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Resolution Electromagnetic Imaging of the San Andreas Fault in Central California

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Resolution Electromagnetic Imaging of the San Andreas Fault in Central California JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 104, NO. B1, PAGES 1131-1150, JANUARY 10, 1999 High-resolution electromagnetic imaging of the San Andreas fault in Central California Martyn Unsworth GeophysicsProgram, University of Washington, Seattle Gary Egbert College of Oceanic and Atmospheric Sciences,Oregon State University, Corvallis John Booker GeophysicsProgram, University of Washington, Seattle Abstract. Although there is increasingevidence that fluids may play a significant role in the earthquake rupture process,direct observation of fluids in active fault zonesremains difficult. Since the presenceof an electrically conductingfluid, such as saline pore water, strongly influencesthe overall conductivity of crustal rocks, electrical and electromagneticmethods offer great potential for overcomingthis difficulty. Here we presentand compareresults from high-resolutionmagnetotelluric (MT) profilesacross two segmentsof the San AndreasFault (SAF) whichexhibit very different patterns of seismicity: Parkfield, which has regular small earthquakes and creep events, and in the Carrizo Plain, where the fault is seismicallyquiescent and apparently locked. In both surveys, electric fields were sampled continuously, with 100 m long dipoles laid end-to-end acrossthe fault. From 100 to 0.1 Hz the data from both profilesare consistentwith a two-dimensional(2-D) fault-parallel resistivitymodel. When both transverseelectric and magnetic(TE and TM) mode data are includedin the interpretation,narrow (-0300-600m wide) zonesof low resistivity extending to depths of 2-4 km in the core of the fault are required at both locations. However,at Parkfieldthe conductance(conductivity thickness product)of the anomalousregion is an order of magnitudelarger than at Carrizo Plain, suggestingmuch higher concentrationsof fluids for the more seismically active Parkfield segment. We also image structural differencesbetween the two segments. At Carrizo Plain, resistive, presumably crystalline, rocks are present on both sides of the fault at depths below 3-4 kin. In particular, we clearly image resistivebasement extending •10 km or more east of the SAF, beneath the Elkhorn Hills and Temblor Range. At Parkfield the situation is quite different with a resistiveblock of Salinian granite west of the fault and an electrically conductive, presumably fluid rich Franciscan complex to the east. It is possible that these structural differencescontrol the difference in mechanical behavior of the fault, either directly by affectingfault strength or indirectly by controlling fluid supply. 1. Introduction heat flow anomalies[Brune et al., 1969; Lachenbruch, Severallines of evidencesuggest that high-pressure 1980],imply that the SanAndreas Fault (SAF) is in- fluids in fault zonesmay play a critical role in control- herentlyweak. Subsequently,Willcock et al. [1990]es- tablished that oceanic transform faults are also weak. ling the rupture dynamicsof earthquakes. First sug- While it is possiblethat the intrinsic weaknessof strike- gestedby Hubbertand Rubey [1959], this conceptgained supportfrom the observationby Zob•cket al. [1987] slip faults resultsfrom the presenceof materials in the fault zone with a very low coefficientof friction, it is that in situ stressindicators, and the lack of significant difficult to reconcilethis explanationwith laboratory- derived estimates of typical rock friction coefficients [Byerice,1978]. As a result,low intrinsic fault strengths Copyright 1999 by the American GeophysicalUnion. have most often been explainedin terms of high pres- Paper number 98JB01755. sure fluids in the fault zone [e.g., Sleepand Blanpied, 0148-0227/99/98JB-1755509.00 1992;Byeflee, 1990, 1993;Rice, 1992]. This interpreta- 1131 1132 UNSWORTH ET AL.- SAN ANDREAS MT STUDY tion is supported further by geologicalmapping of ex- vey MT data collected in the Parkfield area, Eberhart- humed faults, which provides direct evidence that fluids Phillips and Michael [1993]inferred a significantresis- were once present in zonesof active strike-slip deforma- tivity contrast acrossthe San Andreas Fault, with con- tion [e.g.,Sibson et al., 1988; Chesteret al., 1993]. ductive material east of the fault. Unpublished USGS Zobacket al. [1987]demonstrated that simplemod- data (W. D. Stanley, personalcommunication, 1994) els of overpressuredfluids in the crust are inconsistent suggestedthat situation at Carrizo Plain was reversed, with in situ stress observations. To avoid unobserved with an unexpectedresistive body eastof the San An- hydrofracturing, fluid pressureswould have to be lim- dreas Fault beneath the Temblor Range. Mackie et al. ited by the minimum principal