Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2020) 9(10): 496-509

International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences ISSN: 2319-7706 Volume 9 Number 10 (2020) Journal homepage: http://www.ijcmas.com

Review Article https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2020.910.060

Distribution, Phenology, and Ecology of Genus (Family: ) in - A Review

B. Madhusudhana Reddy1*, G. S. Uma3, Lokinder Sharma2 and T. N. Manohara1

1Silviculture and Forest Management Division, Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Bengaluru- 560003, Karnataka, India 2Forest Research Institute Deemed to be University, Dehradun, India 3Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India

*Corresponding author

ABSTRACT

K e yw or ds

Hopea , Endemic, Hopea genus is represented by timber yielding large , present in the , evergreen and semi-evergreen forest. This genus comprises 104 species Dipterocarps, distributed globally among them 11 species are present in India of which Phenology, eight are endemic to the Western Ghats. It was found that fragmentation of Ecology, Distribution, habitat; land cover change and overexploitation are the major driving Effective factors responsible for the severe decline in their natural population. Most conservation. of the Dipterocarps, viz., H. erosa, H. Jacobi, and H. racophloea are only

Article Info known from limited localities and their high degree of habitat specificity

makes them rare. To device strategies for effective conservation of Hopea,

Accepted: information on its distribution, phenology, and ecology is very much 07 September 2020 essential. Avail able Online: 10 October 2020

Introduction India State of Forest Report (ISFR) – 2019, India with 24.56% of land area under forest India is one of the world’s ‘mega diversity’ and cover, even though it accounts for 2.4 countries, out of the 18 global biodiversity % of the world's surface area and sustains the hotspots India has 4 of them namely the needs of 17 % of the total human population Eastern Himalaya and The Western Ghats, along with 18 % of the total livestock. The Indo-Burma Region, and Sundaland. Because Western Ghats covers a territory around of higher species richness, with ten 1,60,000 km² and stretches for 1,600 km from distinct biogeographic zones, India possesses Tamil Nadu in the south to Gujarat in the ninth position in the world. According to north, separated only by the 30 km Palakkad

496

Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2020) 9(10): 496-509

Gap. Precipitation pattern and geographical selectively logged and highly fragmented, in variation results into a large variety of some area converted to agricultural land for vegetation types such as scrub forests present monoculture plantations of coffee, tea, rubber, in the low-lying rain shadow areas, rainforests teak, Eucalyptus, oil palm, and wattle, and are present the plains, deciduous and tropical also cleared for building, roads, reservoirs, present at medium elevation, and a unique and railways. Encroachment inside the mosaic of montane forests, rolling grasslands protected areas lead to reducing the extent of present at a higher elevation. The Western the forest, cattle, and goats grazing within and Ghats have very nearly 5,000 near protected areas caused drastic forest species belonging to 2,200 genera. Among slopes erosion. Tree communities altered in them about are 1,700 (34%) endemic species, forests of the tropical region due to habit loss where 58 are monotypic endemic plant and fragmentation of the population genera. Some significant genera and families (Laurance et al. 2006). The United Nations are consisting of huge numbers of endemic Educational, Scientific, and Cultural species, for example, Impatiens with 76 of 86 Organization (UNESCO) has recognized the species endemic, Dipterocarpus with 12 of 13 Western Ghats as one of the Natural World species endemic. Among the 490 tree species Heritage sites based on its remarkable natural recorded from forests of low and mid- habitats. In this context, present authors felt elevation, 308 are endemic species, 130 are the necessity to understand the Indian endemic out of 267 orchids (BSIENVIS, distribution, phenology, and ecological 2016). The fossil evidence Dipterocarps from aspects of the Hopea genus. Burma, , Eastern India, and Southern India speaks that they were the Distribution of different species of Hopea significant component of the ancient flora. genus in India RAPA Monograph, 1985 reported that Dipterocarps pollen has been collected from Dipterocarpaceae is an important dicot plant Kutch they are presentative of Eocene. The family having almost 580-680 species. They Hopea genus belongs to the Dipterocarpaceae are present throughout the tropical region, for family and shown the pan-India presence. example Northern South America to Africa, , along with their timber Seychelles, Philippines, India, Sri Lanka, value, the bark is a good candidate for tanning China, Indonesia, , and . material, mainly for heavy leather. The bark This family is divided into 3 subfamilies: (i) possesses 70% tannin and 22.6% non- tannin, Monotoideae having 30 species and 3 genera used as an astringent (Kamarudeen, 2003) and and present across Madagascar, Africa, and stilbenoids have effective biological South America (ii) Pakaraimoideae having properties produced by Dipterocarpaceous single species for example Pakaraima (Rose, 2013). The methanolic extract earoraimae present in the Guaianan highlands of H. ponga leaf possess important biological of South America, and (iii) Dipterocarpoideae activities such as antioxidant and antibacterial nearly 470 species of 13 genera, present (against bacteria Proteus vulgaris), and also mostly in South Asian countries to be specific used for treating Proteus infections. H. ponga India, Phillippines, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, New leaf contains a higher amount of phenolic and Guinea, Thailand, China, and Malaysia except flavonoid content compared to another for Vateriopsis seychellarum an endemic to member of the family Dipterocarpaceae and Seychelles. Dipterocarpaceae and Shoreae other species in the Hopea genus have various belong to the sub-family Dipterocarpoideae uses. The Western Ghats forests are (Brandis, 1895). The genera belong to the

