl$ana. The poets of some of these later Ramayaija versions tended to conflate into the single character of Trijata several other Lankan women who figure briefly in the VR as well-wishers of Slta. However, the RK Trijaja surpasses all her Indian forebears. She emerges here as an important, fully developed character who greatly enhances the dramatic effect of the scenes in which she appears. She is the spirited young daughter of Vibhisana, with all the nobility of her father. She is deeply devoted to Slta and shows much intelligence and initiative in her efforts to help the abducted princess retain her sanity under the intense psychological pressure to which she is subjected by Ravana and his minions. One of the most spectacular appearances of Trijata in the RK is when she publicly denounces Rama for casting doubts on Slta's chastity. In a passage stretching to over 17 stanzas (sarga 24, 169-186) she castigates Rama and boldly challenges his notion of what true morality requires in such a situation. While all the others stand around in stunned silence, Trijafa asserts, with breathtaking audacity, 'My lord, you go too far. You are like a blind man ...' Her loyalty to Slta, and her outrage at the injustice being done her, prompt her to declare, 'Due to the sorrow that overcame my heart when I observed the distress experienced by the princess Janakatmaja, my fear and my veneration toward Your Majesty have disappeared. I do not care if I be sentenced to death ..."

{d) Ethics Bhatti, who uses the Rama tale only as an interesting framework for illustrating the rules of grammar and poetics, is not interested in examining the ethical issues involved in the epic drama. The Old Javanese poet, on the other hand, appears to be eager at all times to explore the moral principles and beliefs underlying the behaviour of his characters or at issue in the situations confronting them. It is as if the author had set out to prepare a compendium on ethics. He is quite explicit in projecting the more noble of the characters - Slta, the faithful wife, Laksmana and Bharata, the devoted younger brothers, Hanuman, the wise envoy and brave fighter - as role- models. At the same time, there are critical moments in the plot at which the RK author brings out the intensity of the moral ambivalence inherent in a particular situation as - and sometimes even more - dramatically as does Valmlki. This holds equally for the intrepid young Trijaja challenging the ethical views of Rama himself when he repudiates Slta because of her enforced stay in captivity, the morality of the surreptitious manner in which Rama kills Bali, or Kumbhakarna's dilemma when he is torn between awarenesss of his brother's moral folly and loyalty to his king and country.

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(e) Political philosophy The RK can be seen as a poetic but powerful celebration of the role and status of the king in society. Robson advances the hypothesis that 'just as the candi was built to serve a royal cult, so also literature had a function connected with the institution of kingship' (Robson 1983:296). The RK is certainly consistent with this hypothesis. The RK poet goes further than merely exalting his royal masters. He uses the story and characters of the Ramayana to spell out the principles of good governance in an ideal monarchical polity. These are found scattered throughout the poem. However, the two discourses by Rama, addressed respectively to Bharata and Vibhlsana, together constitute a handbook for the guidance of a royal statesman. The discourse of the RK's Rama to Vibhlsana does not end with the enunciation of the eight brata, but goes on to give much wise advice, profound but not abstract. For instance, Rama counsels his friend, who is about to assume the burdens of kingship:

'To the king gold is not valuable. It is to be used for the business of ruling the country. Only good deeds are remembered forever. They adorn people and are never separated from one, wherever one goes. You do not take power with you when you die. It serves you now, while you are alive, but once you are dead, power sneaks away from you, whereas your good deeds go with you, you can keep them ...' (sarga 24, 69-70.)

There is little doubt that the author of the RK was eminently successful in his use of the character and story of Rama to spell out what has been known in India and Indonesia as nitLfastra - that area in the general field of political science which can be described as the essential principles of statesmanship.

CONCLUSION

It is quite remarkable that, having chosen as his prototype the Bhattikavya, which with all its virtues does not qualify as a great work of literature, the Old Javanese poet was able to transcend its limitations. He captured some of the charm and profundity of the original Valmlkian epic, drawing upon his knowledge of a wide range of other Sanskrit classics to lend further depth and enchantment to his work. It is not surprising that, while Bhaui's Ravanavadha has long since been consigned to the relative obscurity of scholarly Sanskrit academies, the Ramayana kakawin became one of the treasures bequeathed by ancient Java to Indonesian culture, and a major source of influence through the centuries on literature and philosophy, both political and moral, as well as on the performing and plastic arts. To view it only within the framework of Indonesian cultural history does

Downloaded from Brill.com09/30/2021 07:50:05PM via free access 248 Vinod Khanna and Malini Saran not do full justice to it, however. The extraordinary history of the telling and re-telling of the Rama tale began more than 2500 years ago. Many great poets have since put their own distinctive stamp on the tale, reflecting the mood and taste of the environment in which they lived. In this galaxy, the Old Javanese poet deserves a special place of honour.

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