stress. To overcomethis, [1997]imaged a similar pattern of resistivityvariations and related difficulties, more sophisticatedand detailed along two additional profiles acrossthe fault within the theoretical models for the dynamical behavior for flu- Carrizo Plain. These surveysused data collected at sites ids in mature active fault zones have been proposed severalto tens of kilometers apart. Although they have [Sleepand Blanpied,1992; Byeflee, 1990, 1993; Rice, imaged large-scalecontrasts in crustal resistivity across 1992]. Although differingin many important details, the fault and have sometimesprovided indirect evidence these models all suggest a rather complicated picture for enhanced conductivity within the fault zone, sam- in which the distribution, connectivity, and pressureof pling was not dense enough to provide a detailed view fluids may vary dramatically in space and time, in a of the actual fault zone. manner which is closely linked to the earthquake cycle In this paper we describe the results of two high- on individual fault segments. resolution electromagnetic surveys acrossdistinct seg- To distinguish between theoretical models such as ments of the San Andreas Fault where the earthquake these, it is necessaryto map the location of fault zone cycle is very different: at Carrizo Plain and at Middle fluids in detail. While deep drilling such as that pro- Mountain, Parkfield (Figure 1). In these surveyswe posed by Hickman et al. [1994] will ultimately be sampled the electric fields on the surface with a contin- needed to determine the physical state within the cores uous series of dipoles laid end to to end. This style of of active faults, remote sensingtechniques capable of continuousMT profiling gives a high spatial data den- detecting in situ fluids to a depth of at least 10 km sity and minimizes the possibility of spatial aliasing of are clearly useful. Eberhart-Phillipset al. [1995] re- viewed the resolution that might be obtained by seis- mic, electrical, and electromagnetic techniques. Since II the presenceof an electrically conductingfluid, such as 42 ø saline pore water, strongly influencesthe overall elec- l:• trical conductivity of crustal rocks, electrical and elec- 0 100 200 300 tromagnetic methods offer great potential for detect- km ing fluids at depth within the fault zone. Electromag- netic exploration methods can be divided into those us- N ing natural sourcessuch as magnetotellurics(MT) and those that require the generation of artificial electro- magnetic signals. Electromagneticsignals propagate as 38 ø lossfree waves in the atmospherebut diffuse as highly attenuated waves in the ground which can generally be considereda good conductor. This attenuation is char- acterizedby a skindepth 5 = (2/luwrr)•/•', whereco is the frequency of the signal, /t is the magnetic per- meability, and rr is the conductivity of the earth. To explore deep structure requires large skin depths and 34 ø usually low-frequencysignals. Such signals are difficult to generate artificially, but for most frequenciesbelow 100 Hz, natural sourcesignals are often strong. MT is thus generally used for crustal scalesounding. In recent years, MT profiles have crossedthe San An- 124 ø 120 ø 116 ø dreasFault at a numberof locations.Park et al. [1991] collectedwidely spacedlong-period sites from the Pa- San Andreas Fault-locked segments cific Ocean to Nevada, with one profile crossingthe San San AndreasFault- creeping segments Andreas Fault closeto Parkfield. This study suggested Other major faults( only shownin California) that the Great Valley was bounded by electrically con- ductive suture zones but that the San Andreas Fault Figure 1. Map showingSan Andreas Fault and the was not a significantly conductivefeature in the lower locations(solid dots) of continuousMT profilesat Car- crust and upper mantle. Based on U.S. GeologicalSur- rizo Plain (C) and Parkfield(P) UNSWORTH ET AL' SAN ANDREAS MT STUDY 1133 near-surfacestatic shiftsinto deeperstructure [Torres- site to permit remote referenceprocessing of the time Vetdin and Bostick,1992]. The method allows us to seriesdata [Gambleet al., 1979]. The remotesite for obtain high-resolutionimages of electricalconductivity the Carrizo Plain profile was located -•5 km from the variations within and near the fault zone to depths of southwestend of the profile; at Parkfield the remote ref- around 4-6 km. Experimental details are provided in erencewas --•15 km from the profile. Data were recorded section 2. We then present and interpret results from at each location overnight so that 500 to 1500 m of pro- modeling and inversion of the MT data for each pro- file were covered per day. file. As we shall show, there are significantdifferences Time seriesdata were analyzedusing the robust pro- in geoelectricstructure betweenthe lockedCarrizo seg- cessingcode of Egbert[1997] (a multiple-stationexten- ment
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