497

Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2020) 9(10): 496-509

Shoreae tribe are Hopea , Dryobalanops, 2006). The species of the family are found in Parashorea, Neobalanocarpus, and Shorea both lowland rainforests (evergreen in nature) having imbricate in fruits, grouped and also in seasonal upland or more vessels, canals in tangential bands, and xerophytic forests (Irudhyaraj, 2016). basic chromosome number n = 7 (Gamage,

Plate 1. Showing distribution of Hopea genus in India. (a) Hopeacanarensis. (b) H. erosa (c) H. glabra (d) H. helferi (e) H. jacobi (f) H. odorata (g) H. parviflora (h) H. ponga (i) H. racophloea(j) H. shingkeng (k) H. utilis

Approximately 31 Dipterocarps species have recorded as endemic to the Western Ghats been reported and restricted to northern India mainly to the states of , Karnataka, and whereas the Western Ghats possess 17 species Tamil Nadu. Most of the Indian species of the belonging to 5 genera viz. Hopea, genus reported under severe threat and were Dipterocarpus, Shorea, , and . included in the IUCN red list. Two species Member of Hopea, a potent timber yielding viz., Hopea erosa (Bedd.) Slooten (IUCN, genus is represented by larger trees present in 1998) and Hopea jacobi C.E.C. Fisch (IUCN, the evergreen and semi-evergreen forest. This 1998) were included under critically genus has 104 species present worldwide and endangered, six species Hopea glabra Wight 11 species present in India (Irudhyaraj, 2016). & Arn(IUCN, 1998), Hopea canarensis Generally, Indian species of Hopea were Hole (IUCN, 2017), Dyer endemic, out of the 11 species 8 species are Brandis (IUCN, 2017),

498

Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2020) 9(10): 496-509

(Dennst.) Mabb(IUCN, 1998), Hopea ra 2006). The striking feature of many cophloea D yer (IUCN, 1998),and Hopea Dipterocarp forest is the phenomenon of mass utilis Bedd. Bole (IUCN, 1998) included flowering followed by mass fruiting. Flowers under endangered, Roxb are small and abundant in Hopea. Fruiting is (IUCN, 2017) was included in vulnerable, erratic and seed germination is epigeal in Hopea parviflora Bedd (IUCN, 2018) Hopea. Inefficient and poor seed dispersal included under the least concern category and mechanisms are responsible for gregarious Hopea shingkeng (Dunn) Boris (IUCN, 1998) formations of Dipterocarps. An in-depth study was an endemic species of North India that into the vegetative, as well as reproductive was extinct in the last decades. H. jacobi was phenology of these species, would shed more collected from the evergreen forest’s region light on these abnormalities. Recent of Coorg, but in the recent past has not been climatological changes also influence the collected from its type locality or any other regeneration status of the species. Good seed places. Hence, the species is believed to be fall and adequate rainfall are necessary for extinct (Shetty et al., 2002) then some better regeneration because the seeds lose researchers conducted a detailed floristic their viability rapidly. Under natural survey of H. Jacobi to know the exact status conditions, seeds of H. parviflora shed with and the reasons for the absence or extinction relatively high-water content (fresh weight from its type locality (Irudhyaraj, 2016). H. basis). These seeds are highly desiccation erosa has become rare in evergreen forests sensitive and an in-depth study is needed for with mid-elevation, recorded from Anamalai more information about the recalcitrant nature and Agastyamalai hill range, a small of the species. Prolific seeding occurs in H. population also exists in the Kodagu district parviflora once in 4 -6 years and such years of Karnataka (Rao et al., 2019). H canarensis are invariably followed by one or two years of is found in its type locality i.e Andar Reserve comparative sterility and the same number of Forest and in a few patches of the Kudremukh moderate seed years (Kamarudeen, 2003).The region, while H ponga, enjoys a very wide fruits are poorly protected and often eaten by distribution spreading into new areas wild pigs, enormously parasitized by similarly, H parviflora was found in almost as a result managing Dipterocarps seed all forests. production is tiring. The trees of Dipterocarps also take 20 – 30 years for its first flowering Phenology of Hopea genus and the seeds are recalcitrant and unable to store for a long period. Many species of The phenological studies revealed the period Hopea produced generally short-lived seeds of various growth activities of the species. that are not able to combat desiccation. The Because of the overexploitation, the critical moisture contents of H. parviflora and population of Dipterocarps is being reduced. H. ponga were about 26% and 27% The recalcitrant nature of the seeds of respectively below which they fail to Dipterocarps limits viability with reduced germinate. Hopea is dry capsular as a result dormancy. The phenological data i.e. the moisture content is reduced suddenly after period of seed maturation and dispersal period detachment (Irudhyaraj, 2016). helps in seeds collection of species belongs to the Dipterocarps genera specially The leaf shedding in H. ponga occurs Dipterocarpus indicus, an endangered partially during the dry season but the tree species, Vatica chinensis, and H. canarensis appears with photosynthetic leaves were exhibited a narrow distribution (Raj, throughout the year. The leaf flushing of H.

499

Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2020) 9(10): 496-509

ponga was observed during June once after seeds of H. ponga recorded a maximum the dry season along with the onset of moisture content of 73.2% and get reduced to monsoon season in the study area. The studies below 1% after 45 days. Similarly, the on the phenology of tropical moist forest in viability studies showed that in the case of H. Uttara of Karnataka by Bhat (1992) ponga, the viability of the seed was 93.5% at showed, the leaf flushing recorded as higher the detached stage and completely lost after in the pre-monsoon dry period when the one month of storage. These results were rainfall was minimum. Further, H. ponga was confirmed that the seed was recalcitrant that found to be a lowland tree that produced their lost its viability within a short period of young leaves in the rainy season. storage. Further, the germination studies Shorearhoxburgii a member of the family showed that in the case of H. ponga, the seed Dipterocarpaceae showed leaf flushing germination starts immediately after the beyond the complete fruit dispersal (Raju et detachment and showed 84% of germination. al., 2011). A similar kind of result was This germination percentage was reduced observed on H. ponga. The flowering was drastically in the subsequent days and lost followed by fruiting in H. ponga. The fruit after the storage of one month. The results on development occurred in the dry season and the seed biology of H. ponga were not similar fruit set and dispersal occurred before the to the findings of Sukesh and Chandrashekar monsoon. The timing of fruiting may also be (2011) in which, the germination percentage under some selective pressure to disperse the was slightly lower than their observation. It seeds at the start of the rainy season to has been previously reported that the facilitate germination. The fruits dispersal of germination of H. ponga fails when the H. ponga started during June at which the critical moisture content has reduced below study sites receive rainfall. The phenological 27% (Dayal and Kaveriappa, 2000) which investigation on different phenophase events also coincided with our result. Further, of H. ponga showed annual leaf flushing, Sukesh and Chandrashekar (2011) reported flowering, and fruiting. However, it was a that the seeds of H. ponga stored in open mass flowering species that has slight condition lost their viability completely oscillation in the flowering, and few within 11 days. The seeds of many species of individuals observed to develop flowers once Dipterocarpaceae are generally short-lived in two years. The floral biology of H. ponga and cannot withstand desiccation and hence, showed that the species produced the failure of monsoon has a specific role in hermaphrodite flowers in axillary racemes. H. the drastic reduction of the seed germination ponga produced 79.56±18.3 number of of H. ponga. flowers per . The enormous flower production makes H. ponga as mass In H. parviflora, yellowish-green foliage flowering species and this phenomenon was a appeared from October onwards, imparting a typical flowering pattern of all very impressive appearance, and peak Dipterocarpaceae members. This mass flushing was observed during November. The flowering behavior of the species may helpful newly developed leaves appeared along with for the attraction of more pollinators. Usually, mature leaves and the colour changed to light the members of the genus Hopea have 15 - 18 green and then to dark green on maturity. The anthers per flower (Janardhanan, 1993). The flower initiation starts during the light green seed biological studies showed that the seeds stage of leaves. Observations revealed that the of H. ponga were recalcitrant. The studies on majority of flowers appeared at the tip region the seed moisture content showed that the of the branches. The flowering and fruiting of

500

Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2020) 9(10): 496-509

H. parviflora study reveal that flowering was during the first two weeks following anthesis, sporadic, with gregarious flowering occurring and about 4 months are required for fruit once in 2-5 years followed by infrequent, maturity and they ripened during May-July. irregular flowering activities. The disparity in Throughout their development, premature the timing (period) of flower initiation was abscissions of fruits were noted. Around 2 - 4 also noted in the species. The flower initiation lakhs flowers were present in a plus tree started from December onwards. Premature during a peak flowering season. But the abscission and Insect attack of flower buds number of fruit set compared to flowering is were observed. Flowers are bisexual, creamy very less about 1.5 %. The Natural white, and fragrant. Leaf flushing occurred germination of seeds exclusively depends every year, but flowering was noted only at 2- upon climatological conditions i.e. if 5 years interval. Seed with good vigour often conditions are not favourable during occurs after a gap of 3-5 years. Certain plants shedding, the percentage of regeneration was located in isolated habitats showed some very poor and also the seeds lose their unusual flowering behavior during the off- viability within 7 days due to recalcitrant season. The development of flower buds to nature. Mature fruits are with brownish fruit full bloom required 30-40 days. Anthesis was wall and persistent calyx. The seeds shed with noted between 2-5 pm. In H. parviflora the high moisture content. The fruit has a pollination is mainly through the wind compact cotyledon with a large embryonal (anemophily). In general, during the axis and the endosperm is observed like a thin flowering process in H. parviflora, heavy dried film during maturity (Kamarudeen, shedding of abortive immature fruits occurred 2003) (Table 1).

Table.1 Phenological calendar of Hopea genus in India

Sl. Scientific name Phenology No. Flushing Flowering Fruit Fruit Fruit Seed formation maturation dispersal germination and seedling establishment 1. Hopea December- January-May May-August August- September September- canarensis January (Apnl-May) (Raj, 2006) September (Raj, 2006) October (Raj, (Raj, 2006) (Raj, 2006) (Raj, 2006) 2006) 2. H. erosa Information October (Rao January (Rao Information Information Information not not et al., 2019) et al., 2019) not not available available available available 3. H. glabra Information January (Rao July (Rao et Information Information Information not not et al., 2019) al., 2019) not not available available available available 4. H. helferi Information January- March – Information Information Information not not February April (IUCN, not not available available (IUCN, 2017) 2017) available available 5. H. jacobi Information Information Information Information Information Information not not not available not available not not available available available available 6. H. odorata Information February- April – May Information Information Information not not March (IUCN, (IUCN, not not available available 2017) 2017) available available 7. H. parviflora All the December- February – May-July May-July June-August (Raj,

501

Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2020) 9(10): 496-509

months May (January- June (Raj, (Raj, 2006) (Raj, 2006) 2006) (September- March) (Raj, 2006). December) 2006) (May IUCN, (Raj, 2006) (November 2018) IUCN, 2018) 8. H. ponga Throughout Throughout December - January- January- January-July the year the year May (April- June (Raj, June (Raj, (Raj, 2006) (October- including May) (Raj, 2006) 2006) March) aseasonal 2006) (Raj, 2006) flowering (January- February) (Raj, 2006) 9. H. racophloea Information February (Rao May (Rao et Information Information Information not not et al., 2019) al., 2019) not not available available available available 10. H. shingkeng Information Information Information Information Information Information not not not available not available not not available available available available 11. H. utilis Information March (Rao et November Information Information Information not not al., 2019) (Rao et al., not not available available 2019) available available

Ecology of Hopea genus different purposes. As there is no systematically documented data available on Dipterocarpaceae is one of the dominant forest structural studies dominated by these families in the evergreen forests of India and species, it is tough to take up any measures Malaysia. Most of the Dipterocarps are for their conservation. These forests subjected wholly evergreen and the others are near the to massive disturbances, due to the excessive borderline between evergreen and deciduous, removal of commercially usable timber and approaching the former state in moist unfavourable climatic conditions and other localities and the latter in poor dry situations physical and physiological parameters while certain of these become wholly (factors) such as irregular fruiting cycles deciduous in dry regions (Troup, 1921). (seeds produced only every 2-6 years) Pascal (1988) carry out a detailed study on the hastened their depletion (Kamarudeen, 2003). structure, ecology, floristic composition, and The members of Dipterocarps like H. succession of Western Ghats wet evergreen parviflora, H. ponga are distributed forests of India. Dipterocarps consider as continuously throughout the Western Ghats important phytoresources in many of the with some semi-gregarious formations. Indian evergreen as well as south-eastern However, the species, H. canarensis was Asian forests. In many places, these species found only in the Kudremukh region and is occur as gregarious formations and therefore restricted in its distribution. H. jacobi was become dominant members in evergreen and reported from Karnataka in earlier studies, it semi-evergreen forests of the Karnataka and was not possible to record the same during the other areas. A large number of forest areas in recent study. The population of H. ponga was the Western Ghats are dominated by severely fragmented in all the study sites with Dipterocarp species. However, there is very fewer individuals in the restricted forest areas little account of the structural aspects of these and the sacred grove. H. ponga a reputed forests in literature. The Dipterocarps species commercial timber yielding species, rapidly are being overexploited by human beings for logged down in the recent past decades and

502

Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2020) 9(10): 496-509

the present status speaks that the population is Thomson, Ancistrocladus heyneanus Wall. ex highly fragmented due to its rapid cut down Graham, L., etc. Only six for the timber purpose without proper mature individuals were reported in the dam management strategies. The recent study site and found as a species of the second layer reported that the populations of H. ponga with a very low natural regeneration rate. The were found as isolated patches in the poor survival of seedlings might be the reason evergreen forest and lowland. The studies on for the decline in the growth of this the phytosociological vegetation of the population, which needs further investigation. Alakyam stream revealed that H. ponga was According to Raj (2006) based on the the dominant tree species under severe threat Importance Value Index (IVI) of individual (Irudhyaraj, 2016). species, different plant associations were observed. However, in some locations, many Kadambi (1936) reported that the species species were equally important and thus no abundance diminished rapidly with the fall of such associations could be noticed. In the the altitudes and the lower altitudes were Pilarkan reserve forest, H. parviflora was dominated by the species of Lagerstroemia, associated with Diospyros bwcifoha. In Terminalia, and Hopea. The genus Hopea Charmady, Vateria indica was associated was seen atan altitude of 800 - 1000 ft. and in with H. ponga, in the Pattighat reserve forest, altitudes, 1000-2500 ft species like the association was found to be Vateria indica Poeciloneuron indicum, Dipterocarpus and H. parviflora. However, in the Naravi indicus, Mesua ferrea, H. parviflora were reserve forest, Vateria indica was found associated with Palaquium ellipticum, Aglaia associated with Humboldtiabrunoms and odorotissima, Schleicheratrijuga, Canarium Dipterocarpus indicus. Similarly, in the strictum, H. wightiana, etc. (Kadambi, 1941). Nandikoor forest, the formation of H. It was reported that the secondary semi- parviflora was observed. In Jadkal forest and evergreen type of forest dominated with H. Kodyamale reserve forests, H. ponga-H. parviflorain Karnataka (Bhat, 1993). parviflora types of associations were Ravikumar and Goraya (1999) studied the observed. The family Dipterocarpaceae with floristic of the forests of the Kudremukh two to four species was dominant in all the region of the Western Ghats. The top storey forest locations. The density of all the forest of this forest reaching a height of 35 meters locations was higher which is similar to the contains species H. ponga. earlier reports in the Dipterocarp forests and also in other forests. There are reports where Shetty et al. (2002) while studying observed the densities of sacred groves are very high that 528 taxa of indigenous and exotic plants since these areas are protected ones. Pilarkan have become naturalized in Western Ghats reserve forest is a sacred grove and is well and lowlands of and protected. Even in the Nandikoor forest, a part Udupi districts. 176 taxa of trees Dipterocarps of it is a preserved sacred grove, the density like Dipterocarpus indicus, H.parviflora, H. of which is very high in this area when ponga, and Vateria indica are also included. compared to the other forest locations under H. ponga is growing mainly along the sides of study. A good species regeneration was streams in evergreen forests at an altitude of noticed in all the studied forest areas. 900m and the associated species are mainly However, the regeneration degrees of Hydnocarpus pentandra (Buch.-Ham.) Oken, different species vary. The regeneration of the Palaquium ellipticum (Dalz.) Baill., dominant species is low in the Pilarkan Polyalthia coffeoides (Thwaites) Hook.f. & reserve forest. In this forest, the dominant

503

Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2020) 9(10): 496-509

member, H. parviflora had a very low the Pilarkan reserve forest were represented regeneration compared to other evergreen by only 3% of the total individuals. In all species Diospyros buxifoha which exhibited other forest locations, the seedlings of fairly good regeneration. This indicates a Dipterocarps were more than 20%. In the case likely change in the composition of the forest of Nandikoor and Naravi forests, the in the future. In other forest locations the seedlings of Dipterocarps accounted for up to regeneration of members of Dipterocarps is 40% and 36% of the total seedlings good and also the establishment of these respectively. This may be because of the seedlings is faster. openings created in the canopy due to the selective felling of trees for various purposes. In all the forests the IVI of Dipterocarp species was highest and thus the Dipterocarps In both the forests, members of are the important components of the area. The Dipterocarpaceae were dominant. In the association in the Pilarkan Reserve forest was Pilarkan reserve forest, the local people H. parviflora - Diospyros buxifolta type In collect the litter for various purposes. While Jadkal forest and Kodyamale reserve forests it collecting the litter they also collect the seeds was H. ponga - H parviflora type. In which, reduces the number of seeds available Charmady reserve forest the association was for germination and establishment. The Vateria indica -H. ponga – Humboldtia ground vegetation including the herbaceous brunoms type. In Naravi reserve forest was species was abundant in all the forest Dipterocarpus indicus - Humboldtiabrunoms locations during the monsoon season except - Vateria indica type. In the Pattighat reserve in the Naravi reserve forest and the Pattighat forest H. parviflora - Vateria indica type of reserve forest. The evergreen vegetation type association was seen. In the Nandikoor forest, of Naravi and Pattighat reserve forest with there was no association of species as it was a high soil moisture content helps seedlings disturbed site, but H. parviflora and H. ponga germination and establishment throughout the were dominant. In the present study also, year. In other areas, the herbaceous plants and Vateria indica was a dominant species the seedlings of some tree species get dry associated with H. parviflora in the Pattighat during the summer season. However, the reserve forest of Coorg district. In the seedlings of some of the tree species try to Pilarkan reserve forest, H. parviflora was one survive even with little moisture content and a of the dominant members in the Jadkal forest, few succeed to establish in the subsequent Kodyamale reserve forest, and Nandikoor periods. The standing volume of different forests, H. parviflora and H. ponga were forests of Karnataka and Kerala varied from dominant. In Charmady reserve forest, 839 m3/ha in Panamberi to 3086 m3/ha in Vateria indica was dominant along with H. New Someshwara forests (Pascal, 1988). In ponga Thus, in all the seven forest locations, all the seven forests, the Dipterocarps were members of Dipterocarps were dominant the dominant members in terms of density, compared to other species. The highest basal basal area, and biovolume. However, the area in the Naravi reserve forest was number of species is restricted to a maximum attributed to more number of trees with big of four in the individual forest locations boles. Excepting the Pilarkan reserve forest, similar to other forests of Western Ghats of in all other forests, the Dipterocarps show a India as reported by Pascal (1988). good regeneration. Dipterocarps seedlings in

504

Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2020) 9(10): 496-509

Plate.2 Showing leaves of Hopea genus

Hopea canarensis Hopea glabra

Hopea helferi Hopea odorata

Hopea purviflora Hopea ponga

Hopea racophloea Hopea utilis

505

Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2020) 9(10): 496-509

Hopea canarensis Hole. is the shade-loving 2014). The rock bee, Apisdorsata also acts as primary tree species and recorded only in a pollinator. Odontotermeshorni attacks wood undisturbed forest plots. The species of fallen logs of Hopea odorata. In H.ponga similarity is less than 50% in the human- severe infestation was observed on fallen dominated plots, which implies that fruits by soil-borne weevils which anthropogenic pressures had a serious impact considerably reduced the soil seed bank and on primary forest species, such as Hopea subsequent germination (Kamarudeen, 2017). canarensis in the Kudremukh national park. Collected and stored seeds of Hopea (Nagaraja et al., 2011). Strigulane mathora f. canarensis were preyed upon by insects hypothelia grows on leaves of H. parviflora (Viswanathan,2018). The studies related to Bedd and Strigula orbicularis Fr. shows insect pests of trees belonging to the Hopea luxuriant growth on leaves of Hopea genus are limited in numbers and even among canarensis Hole (Subramanya and those limited studies only a few researchers Krishnamurthy, 2015). attempted to identify the insect taxonomically, hence there is a lot of scope Insects and Pests for further research on this topic.

Hopea genus belonging to Dipterocarpaceae Hopea possesses pantropical distribution is attacked by insects of different orders. The (Northern South America to Africa, major insect pest of the Hopea genus belongs Seychelles, Philippines, India, Sri Lanka, to coleoptera and hemipteran orders. China, Indonesia, Thailand, and Malaysia). and curculionid weevils cause damage by This genushas reported with 104 species laying eggs on developing floral buds. Beetles throughout the world and in India, it is also damage anthers and pistils due to intra- represented by 11 species of which eight are floral movement and courtship activities. endemic to the Western Ghats. It was found Beetles are responsible for the maximum that fragmentation of habitat; land cover percentage of fruit fall (Irudhyaraj, 2016). change and overexploitation are the major Mangalorea Hopeae of the Beesoniidae driving factors responsible for the severe family produces spherical echinate galls on decline in their natural population. Hopea Hopea ponga in leaf axils by modifying shingkeng is extinct and many at the verge of vegetative buds. It completely arrests extinction. There is no concerted effort to differentiation and development of leaf safeguard the Hopea for posterity. Limited primordia and develops it into multicellular population, fewer numbers of mature echinate appendages (Raman and Takagi, individuals, irregularity along with sparse 1992). flowering, low fruit setting, heavy immature fruit falls, and recalcitrant nature of seeds, An ant species Oecophylla smaragdina poor regeneration, and survival make it rare. constructs a nest using leaves and tender Most of the Dipterocarps, viz., H. erosa, H. twigs thereby affecting the growth of the tree. Jacobi, and H. racophloea are only known Trioza Hopea e, a psyllid species causes from limited localities and their high degree serious damage to Hopea odorata by inducing of habitat specificity makes them rare. To leaf galls (Burckhardt and Vu, 2012). Few device strategies for effective conservation of butterfly species such as Archopala amantes, Hopea, information on its distribution, Arhopala centaurus, and Triodes minosact as ecology, and phenology is very much pollinators in the adult stage whereas they act essential. as defoliators in the larval stage (Sukesh,

506

Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2020) 9(10): 496-509

References

Ashton, P. 1998. Hopea glabra. The IUCN 2017:e.T33017A118910041. Red List of Threatened Species 1998: http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.201 e.T33018A9749319. 73.RLTS.T33017A118910041.en http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.199 Barstow, M. and Deepu, S. 2018. Hopea 8.RLTS.T33018A9749319.en parviflora. The IUCN Red List of Ashton, P. 1998. Hopeajacobi. The IUCN Red Threatened Species 2018: List of Threatened Species 1998: e.T33021A115932625.http://dx.doi.org/ e.T31169A9610525. 10.2305/IUCN.UK.20181.RLTS.T3302 http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.199 1A115932625.en 8.RLTS.T31169A9610525.en Bhat, D. Μ. 1992. Phenology of tree species Ashton, P. 1998. Hopeaponga. The IUCN Red of tropical moist forest of Uttara List of Threatened Species 1998: Kannada District, Karnataka, India. J. e.T33470A9786253. Biosci.,17( 3): 325 - 352. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.199 Bhat, K.G. 1993. Studies on the vegetation of 8.RLTS.T33470A9786253.en Pilarkan reserve forest, Dakshina Ashton, P. 1998. Hopearacophloea. The Kannada district Myforest 29: 275-279. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Brandis, D. 1895. An enumeration of the 1998: e.T33022A9749968. Dipterocarpaceae. J. Linnean Soc. 31, 1- http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.199 148. 8.RLTS.T33022A9749968.en BSIENVIS,2016.http://bsienvis.nic.in/files/Bi Ashton, P. 1998. Hopeashingkeng. The IUCN odiversity%20Hotspots%20in%20India. Red List of Threatened Species 1998: pdf e.T33469A9786213. Burckhardt,D., and Vu,N. 2012.Triozahopeae http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.199 sp. nov. (Hemiptera: Triozidae): a pest 8.RLTS.T33469A9786213.en on Hopea odorata (: Ashton, P. 1998. Hopeashingkeng. The IUCN Dipterocarpaceae) in . Red List of Threatened Species 1998: Entomological. 15: 74–80 e.T33469A9786213. Conifer Specialist Group. 1998. Hopeaerosa. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.199 The IUCN Red List of Threatened 8.RLTS.T33469A9786213.en Species 1998: e.T31168A9610453. Ashton, P. 1998. Hopea utilis. The IUCN Red http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.199 List of Threatened Species 1998: 8.RLTS.T31168A9610453.en e.T33023A9750096. Conservation Outlook rating. 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.199 https://www.worldheritageoutlook.iucn. 8.RLTS.T33023A9750096.en org/explore-sites/wdpaid/555547990 Asthon, P.S., (1982) Dipterocarpaceae. Flora Dayal. B. R. and Kaveriappa, K. M. 2000. Malesiana 9, 237-552. Effect of desiccation and temperature on Barstow, M. 2017. Hopeacanarensis. The germination and vigour of the seeds of IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Hopea parviflora Beddome and H. 2017: e.T33017A118910041. ponga (Dennst.) Mabb. Seed sci. Tech., http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.201 28(2): 497 - 506. 73.RLTS.T33017A118910041.en Gamage, D.T., de Silva, M., Inomat, Barstow, M. 2017. Hopea canarensis. The N.,Yamazaki, T. and Szmidt, A.E., IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2006) Comprehensive Molecular

507

Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2020) 9(10): 496-509

Phylogeny of the Sub-Family Laurance, S. G., Andrade, A. C. and Dipterocarpoideae (Dipterocarpaceae) Fearnside, P. M., 2006. Rain forest Based on Chloroplast DNA Sequences. fragmentation and the proliferation of Genes Genet. Syst.81, p.1-12. successional trees. Ecol., 87(2): 469 - Hosagoudar V B and Kamarudeen M. 2002. 482. Asterinalzopeaesp. nov. In: Hosags Nagaraja, B.C., Raj, M.B., Kavitha, A. and Studies on Foliicolous Fungi-IV, Zoos' Somashekar, R.K. (2011): Impact of Print Journal, 17(7), 815-816. rural community harvesting practices on Irudhyaraj, D. 2016. Reproductive biology of plant biodiversity in Kudremukh Elaeocarpus blascoiweibel and National Park, India, International Hopeapongadennstmabberley endemic Journal of Biodiversity Science, and endangered tree species of Western Ecosystem Services & Management, Ghats. Ph.D Thesis, The Gandhigram 7:1, 69-74 Rural Institute, Tamilnadu, India. Nanthavong, V.K., Pooma, R., Khou, E., ISFR, 2019. Forest Survey of India. Newman, M. and Barstow, M. 2017. https://www.fsi.nic.in/ Hopeahelferi. The IUCN Red List of Janardhanan, K. P. 1993. Dipterocarpaceae. Threatened Species 2017: In: Flora of India. Sharma, B. D. and e.T32506A2821025. Sanjappa, M. (eds.), Botanical Survey http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.201 of India, Calcutta. 7-3.RLTS.T32506A2821025.en Kadambi, K. 1936. Observations on the Newman, V.M., Khou, E., Barstow, M., silvicultural characters of Dipterocarpus Hoang, V.S., Nanthavong, K. and indicus in the Agumbe forest zone m Pooma, R. 2017. Hopea odorata. The Mysore state. Indian Forester 62: 481- IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 492. 2017: Kadambi, K. 1941. The evergreen ghat ram e.T32305A2813234.http://dx.doi.org/10 forest. Agumbe - Kilandur zone (A .2305/IUCN.UK.20173.RLTS.T32305A study m the tropical ram forest of the 2813234.en Western Ghats of Mysore). Indian Pascal, J.P. 1988 Wet Evergreen Forests of Forester 67: 184-203. the Western Ghats of India - Ecology, Kamarudeen, M. 2003. Physiological and Structure, Floristic composition and biochemical studies on seeds of Hopea Succession. French Institute, parviflorabedd. and Vateria indicalinn. Pondicherry, India, Pp. 345 Two economically important endemic Primack, R., and Corlett, R. 2005. Tropical trees of Western Ghats. Ph.D. thesis, Rain Forests: An Ecological and University of Kerala, Biogeographical Comparison. Thiruvananthapuram. Blackwell Pubhlishing, Carnforth. Kamarudeen, M., Jee, G., Babu, K. Raj, B.K.V. 2006. Structural studies of some P.,Anilkumar, C.,Pandurangan, A.G. Dipterocarps forests of the Western and Krishnan, P.N. 2017. Phenological Ghats of Karnataka, Ph.D. thesis, and Seed Developmental Studies of Mangalore University, Hopea parviflora Bedd.: An Mangalagangotri. Economically Important Endemic Trees Raju, A. J. S., Ramana, K. V. and Chandra, P. of Western Ghats. Journal of Advances H. 2011. Reproductive ecology of in Biological Science Volume 4 (1), 2-6. Shorearox burghii G. Don Laurance, W. F, Nascimento, H. E. M., (Dipterocarpaceae), an endangered

508

Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2020) 9(10): 496-509

semievergreen tree species of Peninsular Pp.11033–11039. India. J. Threat. Taxa, 3(9): 2061 - Shetty, B.V, Kavenappa, K.M. and Bhat, K.G. 2070. 2002. Plant resources of Western Ghats Raman, A., and Takagi, S. 1992. Galls and lowlands of Dakshina Kannada and induced on Hopeaponga Udupi Districts. Pilikula Nisarga Dhama (Dipterocarpaceae) in Southern India Society, Moodushedde, Mangalore. Pp. and the gall-maker belonging to the 264. Beesoniidae (Homoptera: coccoidea). Subramanya, S.K. and Krishnamurthy, Y.L. InsectaMatsumurana. 47: 1-32 (2015) New distribution records of Rao, K.S., Raja K Swamy, Deepak Kumar, Strigula (strigulaceae, ascomycota) Arun Singh R. and K. Gopalakrishna from the Western Ghats in India. Polish Bhat (2019). Flora of Peninsular India. Botanical Journal 60(1): 99–103. http://peninsula.ces.iisc.ac.in/plants.php Sukesh and Chandrashekar, K. R. 2011. ? name=Hopeaerosa. Downloaded on 3 Biochemical changes during the storage May 2019. of seeds of Hopeaponga (Dennst.) RAPA Monograph, 1985. Dipterocarps of Mabberly: An endemic species of South Asia. Regional Office for Asia Western Ghats. Res. J. Seed Sci., 4(2): and Pacific. 321 pp. 106 - 116. Ravikumar, K. and Goraya, G.S. 1999. Sukesh, 2014. Mycorrhizal association with Rediscovery of Hopeacanarensis Hole some Dipterocarps of Western Ghats (Dipterocarpaceae) - An endemic and and their Molecular Systematics. Ph.D little known species from the Western Thesis, Mangalore University, Ghats of Karnataka, India Indian Karnataka, India. Journal of Forestry22: 179-182. Troup, R. S. 1921. The Silviculture of Indian Rose, P.M., Saranya, J., Eganathan, P., Jithin, trees, Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK. vol M.M. and Kumar, A.N.P. 2013. In vitro 1. pp. 1874 - 1939. evaluation and comparison of Vinayaka, K.S. and Krishnamurthy, Y.L. antioxidant and antibacterial activities 2016. Comparative account on Floristic of leaf extracts of Hopeaponga diversity among the two different (Dennst.) Mabberly. Int J Green Tropical Reserved forests of Central Pharm;7:177-81. Western Ghats, Karnataka, India. Int. Sanil, M.S. , Sreekumar V.B. , Sreejith K.A. , Res. J. Biological Sci., 5(5): 26-34. Robi A.J. and Nirmesh T.K. 2017. Viswanathan, A. 2018. The Influence of Notes on the and distribution Fragment Size on Biotic Interactions of two endemic and threatened that structure Plant Communities in the Dipterocarp trees from the Western Asian Tropics. Ph.D Thesis submitted to Ghats of Kerala, India. Journal of ETH, Zurich. Threatened Taxa. Vol. 9 No. 12

How to cite this article:

Madhusudhana Reddy, B., G. S. Uma, Lokinder Sharma and Manohara, T. N. 2020. Distribution, Phenology, and Ecology of Hopea Genus (Family: Dipterocarpaceae) in India - A Review. Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci. 9(10): 496-509. doi: https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2020.910.060

509